Mark Pagel: How language transformed humanity

Translator: Klavdija Cernilogar Reviewer: Tilen Pigac - EFZG

Each of you possesses

Vsak od vas ima

the most powerful, dangerous and subversive trait

najmočnejšo, najnevarnejšo in najbolj subverzivno lastnost,

that natural selection has ever devised.

ki jo je naravna selekcija kdajkoli razvila.

It's a piece of neural audio technology

Gre za del nevralne avdio tehnologije

for rewiring other people's minds.

za vplivanje na misli drugih ljudi.

I'm talking about your language, of course,

Govorim seveda o jeziku,

because it allows you to implant a thought from your mind

kajti ta omogoča, da misel iz svojih možganov posadite

directly into someone else's mind,

neposredno v možgane nekoga drugega;

and they can attempt to do the same to you,

ta nekdo drug lahko enako naredi vam,

without either of you having to perform surgery.

ne da bi kdorkoli od vaju za to potreboval operacijo.

Instead, when you speak,

Namesto tega, ko govorite,

you're actually using a form of telemetry

pravzaprav uporabljate obliko telemetrije,

not so different

ki ni zelo drugačna

from the remote control device for your television.

od daljinskega upravljalca vaše televizije.

It's just that, whereas that device

Razlika je le v tem, da medtem ko se daljinec

relies on pulses of infrared light,

zanaša na impulze infrardeče luči,

your language relies on pulses,

se jezik zanaša na impulze,

discrete pulses, of sound.

diskretne impulze zvoka.

And just as you use the remote control device

In prav tako kot lahko z daljincem

to alter the internal settings of your television

spremenite notranje nastavitve svoje televizije,

to suit your mood,

da odgovarjajo vašemu počutju,

you use your language

uporabljate jezik,

to alter the settings inside someone else's brain

da z njim spreminjate nastavitve v možganih nekoga drugega,

to suit your interests.

da so v skladu z vašimi interesi.

Languages are genes talking,

Jeziki so govoreči geni,

getting things that they want.

ki dosežejo tisto, kar hočejo.

And just imagine the sense of wonder in a baby

Zamislite si, kako se dojenček čudi,

when it first discovers that, merely by uttering a sound,

ko odkrije, da lahko z uporabo določenega zvoka

it can get objects to move across a room

doseže, da se predmeti v sobi

as if by magic,

kot po čarovniji premaknejo,

and maybe even into its mouth.

morda celo pristanejo v njegovih ustih.

Now language's subversive power

Subverzivno moč jezika

has been recognized throughout the ages

so skozi stoletja priznavali

in censorship, in books you can't read,

s cenzuro: knjigami, ki jih ne smete brati,

phrases you can't use

frazami, ki jih ne smete uporabljati,

and words you can't say.

in besedami, ki jih ne smete izreči.

In fact, the Tower of Babel story in the Bible

Pravzaprav je biblijska zgodba o babilonskem stolpu

is a fable and warning

basen in opozorilo

about the power of language.

o moči jezika.

According to that story, early humans developed the conceit

Zgodba pravi, da so si prvi ljudje zamislili,

that, by using their language to work together,

da bi ob uporabi jezika za sodelovanje

they could build a tower

lahko zgradili stolp,

that would take them all the way to heaven.

ki bi vodil vse do nebes.

Now God, angered at this attempt to usurp his power,

Boga je ta poskus prevzema njegove moči razjezil

destroyed the tower,

in je unčil stolp.

and then to ensure

Da bi preprečil,

that it would never be rebuilt,

da bi ga še kdaj zgradili,

he scattered the people by giving them different languages --

je ljudi razpršil tako, da jim je dal različne jezike --

confused them by giving them different languages.

zmedel jih je z različnimi jeziki.

And this leads to the wonderful irony

V tem je čudovita ironija,

that our languages exist to prevent us from communicating.

da jeziki obstajajo zato, da preprečujejo komunikacijo med nami.

Even today,

Celo dandanes

we know that there are words we cannot use,

vemo, da nekaterih besed ne smemo izreči,

phrases we cannot say,

ne uporabljati določenih fraz,

because if we do so,

kajti če bi jih,

we might be accosted, jailed,

bi nas lahko napadli, vrgli v ječo

or even killed.

ali celo umorili.

And all of this from a puff of air

In vse to zaradi sapice,

emanating from our mouths.

ki izhaja iz naših ust.

Now all this fuss about a single one of our traits

Vse to razburjenje zaradi ene same človeške lastnosti

tells us there's something worth explaining.

nam pove, da si tu nekaj zasluži razlago.

And that is how and why

In to je, kako in zakaj

did this remarkable trait evolve,

se je ta izjemna lastnost razvila

and why did it evolve

ter zakaj se je razvila

only in our species?

samo pri naši vrsti?

Now it's a little bit of a surprise

Mogoče je malo presenetljivo,

that to get an answer to that question,

da bomo odgovor na to vprašanje dobili s pogledom na

we have to go to tool use

uporabo orodij

in the chimpanzees.

pri šimpanzih.

Now these chimpanzees are using tools,

Tile šimpanzi uporabljajo orodja

and we take that as a sign of their intelligence.

in to jemljemo kot znak njihove inteligence.

But if they really were intelligent,

Ampak če bi bili zares inteligentni,

why would they use a stick to extract termites from the ground

zakaj bi termite bezali iz zemlje s palico,

rather than a shovel?

namesto z lopato?

And if they really were intelligent,

In če bi bili res inteligentni,

why would they crack open nuts with a rock?

zakaj bi trli orehe s kamnom?

Why wouldn't they just go to a shop and buy a bag of nuts

Zakaj ne bi enostavno šli v trgovino in kupili vrečko orehov,

that somebody else had already cracked open for them?

ki jih je že strl nekdo drug?

Why not? I mean, that's what we do.

Zakaj ne? Saj mi to počnemo.

Now the reason the chimpanzees don't do that

Razlog, da šimpanzi ne delujejo tako,

is that they lack what psychologists and anthropologists call

je v tem, da nimajo tistega, čemur psihologi in antropologi pravijo

social learning.

socialno učenje.

They seem to lack the ability

Kaže, da nimajo sposobnosti

to learn from others

učiti se od drugih

by copying or imitating

s kopiranjem ali imitiranjem

or simply watching.

ali enostavno z opazovanjem.

As a result,

Posledica tega je,

they can't improve on others' ideas

da ne morejo izboljšati idej drugih

or learn from others' mistakes --

ali se učiti na napakah drugih --

benefit from others' wisdom.

imeti koristi od modrosti drugih.

And so they just do the same thing

Tako vedno znova in znova

over and over and over again.

ponavljajo iste stvari.

In fact, we could go away for a million years and come back

Pravzaprav bi lahko šli milijon let nazaj in se spet vrnili

and these chimpanzees would be doing the same thing

pa bi ti šimpanzi še vedno počeli isto stvar

with the same sticks for the termites

z isto palico za termite

and the same rocks to crack open the nuts.

in istimi kamni za trenje orehov.

Now this may sound arrogant, or even full of hubris.

Morda to zveni arogantno ali celo objestno.

How do we know this?

Kako to vemo?

Because this is exactly what our ancestors, the Homo erectus, did.

Ker je to točno tisto, kar je počel naš prednik homo erectus.

These upright apes

Te pokončne opice

evolved on the African savanna

so se razvile v afriški savani

about two million years ago,

pred približno dvema milijonoma let

and they made these splendid hand axes

in so izdelovale tele odlične ročne sekire,

that fit wonderfully into your hands.

ki se lepo prilegajo v roko.

But if we look at the fossil record,

A če si ogledamo fosilni zapis,

we see that they made the same hand axe

vidimo, da so enake sekire delali

over and over and over again

vedno znova in znova

for one million years.

celih milijon let.

You can follow it through the fossil record.

Temu lahko sledite skozi fosilni zapis.

Now if we make some guesses about how long Homo erectus lived,

Lahko ugibamo, kako dolgo je homo erectus živel,

what their generation time was,

kakšen je bil njegov generacijski čas,

that's about 40,000 generations

to je okoli 40.000 generacij

of parents to offspring, and other individuals watching,

od staršev do naraščaja in drugih posameznikov,

in which that hand axe didn't change.

v katerem se tista ročna sekira ni spremenila.

It's not even clear

Jasno ni niti,

that our very close genetic relatives, the Neanderthals,

ali so naši bližnji genetski sorodniki, neandertalci,

had social learning.

poznali socialno učenje.

Sure enough, their tools were more complicated

Seveda so bila njihova orodja bolj zapletena

than those of Homo erectus,

kot tista od homo erectusa,

but they too showed very little change

ampak tudi ta so se le malo spremenila, in to

over the 300,000 years or so

v približno 300.000 letih,

that those species, the Neanderthals,

kolikor je ta vrsta, neandertalec,

lived in Eurasia.

živela v Evraziji.

Okay, so what this tells us

V redu, to nam torej pove,

is that, contrary to the old adage,

da stari rek

"monkey see, monkey do,"

"Kar se Janezek nauči, to Janezek zna",

the surprise really is

zares velja samo za človeka

that all of the other animals

in da druge živali

really cannot do that -- at least not very much.

tega v resnici ne zmorejo -- vsaj ne v veliki meri.

And even this picture

Celo tale fotografija

has the suspicious taint of being rigged about it --

je sumljiva -- smrdi po ponaredku --

something from a Barnum & Bailey circus.

deluje precej cirkusantsko.

But by comparison,

V primerjavi z živalmi

we can learn.

pa se ljudje lahko učimo.

We can learn by watching other people

Lahko se naučimo z opazovanjem drugih

and copying or imitating

in kopiranjem ali imitiranjem tega,

what they can do.

kar počnejo.

We can then choose, from among a range of options,

Potem lahko med kopico možnosti

the best one.

izberemo najboljšo.

We can benefit from others' ideas.

Od idej drugih imamo lahko koristi.

We can build on their wisdom.

Lahko gradimo na njihovi modrosti.

And as a result, our ideas do accumulate,

Rezultat tega je, da se ideje kopičijo

and our technology progresses.

in tehnologija napreduje.

And this cumulative cultural adaptation,

In ta kumulativna kulturna adaptacija,

as anthropologists call

kakor antropologi poimenujejo

this accumulation of ideas,

tovrstno kopičenje idej,

is responsible for everything around you

je odgovorna za vse okoli vas

in your bustling and teeming everyday lives.

v vašem živahnem vsakdanu.

I mean the world has changed out of all proportion

Hočem reči, da se je svet spremenil preko vsake mere

to what we would recognize

v primerjavi s tem, kar so poznali

even 1,000 or 2,000 years ago.

tisoč ali dva tisoč let nazaj.

And all of this because of cumulative cultural adaptation.

Vse to je zaradi kumulativne kulturne adaptacije.

The chairs you're sitting in, the lights in this auditorium,

Stoli, na katerih sedite, luči v tej dvorani,

my microphone, the iPads and iPods that you carry around with you --

moj mikrofon, iPadi in iPodi, ki jih nosite s seboj,

all are a result

vse to je rezultat

of cumulative cultural adaptation.

kumulativne kulturne adaptacije.

Now to many commentators,

Za marsikaterega komentatorja

cumulative cultural adaptation, or social learning,

je kumulativna kulturna adaptacija, ali socialno učenje

is job done, end of story.

konec zgodbe.

Our species can make stuff,

Naša vrsta lahko izdeluje stvari,

therefore we prospered in a way that no other species has.

zato smo napredovali na način, na kakršnega ni nobena druga vrsta.

In fact, we can even make the "stuff of life" --

Pravzaprav lahko naredimo celo "življenjske stvari" --

as I just said, all the stuff around us.

kot sem rekel, stvari okoli nas.

But in fact, it turns out

A pravzaprav se izkaže,

that some time around 200,000 years ago,

da je bil okoli 200.000 let nazaj,

when our species first arose

ko se je naša vrsta pojavila

and acquired social learning,

in spoznala socialno učenje,

that this was really the beginning of our story,

to pravzaprav začetek naše zgodbe,

not the end of our story.

ne pa njen konec.

Because our acquisition of social learning

Zaradi socialnega učenja

would create a social and evolutionary dilemma,

smo ustvarili socialno in evolucijsko dilemo,

the resolution of which, it's fair to say,

razrešitev katere bi, če smo pošteni,

would determine not only the future course of our psychology,

določila ne samo prihodnji tok naše psihologije,

but the future course of the entire world.

ampak tudi prihodnji tok celotnega sveta.

And most importantly for this,

Najpomembneje pa je,

it'll tell us why we have language.

da nam razloži, zakaj imamo jezik.

And the reason that dilemma arose

Razlog za to dilemo pa je v tem,

is, it turns out, that social learning is visual theft.

da se je izkazalo, da gre pri socialnem učenju za krajo videnega.

If I can learn by watching you,

Če se lahko učim tako, da vas gledam,

I can steal your best ideas,

lahko kradem vaše najboljše ideje

and I can benefit from your efforts,

in imam koristi od vaših naporov,

without having to put in the time and energy that you did

ne da bi moral vlagati čas in energijo, ki ste ju vložili vi,

into developing them.

da ste ideje razvili.

If I can watch which lure you use to catch a fish,

Če vas lahko gledam, ko lovite ribe

or I can watch how you flake your hand axe

ali kako naostrite svojo sekiro,

to make it better,

da bi bolje delovala,

or if I follow you secretly to your mushroom patch,

ali če vam skrivaj sledim do vaše grede gob,

I can benefit from your knowledge and wisdom and skills,

imam lahko korist od vašega znanja, modrosti in sposobnosti

and maybe even catch that fish

in mogoče bom tisto ribo ujel

before you do.

celo pred vami.

Social learning really is visual theft.

Socialno učenje je res kraja videnega.

And in any species that acquired it,

In pri katerikoli vrsti, ki ga pozna,

it would behoove you

je pametno

to hide your best ideas,

skriti najboljše zamisli,

lest somebody steal them from you.

drugače jih bo nekdo ukradel.

And so some time around 200,000 years ago,

Nekoč pred približno 200.000 leti

our species confronted this crisis.

se je naša vrsta soočila s to krizo.

And we really had only two options

In dejansko imamo samo dve možnosti

for dealing with the conflicts

za reševanje konfliktov,

that visual theft would bring.

ki jih prinaša kraja videnega.

One of those options

Ena od teh možnosti

was that we could have retreated

je umik

into small family groups.

v majhne družinske skupnosti.

Because then the benefits of our ideas and knowledge

Kajti v tem primeru se koristi od idej in znanja

would flow just to our relatives.

delijo samo s sorodniki.

Had we chosen this option,

Ko bi bili izbrali to možnost,

sometime around 200,000 years ago,

pred kakšnimi 200.000 leti,

we would probably still be living like the Neanderthals were

bi verjetno še vedno živeli kot neandertalci

when we first entered Europe 40,000 years ago.

ob prvem prihodu v Evropo pred 40.000 leti.

And this is because in small groups

To pa zato, ker v majhnih skupnostih

there are fewer ideas, there are fewer innovations.

obstaja manj idej, manj inovacij.

And small groups are more prone to accidents and bad luck.

Majhne skupnosti so tudi bolj nagnjene k nezgodam in nesreči.

So if we'd chosen that path,

Torej, če bi bili izbrali to pot,

our evolutionary path would have led into the forest --

bi naša evolucijska pot vodila v gozd --

and been a short one indeed.

in bi bila dokaj kratka.

The other option we could choose

Druga možnost

was to develop the systems of communication

je bila, da razvijemo sisteme komunikacije,

that would allow us to share ideas

ki bi nam omogočili

and to cooperate amongst others.

in sodelovanje z drugimi.

Choosing this option would mean

Izbrati to pot bi pomenilo,

that a vastly greater fund of accumulated knowledge and wisdom

da bi bil vsakemu posamezniku na voljo

would become available to any one individual

mnogo večji izbor nakopičenega znanja in modrosti,

than would ever arise from within an individual family

kot bi ju kdajkoli lahko proizvedla posamezna družina,

or an individual person on their own.

kaj šele vsak posameznik.

Well, we chose the second option,

No, izbrali smo drugo možnost

and language is the result.

in rezultat tega je jezik.

Language evolved to solve the crisis

Jezik se je razvil, da bi rešil krizo

of visual theft.

kraje videnega.

Language is a piece of social technology

Jezik je del socialne tehnologije

for enhancing the benefits of cooperation --

za krepitev koristi sodelovanja --

for reaching agreements, for striking deals

za doseganje dogovorov, za sklepanje sporazumov

and for coordinating our activities.

in za usklajevanje naših dejavnosti.

And you can see that, in a developing society

Tako lahko vidite, da bi družba v razvoju,

that was beginning to acquire language,

ki je začela razvijati jezik,

not having language

brez njega bila

would be a like a bird without wings.

kot ptica brez kril.

Just as wings open up this sphere of air

Kot krila odprejo pot v zračne sfere,

for birds to exploit,

da jih ptice lahko izkoriščajo,

language opened up the sphere of cooperation

je jezik odprl sfere sodelovanja,

for humans to exploit.

ki jih lahko izkoriščajo ljudje.

And we take this utterly for granted,

In to jemljemo kot samoumevno,

because we're a species that is so at home with language,

ker smo vrsta, ki ji je jezik nekaj tako domačega.

but you have to realize

A vedeti morate,

that even the simplest acts of exchange that we engage in

da so celo naša najbolj enostavna dejanja izmenjave

are utterly dependent upon language.

popolnoma odvisna od jezika.

And to see why, consider two scenarios

Da bi videli, zakaj, poglejmo dva scenarija

from early in our evolution.

iz zgodnjega obdobja evolucije.

Let's imagine that you are really good

Predstavljajte si, da ste

at making arrowheads,

odličen izdelovalec konic za puščice,

but you're hopeless at making the wooden shafts

ste pa brezupni pri izdelovanju lesenega dela puščice,

with the flight feathers attached.

na katerega so pritrjena krilca.

Two other people you know are very good at making the wooden shafts,

Dve drugi osebi, ki ju poznate, sta zelo dobri pri izdelavi lesenih delov,

but they're hopeless at making the arrowheads.

izdelava konic jima pa ne gre od rok.

So what you do is --

Torej, kaj storite...

one of those people has not really acquired language yet.

ena od teh oseb še ne pozna jezika.

And let's pretend the other one is good at language skills.

Predstavljajmo si, da ga druga pozna.

So what you do one day is you take a pile of arrowheads,

Nekega dne torej vzamete kup konic

and you walk up to the one that can't speak very well,

in greste do osebe, ki ne govori prav dobro,

and you put the arrowheads down in front of him,

ter postavite konice prednjo,

hoping that he'll get the idea that you want to trade your arrowheads

v upanju, da bo razumela, da jih hočete zamenjati

for finished arrows.

za dokončane puščice.

But he looks at the pile of arrowheads, thinks they're a gift,

Ta človek pa pogleda na kup pred njim, misli, da gre za darilo,

picks them up, smiles and walks off.

pobere konice, se nasmehne in odide.

Now you pursue this guy, gesticulating.

Stečete za njim in mahate z rokami.

A scuffle ensues and you get stabbed

Pride do prepira in ta človek vas zabode

with one of your own arrowheads.

z eno vaših lastnih konic.

Okay, now replay this scene now, and you're approaching the one who has language.

Prav. Zdaj pa znova odigrajmo to sceno; tokrat se približate tisti osebi, ki pozna jezik.

You put down your arrowheads and say,

Prednjo položite svoje konice in rečete:

"I'd like to trade these arrowheads for finished arrows. I'll split you 50/50."

"Tele konice bi rad zamenjal za dokončane puščice. Dam vam jih polovico".

The other one says, "Fine. Looks good to me.

Druga oseba odgovori: "Prav, sliši se v redu.

We'll do that."

Pa dajva".

Now the job is done.

Tokrat ste namero uresničili.

Once we have language,

Ko enkrat imamo jezik,

we can put our ideas together and cooperate

lahko združimo ideje in sodelujemo,

to have a prosperity

da dosežemo blaginjo,

that we couldn't have before we acquired it.

ki je brez jezika ne bi mogli.

And this is why our species

Zato je naša vrsta

has prospered around the world

napredovala po vsem svetu,

while the rest of the animals

medtem ko ostale živali

sit behind bars in zoos, languishing.

životarijo v kletkah v živalskih vrtovih.

That's why we build space shuttles and cathedrals

Zato gradimo vesoljske ladje in katedrale,

while the rest of the world sticks sticks into the ground

medtem ko ostali svet beza s palicami v tla,

to extract termites.

da pride do termitov.

All right, if this view of language

Prav, če ta pogled na jezik

and its value

in njegovo vrednost

in solving the crisis of visual theft is true,

pri reševanju krize kraje videnega drži,

any species that acquires it

potem bi vsaka vrsta, ki ga uporablja,

should show an explosion of creativity and prosperity.

morala eksplodirati od kreativnosti in razvoja.

And this is exactly what the archeological record shows.

In prav to kažejo arheološke najdbe.

If you look at our ancestors,

Če se ozremo k našima prednikoma,

the Neanderthals and the Homo erectus, our immediate ancestors,

neandertalcu in homo erectusu, našima neposrednima prednikoma,

they're confined to small regions of the world.

sta bila oba omejena na majhne regije.

But when our species arose

Ko pa se je naša vrsta

about 200,000 years ago,

pred okoli 200.000 leti pojavila,

sometime after that we quickly walked out of Africa

je kmalu potem odkorakala iz Afrike

and spread around the entire world,

in se razširila po vsem svetu

occupying nearly every habitat on Earth.

ter zavzela skoraj vse habitate na Zemlji.

Now whereas other species are confined

Medtem ko so druge vrste omejene

to places that their genes adapt them to,

na kraje, na katere so prilagojeni njihovi geni,

with social learning and language,

smo mi lahko s pomočjo socialnega učenja in jezika

we could transform the environment

spremenili okolje tako,

to suit our needs.

da ustreza našim potrebam.

And so we prospered in a way

Tako smo napredovali na način,

that no other animal has.

na kakršnega ni nobena druga žival.

Language really is

Jezik je res

the most potent trait that has ever evolved.

najmočnejša lastnost, ki se je kdajkoli razvila.

It is the most valuable trait we have

Je najpomembnejša pomoč

for converting new lands and resources

za spreminjanje novih krajev in virov

into more people and their genes

v več ljudi in njihovih genov,

that natural selection has ever devised.

kot si je naravni izbor kadarkoli zamislil.

Language really is

Jezik je res

the voice of our genes.

glas naših genov.

Now having evolved language, though,

Z razvojem jezika pa smo

we did something peculiar,

napravili nekaj nenavadnega,

even bizarre.

celo bizarnega.

As we spread out around the world,

Ko smo se razširili po svetu,

we developed thousands of different languages.

smo razvili na tisoče različnih jezikov.

Currently, there are about seven or 8,000

Trenutno na Zemlji govorimo

different languages spoken on Earth.

okoli sedem ali osem tisoč različnih jezikov.

Now you might say, well, this is just natural.

Rekli boste, ja, to je naravno.

As we diverge, our languages are naturally going to diverge.

Kot se razlikujemo mi, se bodo razlikovali tudi jeziki.

But the real puzzle and irony

Uganka in ironija pa je,

is that the greatest density of different languages on Earth

da je največ različnih jezikov na Zemlji

is found where people are most tightly packed together.

tam, kjer so ljudje naseljeni tesno skupaj.

If we go to the island of Papua New Guinea,

Pojdimo na otok Papua Nova Gvineja

we can find about 800 to 1,000

in našli bomo med 800 in 1.000

distinct human languages,

različnih jezikov,

different human languages,

različnih jezikov,

spoken on that island alone.

in to na enem samem otoku.

There are places on that island

Obstajajo kraji na tem otoku,

where you can encounter a new language

kjer na novi jezik naletite

every two or three miles.

vsaki dve ali tri milje.

Now, incredible as this sounds,

Naj se to sliši še tako neverjetno,

I once met a Papuan man, and I asked him if this could possibly be true.

nekoč sem srečal Papuanca in ga vprašal, če je to res.

And he said to me, "Oh no.

Odgovoril je: "O, ne.

They're far closer together than that."

Celo veliko bližje so si".

And it's true; there are places on that island

In res: na otoku obstajajo kraji,

where you can encounter a new language in under a mile.

kjer nov jezik srečate manj kot na vsako miljo.

And this is also true of some remote oceanic islands.

To velja tudi za nekatere oddaljene oceanske otoke.

And so it seems that we use our language,

In tako kaže, da jezika ne uporabljamo

not just to cooperate,

samo za sodelovanje,

but to draw rings around our cooperative groups

ampak tudi za sklepanje obročev okoli svojih skupin sodelovanja,

and to establish identities,

in da ustvarjamo identitete

and perhaps to protect our knowledge and wisdom and skills

ter morda ščitimo svoje znanje, modrost in sposobnosti

from eavesdropping from outside.

pred prisluškovanjem od zunaj.

And we know this

To vemo,

because when we study different language groups

ker pri raziskovanju različnih jezikovnih skupin

and associate them with their cultures,

in povezovanju z njihovimi kulturami

we see that different languages

vidimo, da različni jeziki

slow the flow of ideas between groups.

upočasnijo tok idej med skupinami.

They slow the flow of technologies.

Upočasnijo pretok tehnologij.

And they even slow the flow of genes.

Upočasnijo celo pretok genov.

Now I can't speak for you,

Lahko govorim samo zase,

but it seems to be the case

a zdi se,

that we don't have sex with people we can't talk to.

da ne spimo z ljudmi, s katerimi ne moremo govoriti.

(Laughter)

(Smeh)

Now we have to counter that, though,

Temu seveda oporeka dejstvo,

against the evidence we've heard

da se je izkazalo,

that we might have had some rather distasteful genetic dalliances

da smo bili vpleteni v določeno dokaj neokusno genetsko flirtanje

with the Neanderthals and the Denisovans.

z neandertalci in denisovanci.

(Laughter)

(Smeh)

Okay, this tendency we have,

No, to naše nagnjenje,

this seemingly natural tendency we have,

to nekako naravno nagnjenje

towards isolation, towards keeping to ourselves,

k izolaciji, k zaprtosti vase,

crashes head first into our modern world.

čelno trči v naš moderni svet.

This remarkable image

Tale zanimiva podoba

is not a map of the world.

ni zemljevid sveta.

In fact, it's a map of Facebook friendship links.

Gre za zemljevid prijateljskih povezav na Facebooku.

And when you plot those friendship links

Ko sestavite te povezave

by their latitude and longitude,

po zemljepisni širini in dolžini,

it literally draws a map of the world.

dobesedno nastane zemljevid sveta.

Our modern world is communicating

V našem modernem svetu komuniciramo

with itself and with each other

sami s seboj in drug z drugim

more than it has

bolj kot kdajkoli

at any time in its past.

v preteklosti.

And that communication, that connectivity around the world,

In ta komunikacija, ta globalna povezanost,

that globalization

ta globalizacija,

now raises a burden.

sedaj postaja breme.

Because these different languages

Zaradi različnih jezikov, ki

impose a barrier, as we've just seen,

postavljajo ovire, kot smo ravno videli,

to the transfer of goods and ideas

prenosu blaga in idej

and technologies and wisdom.

ter tehnologij in modrosti.

And they impose a barrier to cooperation.

Postavljajo ovire sodelovanju.

And nowhere do we see that more clearly

In to ni nikjer bolj očitno

than in the European Union,

kot v Evropski uniji,

whose 27 member countries

katere 27 držav članic

speak 23 official languages.

govori 23 uradnih jezikov.

The European Union

Evropska unija

is now spending over one billion euros annually

letno porabi preko milijardo evrov

translating among their 23 official languages.

za prevode med 23 uradnimi jeziki.

That's something on the order

To je okoli

of 1.45 billion U.S. dollars

1,45 milijarde dolarjev,

on translation costs alone.

samo za stroške prevajanja.

Now think of the absurdity of this situation.

Pomislite na absurdnost te situacije.

If 27 individuals

Če bi 27 posameznikov

from those 27 member states

iz teh 27 držav članic

sat around table, speaking their 23 languages,

sedelo okoli mize in govorilo v svojih 23 jezikih,

some very simple mathematics will tell you

vam bo preprost izračun povedal,

that you need an army of 253 translators

da bi potrebovali vojsko 253 prevajalcev,

to anticipate all the pairwise possibilities.

da bi bili pripravljeni na vse možne jezikovne pare.

The European Union employs a permanent staff

Evropska unija stalno zaposluje

of about 2,500 translators.

okoli 2.500 prevajalcev.

And in 2007 alone --

In samo leta 2007 --

and I'm sure there are more recent figures --

prepričan sem, da obstajajo novejši podatki --

something on the order of 1.3 million pages

so samo v angleščino prevedli

were translated into English alone.

okoli 1,3 milijona strani.

And so if language really is

Če je torej jezik resnično

the solution to the crisis of visual theft,

pot do rešitve krize kraje videnega,

if language really is

če je jezik dejansko

the conduit of our cooperation,

vodilo našega sodelovanja,

the technology that our species derived

če je tehnologija, ki jo je naša vrsta razvila,

to promote the free flow and exchange of ideas,

da bi spodbudila prost pretok in izmenjavo idej

in our modern world,

v tem modernem svetu,

we confront a question.

potem se moramo soočiti z vprašanjem.

And that question is whether

In to je, ali si

in this modern, globalized world

v tem modernem globaliziranem svetu

we can really afford to have all these different languages.

res lahko privoščimo imeti vse te raznolike jezike.

To put it this way, nature knows no other circumstance

Naj pojasnim takole: narava ne pozna nobenega drugega primera,

in which functionally equivalent traits coexist.

kjer bi sobivale funkcionalno enakovredne lastnosti.

One of them always drives the other extinct.

Ena bo vedno pognala druge v izumrtje.

And we see this in the inexorable march

In to vidimo v neusmiljenem pohodu

towards standardization.

v smeri standardizacije.

There are lots and lots of ways of measuring things --

Obstaja ogromno načinov za merjenje stvari --

weighing them and measuring their length --

za tehtanje in merjenje dolžine --

but the metric system is winning.

ampak metrični sistem prevladuje.

There are lots and lots of ways of measuring time,

Obstaja veliko načinov merjenja časa,

but a really bizarre base 60 system

ampak zelo bizarni sistem z osnovo 60,

known as hours and minutes and seconds

znan kot ure, minute in sekunde,

is nearly universal around the world.

je skoraj univerzalen.

There are many, many ways

Obstaja mnogo načinov

of imprinting CDs or DVDs,

snemanja CD-jev in DVD-jev,

but those are all being standardized as well.

ampak tudi ti postajajo standardizirani.

And you can probably think of many, many more

Verjetno lahko pomislite še na številne take primere

in your own everyday lives.

iz svojega vsakdana.

And so our modern world now

In tako se v našem modernem svetu

is confronting us with a dilemma.

soočamo z dilemo.

And it's the dilemma

To je dilema

that this Chinese man faces,

tegale Kitajca,

who's language is spoken

čigar jezik govori

by more people in the world

več ljudi

than any other single language,

kot katerikoli drugi jezik,

and yet he is sitting at his blackboard,

a vseeno sedi pred svojo tablo

converting Chinese phrases

in pretvarja kitajske fraze

into English language phrases.

v angleške fraze.

And what this does is it raises the possibility to us

In to nam povečuje možnosti,

that in a world in which we want to promote

da v svetu, v katerem

cooperation and exchange,

hočemo spodbujati sodelovanje in izmenjavo,

and in a world that might be dependent more than ever before

v svetu, ki je morda bolj kot kdajkoli prej

on cooperation

odvisen od sodelovanja,

to maintain and enhance our levels of prosperity,

da bi ohranil in okrepil blaginjo,

his actions suggest to us

njegova dejanja nam pravijo,

it might be inevitable

da je mogoče neizogibno,

that we have to confront the idea

da se moramo soočiti z idejo,

that our destiny is to be one world with one language.

da nas čaka usoda enega sveta z enim jezikom.

Thank you.

Hvala.

(Applause)

(Aplavz)

Matt Ridley: Mark, one question.

Matt Ridley: Mark, eno vprašanje.

Svante found that the FOXP2 gene,

Svante je ugotovil, da so gen FOXP2,

which seems to be associated with language,

ki naj bi bil povezan z jezikom,

was also shared in the same form

v isti obliki kot mi imeli tudi

in Neanderthals as us.

neandertalci.

Do we have any idea

Ali morda vemo,

how we could have defeated Neanderthals

kako bi bili lahko premagali neandertalce,

if they also had language?

če bi tudi oni imeli jezik?

Mark Pagel: This is a very good question.

Mark Pagel: To je dobro vprašanje.

So many of you will be familiar with the idea that there's this gene called FOXP2

Mnogi med vami poznate idejo o genu FOXP2,

that seems to be implicated in some ways

ki naj bi bil na nek način povezan

in the fine motor control that's associated with language.

z nadzorom fine motorike, potrebne za jezik.

The reason why I don't believe that tells us

Ne verjamem, da nam to pove,

that the Neanderthals had language

da so neandertalci imeli jezik,

is -- here's a simple analogy:

in sicer zaradi enostavne analogije:

Ferraris are cars that have engines.

Ferrari je avto, ki ima motor.

My car has an engine,

Moj avto ima motor,

but it's not a Ferrari.

ampak ni Ferrari.

Now the simple answer then

Enostaven odgovor na to je,

is that genes alone don't, all by themselves,

da geni sami po sebi

determine the outcome

ne določajo rezultata

of very complicated things like language.

tako zapletene stvari, kot je jezik.

What we know about this FOXP2 and Neanderthals

Kar vemo o FOXP2 in neandertalcih, je,

is that they may have had fine motor control of their mouths -- who knows.

da so morda imeli fino motoriko ust -- kdo ve.

But that doesn't tell us they necessarily had language.

A to nam ne pove nujno, da so imeli jezik.

MR: Thank you very much indeed.

MR: Najlepša hvala.

(Applause)

(Aplavz)