Mark Pagel: How language transformed humanity

263,065 views ใƒป 2011-08-03

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืžืชืจื’ื: Oren Szekatch ืžื‘ืงืจ: Sigal Tifferet
00:15
Each of you possesses
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ืœื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ืžื›ื ื™ืฉ
00:17
the most powerful, dangerous and subversive trait
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ืืช ื”ืชื›ื•ื ื” ื”ื›ื™ ืขื•ืฆืžืชื™ืช, ื—ืชืจื ื™ืช ื•ืžืกื•ื›ื ืช
00:20
that natural selection has ever devised.
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ืฉื”ื‘ืจื™ืจื” ื”ื˜ื‘ืขื™ืช ืื™ ืคืขื ื”ืžืฆื™ืื”.
00:23
It's a piece of neural audio technology
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ื–ื”ื• ื—ืœืง ืฉืœ ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ืช ืฉืžืข ื ื™ื•ืจื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช
00:26
for rewiring other people's minds.
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ืืฉืจ ืžื—ื•ื•ื˜ ืžื—ื“ืฉ ืžื•ื—ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื.
00:28
I'm talking about your language, of course,
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ืื ื™ ืžื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ื”ืฉืคื”, ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ,
00:31
because it allows you to implant a thought from your mind
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื™ื ืžืืคืฉืจืช ืœื›ื ืœื”ื—ื“ื™ืจ ืžื—ืฉื‘ื” ืžืžื•ื—ื›ื
00:34
directly into someone else's mind,
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ื™ืฉื™ืจื•ืช ืืœ ืžื•ื—ื• ืฉืœ ืื“ื ืื—ืจ,
00:37
and they can attempt to do the same to you,
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ื•ื”ื ื™ื•ื›ืœื• ืœื ืกื•ืช ื•ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื–ืืช ื’ื ืœื›ื,
00:39
without either of you having to perform surgery.
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ืžื‘ืœื™ ืฉืžื™ ืžื›ื ื™ื™ืืœืฅ ืœื‘ืฆืข ื ื™ืชื•ื—.
00:42
Instead, when you speak,
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ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื–ืืช, ื›ืืฉืจ ืืชื ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ื,
00:44
you're actually using a form of telemetry
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ืืชื ืœืžืขืฉื” ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ืžืขื™ืŸ ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ื˜ืœืžื˜ืจื™ื”
00:46
not so different
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ืฉืื™ื ื” ื›ื” ืฉื•ื ื”
00:48
from the remote control device for your television.
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ืžื”ืฉืœื˜ ื”ืจื—ื•ืง ืฉืœ ื”ื˜ืœื•ื•ื™ื–ื™ื” ืฉืœื›ื.
00:50
It's just that, whereas that device
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ื”ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ื•ื, ืฉืœื”ื‘ื“ื™ืœ ืžื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ืฉื”ืฉืœื˜
00:52
relies on pulses of infrared light,
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ืžืกืชืžืš ืขืœ ืคื•ืœืกื™ื ืฉืœ ืงืจื ื™ ืื™ื ืคืจื ืื“ื•ื,
00:54
your language relies on pulses,
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ื”ืฉืคื” ืฉืœื›ื ืžืกืชืžื›ืช ืขืœ ืคื•ืœืกื™ื,
00:57
discrete pulses, of sound.
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ืคื•ืœืกื™ื ืขื“ื™ื ื™ื, ืฉืœ ืฆืœื™ืœ.
00:59
And just as you use the remote control device
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ื•ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื›ืžื• ืฉืืชื ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ืฉืœื˜ ื”ืจื—ื•ืง
01:02
to alter the internal settings of your television
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ื‘ื›ื“ื™ ืœืฉื ื•ืช ืืช ื”ื”ื’ื“ืจื•ืช ื”ืคื ื™ืžื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื˜ืœื•ื•ื™ื–ื™ื” ืฉืœื›ื
01:04
to suit your mood,
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ื›ืš ืฉื–ื” ื™ืชืื™ื ืœืžืฆื‘ ืจื•ื—ื›ื,
01:06
you use your language
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ืืชื ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ืฉืคื” ืฉืœื›ื
01:08
to alter the settings inside someone else's brain
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ื‘ื›ื“ื™ ืœืฉื ื•ืช ืืช ื”ื”ื’ื“ืจื•ืช ื‘ืžื•ื—ื• ืฉืœ ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืื—ืจ
01:10
to suit your interests.
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ื‘ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื–ื” ื™ืชืื™ื ืœืื™ื ื˜ืจืกื™ื ืฉืœื›ื.
01:12
Languages are genes talking,
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ืฉืคื•ืช ื”ืŸ ื’ื ื™ื ื”ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ื,
01:14
getting things that they want.
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ื”ืžืฉื™ื’ื™ื ืืช ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ื”ื ื”ื ืžืขื•ื ื™ื™ื ื™ื.
01:16
And just imagine the sense of wonder in a baby
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ื•ืจืง ืชื“ืžื™ื™ื ื• ืืช ืจืžืช ื”ืคืœื™ืื” ืฉืœ ืชื™ื ื•ืง
01:19
when it first discovers that, merely by uttering a sound,
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ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ื•ื ืžื’ืœื” ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื”, ืฉืคืฉื•ื˜ ื“ืจืš ื”ื•ืฆืืช ืงื•ืœ,
01:22
it can get objects to move across a room
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ื”ื•ื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœืื•ื‘ื™ื™ืงื˜ื™ื ืœื ื•ืข ื‘ื—ื“ืจ
01:24
as if by magic,
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ื›ืžื• ื”ื™ื” ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ืงืกื,
01:26
and maybe even into its mouth.
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ื•ืื•ืœื™ ืืคื™ืœื• ืืœ ืชื•ืš ืคื™ื•.
01:29
Now language's subversive power
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ื›ืขืช, ื›ื•ื—ืŸ ื”ื—ืชืจื ื™ ืฉืœ ืฉืคื•ืช
01:31
has been recognized throughout the ages
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ื”ื™ื” ื™ื“ื•ืข ื•ืžื•ื›ืจ ืœืื•ืจืš ื”ื“ื•ืจื•ืช
01:33
in censorship, in books you can't read,
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ื‘ืฆื ื–ื•ืจื”, ื‘ืกืคืจื™ื ืฉืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœืชื ืœืงืจื•ื,
01:35
phrases you can't use
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ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ื”ื ืœื ื”ื•ืจืฉืชื ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ,
01:37
and words you can't say.
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ื•ืžื™ืœื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื” ืืกื•ืจ ืœื•ืžืจ.
01:39
In fact, the Tower of Babel story in the Bible
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืžื’ื“ืœ ื‘ื‘ืœ ื‘ืชื "ืš
01:42
is a fable and warning
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ื”ื•ื ืžืฉืœ ื•ืื–ื”ืจื”
01:44
about the power of language.
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ืขืœ ื›ื•ื—ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืคื”.
01:46
According to that story, early humans developed the conceit
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ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ื”ื–ื”, ื‘ื ื™ ื”ืื“ื ื”ืงื“ื•ืžื™ื ืคื™ืชื—ื• ืืช ื”ืžื—ืฉื‘ื” ื”ื™ื”ื™ืจื”
01:49
that, by using their language to work together,
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ืฉื“ืจืš ื”ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืฉืคืชื ื‘ื›ื“ื™ ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ ื‘ืฆื•ื•ืชื,
01:51
they could build a tower
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ื”ื ื™ื•ื›ืœื• ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืžื’ื“ืœ
01:53
that would take them all the way to heaven.
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ืฉื™ื™ืงื— ืื•ืชื ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ื“ืจืš ืืœ ื”ืฉืžื™ื™ื.
01:55
Now God, angered at this attempt to usurp his power,
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ื•ืืœื•ื”ื™ื, ื”ื›ื•ืขืก ืขืœ ื ื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื–ื” ืœื—ืžื•ืก ืืช ื›ื•ื—ื•,
01:58
destroyed the tower,
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ื”ื•ืจืก ืืช ื”ืžื’ื“ืœ,
02:01
and then to ensure
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ื•ืื– ื‘ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื—
02:03
that it would never be rebuilt,
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ืฉื”ืžื’ื“ืœ ืœืขื•ืœื ืœื ื™ื™ื‘ื ื” ืžื—ื“ืฉ,
02:05
he scattered the people by giving them different languages --
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ื”ื•ื ืžืคื–ืจ ืืช ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ืขืœ-ื™ื“ื™ื™ ื›ืš ืฉื”ื•ื ื ื•ืชืŸ ืœื”ื ืฉืคื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช --
02:08
confused them by giving them different languages.
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ื”ื•ื ืžื‘ืœื‘ืœ ืื•ืชื ืขืœ-ื™ื“ื™ื™ ื›ืš ืฉื”ื•ื ื ื•ืชืŸ ืœื”ื ืฉืคื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช.
02:11
And this leads to the wonderful irony
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ื•ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ืžื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืœืื™ืจื•ื ื™ื” ื”ืžื•ืคืœืื”
02:13
that our languages exist to prevent us from communicating.
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ื›ื™ ื”ืฉืคื•ืช ืฉืœื ื• ืงื™ื™ืžื•ืช ื‘ื›ื“ื™ ืœืžื ื•ืข ืžืื™ืชื ื• ืœืชืงืฉืจ ืื—ื“ ืขื ื”ืฉื ื™.
02:16
Even today,
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ืืคื™ืœื• ื›ื™ื•ื,
02:18
we know that there are words we cannot use,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืฉื™ืฉ ืžื™ืœื™ื ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื”ื,
02:20
phrases we cannot say,
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ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ื™ื ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื•ืžืจ,
02:22
because if we do so,
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืื ื ืืžืจ ืื•ืชื,
02:24
we might be accosted, jailed,
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ื™ื™ืชื›ืŸ ื•ื™ืชื ื›ืœื• ืœื ื•, ื ืืกืจ,
02:27
or even killed.
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ืื• ืืคื™ืœื• ื ื”ืจื’.
02:29
And all of this from a puff of air
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ื•ื›ืœ ื–ื” ืžืžืฉื‘ ืฉืœ ืื•ื•ื™ืจ.
02:31
emanating from our mouths.
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ื”ื™ื•ืฆื ืžื”ืคื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื•.
02:33
Now all this fuss about a single one of our traits
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ื›ืขืช, ื›ืœ ื”ืจืขืฉ ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืื—ืช ืžื”ืชื›ื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื•
02:36
tells us there's something worth explaining.
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ืื•ืžืจ ืœื ื• ืฉื™ืฉ ื‘ื–ื” ืžืฉื”ื• ื”ืฉื•ื•ื” ื”ืกื‘ืจ.
02:38
And that is how and why
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ื•ื–ื” ืื™ืš ื•ืœืžื”
02:40
did this remarkable trait evolve,
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ื”ืชืคืชื—ื” ื”ืชื›ื•ื ื” ื”ืžืจืฉื™ืžื” ื”ื–ื•,
02:42
and why did it evolve
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ื•ืœืžื” ื”ื™ื ื”ืชืคืชื—ื”
02:44
only in our species?
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ืจืง ื‘ืžื™ืŸ ืฉืœื ื•?
02:46
Now it's a little bit of a surprise
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ื–ื” ืžืขื˜ ืžืคืชื™ืข
02:48
that to get an answer to that question,
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ืฉื‘ื›ื“ื™ ืœืงื‘ืœ ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืœืฉืืœื” ื”ื–ื•,
02:50
we have to go to tool use
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ืขืœื™ื ื• ืœื”ืกืชื›ืœ ืขืœ ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ื›ืœื™ื
02:52
in the chimpanzees.
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ื‘ืงืจื‘ ืฉื™ืžืคื ื–ื™ื.
02:54
Now these chimpanzees are using tools,
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ื”ืฉื™ืžืคื ื–ื™ื ื”ืืœื• ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ื›ืœื™ื,
02:56
and we take that as a sign of their intelligence.
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ื‘ื–ืืช ืกื™ืžืŸ ืœืื™ื ื˜ืœื™ื’ื ืฆื™ื” ืฉืœื”ื.
02:59
But if they really were intelligent,
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ืืš ืื ื”ื ื‘ืืžืช ืื™ื ื˜ืœื™ื’ื ื˜ื™ื,
03:01
why would they use a stick to extract termites from the ground
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ืœืžื” ื”ื ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ืžืงืœ ื‘ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื•ืฆื™ื ื˜ืจืžื™ื˜ื™ื ืžื”ืื“ืžื”
03:04
rather than a shovel?
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ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืืช ื—ืคื™ืจื”?
03:06
And if they really were intelligent,
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ื•ืื ื”ื ื‘ืืžืช ืื™ื ื˜ืœื™ื’ื ื˜ื™ื,
03:09
why would they crack open nuts with a rock?
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ืžื“ื•ืข ื”ื ืคื•ืชื—ื™ื ืื’ื•ื–ื™ื ืขื ืื‘ืŸ?
03:11
Why wouldn't they just go to a shop and buy a bag of nuts
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ืœืžื” ืฉืœื ื™ืœื›ื• ืœื—ื ื•ืช ื•ื™ื™ืงื ื• ืฉืงื™ืช ืฉืœ ืื’ื•ื–ื™ื
03:14
that somebody else had already cracked open for them?
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ืฉืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืื—ืจ ื›ื‘ืจ ืคืชื— ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœื?
03:17
Why not? I mean, that's what we do.
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ืœืžื” ืœื? ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืขื•ืฉื™ื.
03:19
Now the reason the chimpanzees don't do that
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ื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ืœื›ืš ืฉื”ืฉื™ืžืคื ื–ื™ื ืœื ืขื•ืฉื™ื ื–ืืช
03:21
is that they lack what psychologists and anthropologists call
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ื”ื™ื ื”ื—ื•ืกืจ ื‘ืžื” ืฉืคืกื™ื›ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื ื•ืื ืชืจืคื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื ืžื›ื ื™ื
03:24
social learning.
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ืœืžื™ื“ื” ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ืช.
03:26
They seem to lack the ability
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ื ืจืื” ื›ื™ ื—ืกืจื” ืœื”ื ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœืช
03:28
to learn from others
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ืœืœืžื•ื“ ืžืื—ืจื™ื
03:30
by copying or imitating
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ืขืœ-ื™ื“ื™ื™ ื”ืขืชืงื” ืื• ื—ื™ืงื•ื™,
03:32
or simply watching.
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ืื• ืคืฉื•ื˜ ื“ืจืš ืฆืคื™ื™ื”.
03:34
As a result,
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ื›ืชื•ืฆืื”,
03:36
they can't improve on others' ideas
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ื”ื ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืฉืคืจ ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื—ืจื™ื
03:38
or learn from others' mistakes --
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ืื• ืœืœืžื•ื“ ืžื˜ืขื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื—ืจื™ื --
03:40
benefit from others' wisdom.
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ืœื”ืจื•ื•ื™ื— ืžื—ื•ื›ืžืชื ืฉืœ ืื—ืจื™ื.
03:42
And so they just do the same thing
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ื•ื›ืš ื”ื ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืขื•ืฉื™ื ืืช ืื•ืชื• ื”ื“ื‘ืจ
03:44
over and over and over again.
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ืฉื•ื‘ ื•ืฉื•ื‘ ื•ืฉื•ื‘.
03:46
In fact, we could go away for a million years and come back
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืœื›ืช ืœืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื ื” ื•ืœื—ื–ื•ืจ,
03:50
and these chimpanzees would be doing the same thing
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ื•ื”ืฉื™ืžืคื ื–ื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื™ืขืฉื• ืืช ืื•ืชื• ื”ื“ื‘ืจ
03:53
with the same sticks for the termites
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ืขื ืื•ืชื ืžืงืœื•ืช ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ื˜ืจืžื™ื˜ื™ื
03:55
and the same rocks to crack open the nuts.
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ื•ืื•ืชืŸ ืื‘ื ื™ื ืœืคืชื™ื—ืช ื”ืื’ื•ื–ื™ื.
03:58
Now this may sound arrogant, or even full of hubris.
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื–ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ืฉืžืข ืฉื—ืฆื ื™, ืื• ืืคื™ืœื• ืžืœื ื”ื™ื‘ืจื™ืก.
04:01
How do we know this?
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ื›ื™ืฆื“ ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ื–ืืช?
04:03
Because this is exactly what our ancestors, the Homo erectus, did.
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉื–ื” ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืžื” ืฉืื‘ื•ืชื™ื ื•, ื”ื”ื•ืžื• ืืจืงื˜ื•ืก, ืขืฉื•.
04:06
These upright apes
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ื”ืงื•ืคื™ื ื”ื–ืงื•ืคื™ื ื”ืืœื•
04:08
evolved on the African savanna
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ื”ืชืคืชื—ื• ื‘ืกื•ื•ืื ื” ืฉืœ ืืคืจื™ืงื”
04:10
about two million years ago,
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ืœืคื ื™ ื›ืฉื ื™ ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื ื™ื,
04:12
and they made these splendid hand axes
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ื•ื”ื ื™ืฆืจื• ืืช ื’ืจื–ื ื™ ื”ื™ื“ ื”ืžื•ืคืœืื™ื ื”ืœืœื•
04:14
that fit wonderfully into your hands.
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ืฉื”ืชืื™ืžื• ื ื”ื“ืจ ืœื›ืฃ ื™ื“ืš.
04:16
But if we look at the fossil record,
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ืืš ืื ื ืกืชื›ืœ ืขืœ ืชื™ืขื•ื“ ื”ืžืื•ื‘ื ื™ื,
04:18
we see that they made the same hand axe
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ืฉื”ื ื”ืฉืชืžืฉื• ื‘ืื•ืชื ื’ืจื–ื ื™ ื™ื“
04:21
over and over and over again
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ืฉื•ื‘ ื•ืฉื•ื‘ ื•ืฉื•ื‘
04:23
for one million years.
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ืœืžืฉืš ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื ื™ื.
04:25
You can follow it through the fossil record.
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ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืขืงื•ื‘ ืื—ืจื™ ื–ื” ื“ืจืš ืชื™ืขื•ื“ ื”ืžืื•ื‘ื ื™ื.
04:27
Now if we make some guesses about how long Homo erectus lived,
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ืื ื ื ื—ืฉ ื›ืžื” ื–ืžืŸ ื—ื™ ื”ื”ื•ืžื• ืืจืงื˜ื•ืก,
04:29
what their generation time was,
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ื•ืžื” ื”ื™ื” ืžืฉืš ื”ื“ื•ืจ ืฉืœื”ื,
04:31
that's about 40,000 generations
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ื–ื” ื‘ืขืจืš ื›- 40,000 ื“ื•ืจื•ืช
04:34
of parents to offspring, and other individuals watching,
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ืฉืœ ื”ื•ืจื™ื ื•ื™ืœื“ื™ื, ื•ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืฆื•ืคื™ื ืžื”ืฆื“,
04:37
in which that hand axe didn't change.
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ื‘ื”ื ื’ืจื–ืŸ ื”ื™ื“ ืœื ื”ืฉืชื ื”.
04:39
It's not even clear
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ื–ื” ืืคื™ืœื• ืœื ื‘ื˜ื•ื—
04:41
that our very close genetic relatives, the Neanderthals,
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ืฉืœืงืจื•ื‘ื™ื ืืœื™ื ื• ื’ื ื˜ื™ืช, ื”ื ื™ืื ื“ืจื˜ืืœื™ื,
04:43
had social learning.
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ื”ื™ืชื” ืœืžื™ื“ื” ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ืช.
04:45
Sure enough, their tools were more complicated
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ื‘ื”ื—ืœื˜, ื”ื›ืœื™ื ืฉืœื”ื ื”ื™ื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื™ื
04:48
than those of Homo erectus,
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ืžืืฉืจ ืืœื• ืฉืœ ื”ื”ื•ืžื• ืืจืงื˜ื•ืก,
04:50
but they too showed very little change
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ืืš ื’ื ื”ื ื”ืจืื• ืžืขื˜ ืžืื•ื“ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™
04:52
over the 300,000 years or so
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ื‘ืžื”ืœืš 300,000 ื”ืฉื ื™ื
04:55
that those species, the Neanderthals,
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ืฉื”ืžื™ื ื™ื ื”ืืœื”, ื”ื ื™ืื ื“ืจื˜ืืœื™ื,
04:57
lived in Eurasia.
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ื—ื™ื• ื‘ื™ื•ืจื•-ืืกื™ื”.
04:59
Okay, so what this tells us
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ืื•ืงื™ื™, ืื– ืžื” ืฉื–ื” ืื•ืžืจ ืœื ื•
05:01
is that, contrary to the old adage,
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ื–ื”, ืฉื‘ื ื™ื’ื•ื“ ืœืžืžื™ืจื” ื”ื™ืฉื ื”,
05:04
"monkey see, monkey do,"
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"ืงื•ืฃ ืจื•ืื”, ืงื•ืฃ ืขื•ืฉื”,"
05:07
the surprise really is
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ื”ื”ืคืชืขื” ื”ื™ื ืœืžืขืฉื”
05:09
that all of the other animals
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ืฉื›ืœ ืฉืืจ ื”ื—ื™ื•ืช
05:11
really cannot do that -- at least not very much.
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ื‘ืืžืช ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืืช ื–ื” -- ืœืคื—ื•ืช ืœื ื”ืจื‘ื”.
05:14
And even this picture
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ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื” ื”ื–ื•
05:16
has the suspicious taint of being rigged about it --
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ื™ืฉ ืชื—ื•ืฉื” ืฉื™ืฉ ื‘ื” ืžืฉื”ื• ืžื‘ื•ื™ื™ื --
05:19
something from a Barnum & Bailey circus.
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ืžืฉื”ื• ื”ืœืงื•ื— ืžื”ืงืจืงืก ืฉืœ ื‘ืืจื ื•ื ื•ื‘ื™ื™ืœื™.
05:21
But by comparison,
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ืืš ื‘ื”ืฉื•ื•ืื” ืืœื™ื”ื,
05:23
we can learn.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืœืžื•ื“.
05:25
We can learn by watching other people
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืœืžื•ื“ ืขืœ-ื™ื“ื™ื™ ืฆืคื™ื™ื” ื‘ืื ืฉื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื
05:28
and copying or imitating
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ืื• ื“ืจืš ื”ืขืชืงื” ืื• ื—ื™ืงื•ื™ื™
05:30
what they can do.
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ืฉืœ ืžื” ืฉื”ื ืขื•ืฉื™ื.
05:32
We can then choose, from among a range of options,
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ืื– ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ, ืžื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ืจื—ื‘ ืฉืœ ืืคืฉืจื•ื™ื•ืช,
05:35
the best one.
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ืืช ื”ืืคืฉืจื•ืช ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ.
05:37
We can benefit from others' ideas.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืจื•ื•ื™ื— ืžืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื—ืจื™ื.
05:39
We can build on their wisdom.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืขืœ ืกืžืš ื”ื—ื•ื›ืžื” ืฉืœื”ื.
05:41
And as a result, our ideas do accumulate,
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ื•ื›ืชื•ืฆืื”, ื”ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื• ืื›ืŸ ืžืฆื˜ื‘ืจื™ื,
05:44
and our technology progresses.
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ื•ื”ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ืฉืœื ื• ืžืชืงื“ืžืช.
05:48
And this cumulative cultural adaptation,
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ื•ื”ื”ืกืชื’ืœื•ืช ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืชื™ืช ื”ืžืฆื˜ื‘ืจืช ื”ื–ื•,
05:53
as anthropologists call
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ื›ืš ืื ืชืจืคื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื ืงื•ืจืื™ื
05:55
this accumulation of ideas,
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ืœื”ืฆื˜ื‘ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช,
05:57
is responsible for everything around you
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ื”ื™ื ืื—ืจืื™ืช ืœื›ืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื›ื
05:59
in your bustling and teeming everyday lives.
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ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื—ื™ื™ ื”ื™ื•ื ื™ื•ื ื”ืขืžื•ืกื™ื ื•ื”ืฉื•ืงืงื™ื ืฉืœื›ื.
06:01
I mean the world has changed out of all proportion
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ื›ืœื•ืžืจ, ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืฉืชื ื” ืžื›ืœ ืงื ื” ืžื™ื“ื”
06:03
to what we would recognize
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ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืžื–ื”ื™ื
06:05
even 1,000 or 2,000 years ago.
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ืืคื™ืœื• ืœืคื ื™ 1,000 ืื• 2,000 ืฉื ื™ื.
06:08
And all of this because of cumulative cultural adaptation.
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ื•ื›ืœ ื–ื” ื‘ื’ืœืœ ื”ื”ืกืชื’ืœื•ืช ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืชื™ืช ื”ืžืฆื˜ื‘ืจืช.
06:11
The chairs you're sitting in, the lights in this auditorium,
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ื”ื›ื™ืกืื•ืช ืขืœื™ื”ื ืืชื ื™ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื, ื”ืื•ืจื•ืช ื›ืืŸ ื‘ืื•ืœื,
06:13
my microphone, the iPads and iPods that you carry around with you --
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ื”ืžื™ืงืจื•ืคื•ืŸ ืฉืœื™, ื”ืื™ื™ืคื“ ื•ื”ืื™ื™ืคื•ื“ ืฉืืชื ื ื•ืฉืื™ื ืื™ืชื›ื,
06:16
all are a result
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ื›ืœ ืืœื• ื”ื ืชื•ืฆืื”
06:18
of cumulative cultural adaptation.
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ืฉืœ ื”ื”ืกืชื’ืœื•ืช ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืชื™ืช ื”ืžืฆื˜ื‘ืจืช.
06:20
Now to many commentators,
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ืจื‘ื™ื ืื•ืžืจื™ื ื›ื™
06:24
cumulative cultural adaptation, or social learning,
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ื”ืกืชื’ืœื•ืช ืชืจื‘ื•ืชื™ืช ืžืฆื˜ื‘ืจืช ืื• ืœืžื™ื“ื” ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ืช,
06:27
is job done, end of story.
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ืกื™ื™ืžื• ืืช ืชืคืงื™ื“ื, ืกื•ืฃ ืกื™ืคื•ืจ.
06:30
Our species can make stuff,
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ื”ืžื™ืŸ ืฉืœื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื,
06:33
therefore we prospered in a way that no other species has.
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ืœื›ืŸ ืฉื’ืฉื’ื ื• ื›ืคื™ ืฉืืฃ ืžื™ืŸ ืื—ืจ ืœื ืฉื’ืฉื’.
06:36
In fact, we can even make the "stuff of life" --
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืืคื™ืœื• ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืืช "ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื" --
06:39
as I just said, all the stuff around us.
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ื›ืžื• ืฉืืžืจืชื™, ื›ืœ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื ื•.
06:41
But in fact, it turns out
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ืืš ืœืžืขืฉื”, ืžืกืชื‘ืจ
06:43
that some time around 200,000 years ago,
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ืฉืœืคื ื™ 200,000 ืฉื ื™ื ื‘ืขืจืš,
06:46
when our species first arose
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ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ืžื™ืŸ ืฉืœื ื• ืขืœื” ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื”
06:48
and acquired social learning,
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ื•ืจื›ืฉ ืืช ื”ืœืžื™ื“ื” ื”ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ืช,
06:50
that this was really the beginning of our story,
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ื–ื• ื”ื™ืชื” ืจืง ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืฉืœื ื•,
06:52
not the end of our story.
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ื•ืœื ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ.
06:54
Because our acquisition of social learning
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืจื›ื™ืฉืช ื”ืœืžื™ื“ื” ื”ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ืช
06:57
would create a social and evolutionary dilemma,
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ื™ืฆืจื” ื“ื™ืœืžื” ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ืช ื•ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช,
07:00
the resolution of which, it's fair to say,
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ืฉื”ืชื•ืฆืื” ืฉืœื”, ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื•ืžืจ,
07:03
would determine not only the future course of our psychology,
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ืชื›ืจื™ืข ืœื ืจืง ืืช ืขืชื™ื“ ื”ืคืกื™ื›ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ืฉืœื ื•,
07:07
but the future course of the entire world.
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ืืœื ืืช ืขืชื™ื“ ื”ืขื•ืœื ื›ื•ืœื•.
07:09
And most importantly for this,
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ื•ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื”ื•ื,
07:12
it'll tell us why we have language.
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ืฉื–ื” ื™ืกืคืจ ืœื ื• ืžื“ื•ืข ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืฉืคื”.
07:15
And the reason that dilemma arose
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ื•ื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ืฉื”ื“ื™ืœืžื” ืขืœืชื”
07:17
is, it turns out, that social learning is visual theft.
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ื”ื™ื ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืœืžื™ื“ื” ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ืช ื”ื™ื ืœืžืขืฉื” ื’ื ื™ื‘ื” ื—ื–ื•ืชื™ืช.
07:20
If I can learn by watching you,
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ืื ืื ื™ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืœืžื•ื“ ืžืฆืคื™ื™ื” ื‘ืš,
07:23
I can steal your best ideas,
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ืื ื™ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื’ื ื•ื‘ ืืช ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืชื™ื™ืš ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ,
07:25
and I can benefit from your efforts,
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ื•ืื ื™ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืจื•ื•ื™ื— ืžื”ืžืืžืฆื™ื ืฉืœืš,
07:28
without having to put in the time and energy that you did
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ืžื‘ืœื™ ืฉืืฆื˜ืจืš ืœื”ืฉืงื™ืข ืืช ื”ื–ืžืŸ ืื• ื”ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืฉื”ืฉืงืขืช
07:30
into developing them.
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ื‘ื ืกื™ื•ื ืš ืœืคืชื— ืื•ืชื.
07:32
If I can watch which lure you use to catch a fish,
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ืื ืื ื™ ืื•ื›ืœ ืœืจืื•ืช ื‘ืื™ื–ื” ืคื™ืชื™ื•ืŸ ืืชื” ืžืฉืชืžืฉ ืœื“ื™ื™ื’,
07:35
or I can watch how you flake your hand axe
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ืื• ืฉืื•ื›ืœ ืœืจืื•ืช ื›ื™ืฆื“ ืืชื” ืžืกืชืช ืืช ื’ืจื–ืŸ ื”ื™ื“ ืฉืœืš
07:37
to make it better,
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ื‘ื›ื“ื™ ืœืฉืคืจ ืื•ืชื•,
07:39
or if I follow you secretly to your mushroom patch,
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ืื• ืื ืื ื™ ืขื•ืงื‘ ืื—ืจื™ื™ืš ื—ืจืฉ ื—ืจืฉ ืœื—ืœืงืช ื”ืคื˜ืจื™ื•ืช ืฉืœืš,
07:42
I can benefit from your knowledge and wisdom and skills,
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ืื ื™ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืจื•ื•ื™ื— ืžื”ื™ื“ืข ืฉืœืš, ื•ืžื—ื•ื›ืžืชืš ื•ืžื›ื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื™ืš,
07:45
and maybe even catch that fish
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ื•ืื•ืœื™ ืืคื™ืœื• ืื•ื›ืœ ืœืชืคื•ืก ืืช ื”ื“ื’ ื”ื”ื•ื
07:47
before you do.
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ืœืคื ื™ื™ืš.
07:49
Social learning really is visual theft.
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ืœืžื™ื“ื” ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ืช ื”ื™ื ืœืžืขืฉื” ื’ื ื™ื‘ื” ื—ื–ื•ืชื™ืช.
07:52
And in any species that acquired it,
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ื•ื‘ื›ืœ ืžื™ืŸ ืฉืจื•ื›ืฉ ืื•ืชื”,
07:54
it would behoove you
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ื–ื” ื™ื”ื™ื” ื—ื›ื ืžืฆื™ื“ืš
07:56
to hide your best ideas,
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ืœื”ื—ื‘ื™ื ืืช ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืชื™ื™ืš ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ,
07:58
lest somebody steal them from you.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืฉืœื ื™ื’ื ื‘ื• ืื•ืชื ืžืžืš.
08:02
And so some time around 200,000 years ago,
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ื•ื›ืš ืœืคื ื™ ื›- 200,000 ืฉื ื™ื,
08:05
our species confronted this crisis.
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ื”ืžื™ืŸ ืฉืœื ื• ื”ืชืขืžืช ืขื ื”ืžืฉื‘ืจ ื”ื–ื”.
08:08
And we really had only two options
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ื•ื”ื™ื• ืœื ื• ืœืžืขืฉื” ืฉืชื™ ืืคืฉืจื•ื™ื•ืช
08:11
for dealing with the conflicts
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ืœื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ ืขื ื”ืงื•ื ืคืœื™ืงื˜ื™ื
08:13
that visual theft would bring.
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ืฉื’ื ื™ื‘ื” ื—ื–ื•ืชื™ืช ื”ืขืœืชื”.
08:15
One of those options
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ืื—ืช ื”ืืคืฉืจื•ื™ื•ืช
08:17
was that we could have retreated
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ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืœืกื’ืช
08:20
into small family groups.
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ืœืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืžืฉืคื—ืชื™ื•ืช ืงื˜ื ื•ืช.
08:22
Because then the benefits of our ideas and knowledge
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืื– ื”ื™ืชืจื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื•ื”ื™ื“ืข ืฉืœื ื•
08:25
would flow just to our relatives.
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ื™ืขื‘ืจื• ืืœ ื”ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ื ืฉืœื ื•.
08:27
Had we chosen this option,
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ืœื• ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื‘ื•ื—ืจื™ื ื‘ืืคืฉืจื•ืช ื”ื–ื•,
08:29
sometime around 200,000 years ago,
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ืžืชื™ืฉื”ื• ืœืคื ื™ ื› - 200,000 ืฉื ื™ื,
08:32
we would probably still be living like the Neanderthals were
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ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืœื”ื ื™ื— ืฉืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื—ื™ื™ื ื›ืžื• ืฉื—ื™ื• ื”ื ื™ืื ื“ืจื˜ืืœื™ื
08:35
when we first entered Europe 40,000 years ago.
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ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ื’ืขื ื• ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืœืื™ืจื•ืคื” ืœืคื ื™ 40,000 ืฉื ื™ื.
08:38
And this is because in small groups
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ื•ื–ื” ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื‘ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืงื˜ื ื•ืช
08:40
there are fewer ideas, there are fewer innovations.
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ื™ืฉื ื ืคื—ื•ืช ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช, ื™ืฉื ื ืคื—ื•ืช ื—ื™ื“ื•ืฉื™ื.
08:43
And small groups are more prone to accidents and bad luck.
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ื•ืœืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืงื˜ื ื•ืช ื™ืฉ ื ื˜ื™ื™ื” ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœืชืื•ื ื•ืช ืื• ืœืžื–ืœ ืจืข.
08:46
So if we'd chosen that path,
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ืื– ืื ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื‘ื•ื—ืจื™ื ื‘ืžืกืœื•ืœ ื”ื–ื”,
08:48
our evolutionary path would have led into the forest --
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ืื– ื”ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ื”ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ืฉืœื ื• ื”ื™ื” ืžื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืœืชื•ืš ื”ื™ืขืจ --
08:51
and been a short one indeed.
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ื•ื”ื™ื” ืงืฆืจ ืœืœื ืกืคืง.
08:53
The other option we could choose
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ื”ืืคืฉืจื•ืช ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื” ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ
08:55
was to develop the systems of communication
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ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืœืคืชื— ืžืขืจื›ืช ืชืงืฉื•ืจืช
08:58
that would allow us to share ideas
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ืฉืชืืคืฉืจ ืœื ื• ืœื—ืœื•ืง ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช
09:00
and to cooperate amongst others.
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ื•ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ ื‘ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ืคืขื•ืœื” ืขื ืื—ืจื™ื.
09:03
Choosing this option would mean
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ื‘ื—ื™ืจื” ื‘ืืคืฉืจื•ืช ื”ื–ืืช ืžืฉืžืขื”
09:05
that a vastly greater fund of accumulated knowledge and wisdom
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ืฉืžืื’ืจ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ื”ืจื‘ื” ืฉืœ ื™ื“ืข ืžืฆื˜ื‘ืจ ื•ื—ื•ื›ืžื”
09:08
would become available to any one individual
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ื™ื”ื™ื” ื–ืžื™ืŸ ืœื›ืœ ืคืจื˜
09:11
than would ever arise from within an individual family
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ื‘ื”ืฉื•ื•ืื” ืœื–ื” ืฉื”ื™ื” ื ื•ืฆืจ ื‘ืžืฉืคื—ื” ื™ื—ื™ื“ื”
09:14
or an individual person on their own.
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ืื• ื‘ืื“ื ื™ื—ื™ื“.
09:18
Well, we chose the second option,
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืื ื—ื ื• ื‘ื—ืจื ื• ื‘ืืคืฉืจื•ืช ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื”,
09:21
and language is the result.
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ื•ื”ืฉืคื” ื”ื™ื ื”ืชื•ืฆืื”.
09:24
Language evolved to solve the crisis
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ื”ืฉืคื” ื”ืชืคืชื—ื” ื‘ื›ื“ื™ ืœืคืชื•ืจ ืืช ื”ืžืฉื‘ืจ
09:26
of visual theft.
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ืฉืœ ื’ื ื™ื‘ื” ื—ื–ื•ืชื™ืช.
09:28
Language is a piece of social technology
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ืฉืคื” ื”ื™ื ื—ืœืง ืžื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ืช
09:31
for enhancing the benefits of cooperation --
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ื”ืžืขืฆื™ืžื” ืืช ื™ืชืจื•ื ื•ืช ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ื”ืคืขื•ืœื” --
09:34
for reaching agreements, for striking deals
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ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœื”ืกื›ืžื”, ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืขื™ืกืงืื•ืช
09:37
and for coordinating our activities.
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ื•ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ืœืชืื ืืช ื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื•.
09:41
And you can see that, in a developing society
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ื•ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ื›ื™ ื‘ื—ื‘ืจื” ืžืชืคืชื—ืช
09:43
that was beginning to acquire language,
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ืฉื”ืชื—ื™ืœื” ืœืจื›ื•ืฉ ืฉืคื”,
09:45
not having language
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ื—ื•ืกืจ ื‘ืฉืคื”
09:47
would be a like a bird without wings.
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ื”ื™ื” ืžืฉื•ืœ ืœืฆื™ืคื•ืจ ืœืœื ื›ื ืคื™ื™ื.
09:49
Just as wings open up this sphere of air
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ื›ืฉื ืฉื”ื›ื ืคื™ื™ื ืคื•ืชื—ื•ืช ืืช ืกืคื™ืจืช ื”ืื•ื•ื™ืจ
09:52
for birds to exploit,
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ืœืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื”ืฆื™ืคื•ืจื™ื,
09:54
language opened up the sphere of cooperation
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ื”ืฉืคื” ืคืชื—ื” ืืช ืกืคื™ืจืช ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ื”ืคืขื•ืœื”
09:56
for humans to exploit.
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ืœืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ื ื™ ื”ืื“ื.
09:58
And we take this utterly for granted,
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื•ืงื—ื™ื ืืช ื–ื” ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ืžืืœื™ื•,
10:00
because we're a species that is so at home with language,
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžื™ืŸ ืฉืžืจื’ื™ืฉ ื‘ื ื•ื— ืขื ื”ืฉืคื”.
10:03
but you have to realize
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ืื‘ืœ ืขืœื™ื›ื ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ
10:05
that even the simplest acts of exchange that we engage in
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ืฉืืคื™ืœื• ื”ืคืขื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืคืฉื•ื˜ื•ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืœ ืกื—ืจ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืขื•ืกืงื™ื ื‘ื”ืŸ
10:08
are utterly dependent upon language.
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ืชืœื•ื™ื•ืช ืœื—ืœื•ื˜ื™ืŸ ื‘ืฉืคื”.
10:11
And to see why, consider two scenarios
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ื•ื‘ื›ื“ื™ ืœืจืื•ืช ืžื“ื•ืข, ื—ืฉื‘ื• ืขืœ ืฉื ื™ ืžืงืจื™ื
10:13
from early in our evolution.
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ืžืฉืœื‘ ืžื•ืงื“ื ื‘ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื” ืฉืœื ื•.
10:15
Let's imagine that you are really good
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ื‘ื•ืื• ื ื“ืžื™ื™ืŸ ืฉืืชื ื˜ื•ื‘ื™ื ืžืื•ื“
10:17
at making arrowheads,
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ื‘ื”ื›ื ืช ืจืืฉื™ ื—ืฆื™ื,
10:19
but you're hopeless at making the wooden shafts
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ืืš ื’ืจื•ืขื™ื ื‘ื”ื›ื ืช ื‘ืกื™ืก ื”ื—ืฅ
10:22
with the flight feathers attached.
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ืขื ื ื•ืฆื•ืช ื”ืชืขื•ืคื”.
10:25
Two other people you know are very good at making the wooden shafts,
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ืฉื ื™ ืื ืฉื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ืžืฆื˜ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ื”ื›ื ืช ื‘ืกื™ืก ื”ื—ืฅ,
10:28
but they're hopeless at making the arrowheads.
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ืืš ื’ืจื•ืขื™ื ื‘ื”ื›ื ืช ืจืืฉื™ ื”ื—ืฆื™ื.
10:31
So what you do is --
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ืื– ืžื” ืฉืืชื ืขื•ืฉื™ื ื–ื” --
10:33
one of those people has not really acquired language yet.
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ืื—ื“ ืžื”ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืืœื” ืœื ืจื›ืฉ ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืฉืคื”.
10:36
And let's pretend the other one is good at language skills.
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ื•ื‘ื•ืื• ื ืืžืจ ืฉื”ืฉื ื™ ืžืฆื˜ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ื›ื™ืฉื•ืจื™ ื”ืฉืคื”.
10:38
So what you do one day is you take a pile of arrowheads,
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ืื– ืžื” ืฉืืชื ืขื•ืฉื™ื ื™ื•ื ืื—ื“ ื–ื” ืœืงื—ืช ืืช ืขืจืžืช ืจืืฉื™ ื”ื—ืฆื™ื,
10:41
and you walk up to the one that can't speak very well,
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ื•ืืชื ื”ื•ืœื›ื™ื ืœืื•ืชื• ืื—ื“ ืฉืื™ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื˜ื‘,
10:43
and you put the arrowheads down in front of him,
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ื•ืืชื ืžื ื™ื—ื™ื ืืช ืจืืฉื™ ื”ื—ืฆื™ื ืžื•ืœื•,
10:45
hoping that he'll get the idea that you want to trade your arrowheads
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ื‘ืชืงื•ื•ื” ืฉื”ื•ื ื™ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืช ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืืชื ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœืกื—ื•ืจ ื‘ืจืืฉื™ ื”ื—ืฆื™ื ืฉืœื›ื
10:48
for finished arrows.
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ื‘ืชืžื•ืจื” ืœื—ืฆื™ื ืžื•ื’ืžืจื™ื.
10:50
But he looks at the pile of arrowheads, thinks they're a gift,
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ืืš ื”ื•ื ืžืชื‘ื•ื ืŸ ื‘ืขืจืžืช ืจืืฉื™ ื”ื—ืฆื™ื, ื‘ืžื—ืฉื‘ื” ืฉื”ื ืžืชื ื”,
10:52
picks them up, smiles and walks off.
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ืœื•ืงื— ืื•ืชื, ืžื—ื™ื™ืš ื•ื”ื•ืœืš.
10:55
Now you pursue this guy, gesticulating.
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืืชื ืจื•ื“ืคื™ื ืื—ืจื™ ื”ืื™ืฉ ื‘ืชื ื•ืขื•ืช ื™ื“ื™ื™ื,
10:57
A scuffle ensues and you get stabbed
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ื•ืžืชืคืชื—ืช ื”ืชื›ืชืฉื•ืช ื•ื”ื•ื ื“ื•ืงืจ ืืชื›ื
10:59
with one of your own arrowheads.
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ืขื ืื—ื“ ืžืจืืฉื™ ื”ื—ืฆื™ื ืฉืœื›ื.
11:02
Okay, now replay this scene now, and you're approaching the one who has language.
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ืื•ืงื™ื™, ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืชืจื™ืฆื• ืฉื•ื‘ ืืช ื”ืกืฆื ื” ื”ื–ื• ื›ืฉืืชื ืžืชืงืจื‘ื™ื ืœื–ื” ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื• ืฉืคื”.
11:05
You put down your arrowheads and say,
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ืืชื ืžื ื™ื—ื™ื ืืช ืจืืฉื™ ื”ื—ืฆื™ื ื•ืื•ืžืจื™ื:
11:07
"I'd like to trade these arrowheads for finished arrows. I'll split you 50/50."
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"ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ื—ืœื™ืฃ ืืช ืจืืฉื™ ื”ื—ืฆื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ื‘ื—ืฆื™ื ืžื•ื’ืžืจื™ื. ืื ื™ ืืชื—ืœืง ืื™ืชืš 50\50."
11:10
The other one says, "Fine. Looks good to me.
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ื•ื”ื‘ื—ื•ืจ ืื•ืžืจ "ื‘ืกื“ืจ. ื ืจืื” ื˜ื•ื‘ ื‘ืขื™ื ื™ื™.
11:12
We'll do that."
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ื ืขืฉื” ืืช ื–ื”."
11:15
Now the job is done.
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ื›ืขืช ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื ื’ืžืจื”.
11:18
Once we have language,
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ื‘ืจื’ืข ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืฉืคื”,
11:20
we can put our ideas together and cooperate
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื ืกื— ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื•ืœืฉืชืฃ ืคืขื•ืœื”
11:22
to have a prosperity
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ื‘ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืฉื™ื’ ืฉื’ืฉื•ื’
11:24
that we couldn't have before we acquired it.
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ื›ืžื•ื”ื• ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืœืงื‘ืœ ืœืคื ื™ ืฉืจื›ืฉื ื• ืืช ื”ืฉืคื”.
11:27
And this is why our species
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ื•ื–ื• ื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ืžื“ื•ืข ื”ืžื™ืŸ ืฉืœื ื•
11:29
has prospered around the world
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ืฉื’ืฉื’ ื‘ื›ืœ ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื
11:31
while the rest of the animals
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ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉืฉืืจ ื”ื—ื™ื•ืช
11:33
sit behind bars in zoos, languishing.
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ื™ื•ืฉื‘ื•ืช ืœื”ืŸ ืžืื—ื•ืจื™ ืกื•ืจื’ื™ื ื‘ื’ื ื™ ื”ื—ื™ื•ืช, ื ืžืงื•ืช.
11:36
That's why we build space shuttles and cathedrals
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ื–ื• ื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ืžื“ื•ืข ืื ื• ื‘ื•ื ื™ื ื—ืœืœื™ื•ืช ื•ืงืชื“ืจืœื•ืช
11:39
while the rest of the world sticks sticks into the ground
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ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉืฉืืจ ื”ืขื•ืœื ืชื•ืงืข ืžืงืœื•ืช ืœืชื•ืš ื”ืื“ืžื”
11:41
to extract termites.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื•ืฆื™ื ื˜ืจืžื™ื˜ื™ื.
11:43
All right, if this view of language
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ื˜ื•ื‘. ืื ื”ืžื‘ื˜ ื”ื–ื” ืขืœ ื”ืฉืคื”
11:46
and its value
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ื•ืขืจื›ื”
11:48
in solving the crisis of visual theft is true,
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ื•ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืœืคืชื•ืจ ืืช ื‘ืขื™ื™ืช ืžืฉื‘ืจ ื”ื’ื ื™ื‘ื” ื”ื—ื–ื•ืชื™ืช ื”ื•ื ื ื›ื•ืŸ,
11:51
any species that acquires it
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ืื– ื›ืœ ืžื™ืŸ ืฉืจื•ื›ืฉ ืฉืคื”
11:53
should show an explosion of creativity and prosperity.
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ืืžื•ืจ ืœื”ืจืื•ืช ื”ืชืคื•ืฆืฆื•ืช ืฉืœ ื™ืฆื™ืจืชื™ื•ืช ื•ืฉื’ืฉื•ื’.
11:56
And this is exactly what the archeological record shows.
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ื•ื–ื” ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืžื” ืฉืžืจืื™ื ืœื ื• ืชื™ืขื•ื“ื™ ื”ืืจื›ื™ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื.
11:59
If you look at our ancestors,
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ืื ืชืกืชื›ืœื• ืขืœ ืื‘ื•ืชื™ื ื• ื”ืงื“ืžื•ื ื™ื,
12:01
the Neanderthals and the Homo erectus, our immediate ancestors,
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ื”ื ื™ืื ื“ืจื˜ืืœื™ื ื•ื”ื”ื•ืžื• ืืจืงื˜ื•ืก, ืื‘ื•ืชื™ื ื• ื”ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ,
12:04
they're confined to small regions of the world.
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ื”ื ืžื•ื’ื‘ืœื™ื ืœืื™ื–ื•ืจื™ื ืงื˜ื ื™ื ื‘ืขื•ืœื.
12:07
But when our species arose
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ืืš ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ืžื™ืŸ ืฉืœื ื• ืขืœื”
12:09
about 200,000 years ago,
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ืœืคื ื™ ื›- 200,000 ืฉื ื™ื,
12:11
sometime after that we quickly walked out of Africa
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ื–ืžืŸ ื›ืœืฉื”ื• ืื—ืจื™ ื–ื” ื™ืฆืื ื• ื‘ืžื”ืจื” ืžืืคืจื™ืงื”
12:14
and spread around the entire world,
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ื•ื”ืชืคื–ืจื ื• ื‘ื›ืœ ืงืฆื•ื•ืช ืชื‘ืœ,
12:17
occupying nearly every habitat on Earth.
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ืžืื›ืœืกื™ื ื›ืžืขื˜ ื›ืœ ื‘ื™ืช ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื›ื“ื•ืจ-ื”ืืจืฅ.
12:20
Now whereas other species are confined
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืฉืžื™ื ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ืžื•ื’ื‘ืœื™ื
12:23
to places that their genes adapt them to,
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ืœืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ืฉื”ื’ื ื™ื ืฉืœื”ื ื”ื•ืชืืžื•.
12:26
with social learning and language,
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ืขื ืœืžื™ื“ื” ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ืช ื•ืฉืคื”,
12:28
we could transform the environment
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืœืฉื ื•ืช ืืช ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”
12:30
to suit our needs.
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ื›ืš ืฉืชืชืื™ื ืœืฆืจื›ื™ื ื•.
12:32
And so we prospered in a way
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ื•ื›ืš ืฉื’ืฉื’ื ื• ื›ืคื™
12:34
that no other animal has.
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ืฉืืฃ ื—ื™ื” ืื—ืจืช ืœื ืขืฉืชื”.
12:36
Language really is
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ื”ืฉืคื” ื”ื™ื ื‘ืืžืช
12:39
the most potent trait that has ever evolved.
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ื”ืชื›ื•ื ื” ื”ื—ื–ืงื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืื™ ืคืขื ื”ืชืคืชื—ื”.
12:42
It is the most valuable trait we have
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ื–ื•ื”ื™ ื”ืชื›ื•ื ื” ื”ื›ื™ ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉื™ืช ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื•
12:45
for converting new lands and resources
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ืœื”ืกื‘ืช ืื“ืžื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ื•ืžืฉืื‘ื™ื
12:48
into more people and their genes
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ืœืขื•ื“ ืื ืฉื™ื ื•ื”ื’ื ื™ื ืฉืœื”ื
12:51
that natural selection has ever devised.
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ืžื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉื”ื‘ืจื™ืจื” ื”ื˜ื‘ืขื™ืช ืื™ ืคืขื ื”ืžืฆื™ืื”.
12:53
Language really is
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ื”ืฉืคื” ื”ื™ื ื‘ืืžืช
12:55
the voice of our genes.
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ื”ืงื•ืœ ืฉืœ ื”ื’ื ื™ื ืฉืœื ื•.
12:57
Now having evolved language, though,
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉืคื™ืชื—ื ื• ืืช ื”ืฉืคื”,
12:59
we did something peculiar,
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ืขืฉื™ื ื• ืžืฉื”ื• ืžื•ื–ืจ,
13:01
even bizarre.
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ืืคื™ืœื• ื—ืจื™ื’.
13:03
As we spread out around the world,
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ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉื”ืชืคื–ืจื ื• ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ื›ื“ื•ืจ,
13:05
we developed thousands of different languages.
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ืคื™ืชื—ื ื• ืืœืคื™ ืฉืคื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช.
13:08
Currently, there are about seven or 8,000
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ื›ื™ื•ื, ื™ืฉื ื ื› 7,000-8,000
13:10
different languages spoken on Earth.
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ืฉืคื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืžื“ื•ื‘ืจื•ืช ื‘ืขื•ืœื.
13:13
Now you might say, well, this is just natural.
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ื›ืขืช ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื•ืžืจ, ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ื–ื” ืืš ื˜ื‘ืขื™.
13:15
As we diverge, our languages are naturally going to diverge.
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ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžืกืชืขืคื™ื, ื›ืš ื™ืงืจื” ื’ื ืœืฉืคื•ืช ืฉืœื ื•.
13:18
But the real puzzle and irony
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ืืš ื”ืชื”ื™ื™ื” ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื•ื”ืื™ืจื•ื ื™ืช
13:20
is that the greatest density of different languages on Earth
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ื”ื™ื ืฉื”ืฆืคื™ืคื•ืช ื”ื›ื™ ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืฉืœ ืฉืคื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ืขืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ-ื”ืืจืฅ
13:23
is found where people are most tightly packed together.
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ื ืžืฆืืช ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื‘ื• ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ื ืžืื•ื“ ื–ื” ืœื–ื”.
13:27
If we go to the island of Papua New Guinea,
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ืื ื ืœืš ืœืคืคื•ืื” ื’ื™ื ืื” ื”ื—ื“ืฉื”,
13:29
we can find about 800 to 1,000
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ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืžืฆื•ื ื‘ืขืจืš 800 ืขื“ 1,000
13:32
distinct human languages,
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ืฉืคื•ืช ืื ื•ืฉื™ื•ืช ื ื‘ื“ืœื•ืช,
13:34
different human languages,
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ืฉืคื•ืช ืื ื•ืฉื™ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช,
13:36
spoken on that island alone.
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ืžื“ื•ื‘ืจื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ืื™ ื”ื–ื” ื‘ืœื‘ื“.
13:38
There are places on that island
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ื™ืฉื ื ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ืื™ ื”ื–ื”
13:40
where you can encounter a new language
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ื‘ื”ื ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืคื’ื•ืฉ ื‘ืฉืคื” ื—ื“ืฉื”
13:42
every two or three miles.
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ื›ืœ 3 ืขื“ 5 ืงื™ืœื•ืžื˜ืจื™ื.
13:44
Now, incredible as this sounds,
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ื›ืขืช, ืžื“ื”ื™ื ื›ื›ืœ ืฉื–ื” ื ืฉืžืข,
13:46
I once met a Papuan man, and I asked him if this could possibly be true.
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ืคื’ืฉืชื™ ืคืขื ืื™ืฉ ืžืคืคื•ืื”, ื•ืฉืืœืชื™ ืื•ืชื• ื”ืื ื‘ืืžืช ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื™ืชื›ืŸ.
13:49
And he said to me, "Oh no.
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืืžืจ ืœื™, "ืื• ืœื.
13:51
They're far closer together than that."
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ื”ื ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ื ื–ื” ืœื–ื”."
13:54
And it's true; there are places on that island
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ื•ื–ื” ื ื›ื•ืŸ; ื™ืฉื ื ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ืื™ ื”ื–ื”
13:56
where you can encounter a new language in under a mile.
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ื‘ื”ื ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืคื’ื•ืฉ ื‘ืฉืคื” ื—ื“ืฉื” ื‘ืžืจื—ืง ืฉืœ ืคื—ื•ืช ืžืฉืœื•ืฉ ืงื™ืœื•ืžื˜ืจ.
13:59
And this is also true of some remote oceanic islands.
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ื•ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื ื›ื•ืŸ ื’ื ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื›ืžื” ืื™ื™ื ืื•ืงื™ืื ื™ื ืžืจื•ื—ืงื™ื.
14:03
And so it seems that we use our language,
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ื•ื›ืš ื ื“ืžื” ื›ื™ ืื ื• ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ืฉืคื” ืฉืœื ื•,
14:05
not just to cooperate,
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ืœื ืจืง ืœืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ืคืขื•ืœื”,
14:07
but to draw rings around our cooperative groups
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ืืœื ื’ื ืœื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื˜ื‘ืขื•ืช ืฆืคื•ืคื•ืช ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ื”ืžืฉืชืคื•ืช ืื™ืชื ื• ืคืขื•ืœื”
14:10
and to establish identities,
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ื•ืœื‘ืกืก ื–ื”ื•ื™ื•ืช,
14:12
and perhaps to protect our knowledge and wisdom and skills
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ื•ืื•ืœื™ ืœื”ื’ืŸ ืขืœ ื”ื™ื“ืข ื•ื”ื—ื•ื›ืžื” ื•ื”ื›ื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื
14:15
from eavesdropping from outside.
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ืžืฆื™ืชื•ืชื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื.
14:18
And we know this
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ื–ืืช
14:20
because when we study different language groups
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื›ืืฉืจ ืื ื—ื ื• ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืฉืคื” ืฉื•ื ื•ืช
14:22
and associate them with their cultures,
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ื•ืžืงืฉืจื™ื ืื•ืชืŸ ืขื ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ืŸ,
14:24
we see that different languages
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ื›ื™ ื”ื”ื‘ื“ืœ ื‘ืฉืคื•ืช
14:26
slow the flow of ideas between groups.
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ืžืื˜ ืืช ื–ืจื™ืžืช ื”ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ื™ืŸ ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช.
14:29
They slow the flow of technologies.
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ื”ืŸ ืžืื˜ื•ืช ืืช ื–ืจื™ืžืชืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช.
14:32
And they even slow the flow of genes.
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ื•ื”ืŸ ืืคื™ืœื• ืžืขื›ื‘ื•ืช ืืช ื–ืจื™ืžืช ื”ื’ื ื™ื.
14:35
Now I can't speak for you,
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืื ื™ ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื“ื‘ืจ ื‘ืฉืžื›ื,
14:37
but it seems to be the case
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ืืš ื ื“ืžื” ืฉื–ื• ื”ืกื™ื‘ื”
14:39
that we don't have sex with people we can't talk to.
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ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ืขื•ืฉื™ื ืกืงืก ืขื ืื ืฉื™ื ืื™ืชื ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื“ื‘ืจ.
14:43
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
14:45
Now we have to counter that, though,
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ืื‘ืœ ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื ื’ื•ื“ ื–ืืช,
14:47
against the evidence we've heard
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ื›ื ื’ื“ ื”ืจืื™ื™ื” ืฉืฉืžืขื ื• ืขืœื™ื”
14:49
that we might have had some rather distasteful genetic dalliances
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ืฉืื•ืœื™ ื”ื™ื• ืœื ื• ื›ืžื” ื”ืชืžื–ืžื–ื•ื™ื•ืช ื’ื ื˜ื™ื•ืช ืžืคื•ืงืคืงื•ืช
14:52
with the Neanderthals and the Denisovans.
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ืขื ื”ื ื™ืื ื“ืจื˜ืืœื™ื ื•ืขื ื”ื“ื ื™ืกื•ื‘ื ื™ื.
14:54
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
14:56
Okay, this tendency we have,
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ืื•ืงื™, ื”ื ื˜ื™ื™ื” ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื•,
14:58
this seemingly natural tendency we have,
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ื”ื ื˜ื™ื™ื” ื”ื˜ื‘ืขื™ืช ืœื›ืื•ืจื” ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื•,
15:00
towards isolation, towards keeping to ourselves,
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ืœื”ืชื‘ื•ื“ื“, ืœื”ืชืจื—ืง ืžื”ืื—ืจ,
15:03
crashes head first into our modern world.
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ืžืชื ื’ืฉืช ืขื ืขื•ืœืžื ื• ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™.
15:06
This remarkable image
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ื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ื”ืžื“ื”ื™ืžื” ื”ื–ื•
15:08
is not a map of the world.
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ื”ื™ื ืœื ืžืคืช ื”ืขื•ืœื.
15:10
In fact, it's a map of Facebook friendship links.
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื–ื•ื”ื™ ืžืคืช ืงืฉืจื™ ื—ื‘ืจื•ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืคื™ื™ืกื‘ื•ืง.
15:14
And when you plot those friendship links
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ื•ื›ืืฉืจ ืืชื” ืžืฆื™ื‘ ืืช ืื•ืชื ืงืฉืจื™ ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช
15:16
by their latitude and longitude,
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ืœืคื™ ืงื•ื•ื™ ื”ืื•ืจืš ื•ื”ืจื•ื—ื‘ ืฉืœื”ื,
15:18
it literally draws a map of the world.
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ื–ื” ืžืฆื™ื™ืจ ืœื ื• ืžืคื” ืฉืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื.
15:21
Our modern world is communicating
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ืขื•ืœืžื ื• ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ ืžืชืงืฉืจ
15:23
with itself and with each other
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ืขื ืขืฆืžื• ื•ืื—ื“ ืขื ื”ืฉื ื™
15:25
more than it has
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ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืืฉืจ
15:27
at any time in its past.
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ืขืฉื” ื–ืืช ืื™ ืคืขื ื‘ืขื‘ืจ.
15:29
And that communication, that connectivity around the world,
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ื•ื”ืชืงืฉื•ืจืช ื”ื–ื•, ื”ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื•ืช ื”ื–ื• ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ื”ืขื•ืœื,
15:32
that globalization
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ื”ื’ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ื–ืฆื™ื” ื”ื–ื•
15:34
now raises a burden.
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ืžืขืœื” ื›ืขืช ื‘ืขื™ื”.
15:37
Because these different languages
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ืžืฉื•ื ืฉืื•ืชืŸ ืฉืคื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช
15:39
impose a barrier, as we've just seen,
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ืžื”ื•ื•ืช ืžื—ืกื•ื, ื›ืžื• ืฉื–ื” ืขืชื” ืจืื™ื ื•,
15:41
to the transfer of goods and ideas
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ืœืžืขื‘ืจ ืžื•ืฆืจื™ื ื•ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช
15:43
and technologies and wisdom.
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ื•ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช ื•ื—ื•ื›ืžื”.
15:45
And they impose a barrier to cooperation.
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ื•ื”ืŸ ืžื”ื•ื•ืช ืžื—ืกื•ื ืœืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ืคืขื•ืœื”.
15:48
And nowhere do we see that more clearly
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ื•ืื™ืŸ ืžืงื•ื ื‘ื• ืื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ื–ืืช ื‘ื‘ื™ืจื•ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ
15:51
than in the European Union,
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ืžืืฉืจ ื‘ืื™ื—ื•ื“ ื”ืื™ืจื•ืคื™,
15:53
whose 27 member countries
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ื‘ื• ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช 27 ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช
15:56
speak 23 official languages.
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ื”ืžื“ื‘ืจื•ืช ื‘- 23 ืฉืคื•ืช ืจืฉืžื™ื•ืช.
15:59
The European Union
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ื”ืื™ื—ื•ื“ ื”ืื™ืจื•ืคื™
16:01
is now spending over one billion euros annually
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ืžื‘ื–ื‘ื– ืœืžืขืœื” ืžืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื™ื•ืจื• ื›ืœ ืฉื ื”
16:05
translating among their 23 official languages.
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ื‘ืชืจื’ื•ื ืœืื•ืชืŸ 23 ืฉืคื•ืช ืจืฉืžื™ื•ืช.
16:08
That's something on the order
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ื–ื” ืžืฉื”ื• ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื•ืช
16:10
of 1.45 billion U.S. dollars
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1.45 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื“ื•ืœืจื™ื
16:12
on translation costs alone.
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ืขืœ ืขืœื•ื™ื•ืช ืชืจื’ื•ื ื‘ืœื‘ื“.
16:15
Now think of the absurdity of this situation.
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ื—ื™ืฉื‘ื• ืขืœ ื”ืื‘ืกื•ืจื“ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืžืฆื‘ ื”ื–ื”.
16:17
If 27 individuals
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ืื 27 ืื ืฉื™ื
16:19
from those 27 member states
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ืž- 27 ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช
16:21
sat around table, speaking their 23 languages,
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ื™ืฉื‘ื• ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืฉื•ืœื—ืŸ, ื•ื™ื“ื‘ืจื• ื‘- 23 ื”ืฉืคื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื,
16:24
some very simple mathematics will tell you
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ื—ื™ืฉื•ื‘ ืคืฉื•ื˜ ื™ืจืื” ืœื›ื
16:26
that you need an army of 253 translators
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ืฉืชื–ื“ืงืงื• ืœืฆื‘ื ืฉืœ 253 ืžืชืจื’ืžื™ื
16:30
to anticipate all the pairwise possibilities.
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ื‘ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืชื›ื•ื ืŸ ืœื›ืœ ื”ืืคืฉืจื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ื–ื•ื’ื™ื•ืช.
16:34
The European Union employs a permanent staff
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ื”ืื™ื—ื•ื“ ื”ืื™ืจื•ืคื™ ืžืขืกื™ืง ืฆื•ื•ืช ืงื‘ื•ืข
16:37
of about 2,500 translators.
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ืฉืœ ื›- 2,500 ืžืชืจื’ืžื™ื.
16:39
And in 2007 alone --
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ื•ื‘ืฉื ืช 2007 ืœื‘ื“ื” --
16:41
and I'm sure there are more recent figures --
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ืื ื™ ื‘ื˜ื•ื— ื›ื™ ื™ืฉื ื ื ืชื•ื ื™ื ืžืขื•ื“ื›ื ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ--
16:43
something on the order of 1.3 million pages
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ืžืฉื”ื• ื‘ืื™ื–ื•ืจ ื”- 1.3 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื“ืคื™ื
16:46
were translated into English alone.
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ืชื•ืจื’ืžื• ืœืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื‘ืœื‘ื“.
16:49
And so if language really is
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ื›ืš ืฉืื ืฉืคื” ื”ื™ื ื‘ืืžืช
16:52
the solution to the crisis of visual theft,
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ื”ืคืชืจื•ืŸ ืœื’ื ื™ื‘ื” ื—ื–ื•ืชื™ืช,
16:55
if language really is
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ืื ื”ืฉืคื” ื‘ืืžืช
16:57
the conduit of our cooperation,
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ืกื•ืœืœืช ืืช ื”ื“ืจืš ืœืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ื”ืคืขื•ืœื” ืฉืœื ื•,
16:59
the technology that our species derived
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ื”ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ืฉื”ืžื™ืŸ ืฉืœื ื• ื”ืžืฆื™ื
17:02
to promote the free flow and exchange of ideas,
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ื‘ื›ื“ื™ ืœืงื“ื ื–ืจื™ืžื” ื—ื•ืคืฉื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื—ืœืคืช ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช,
17:06
in our modern world,
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ื‘ืขื•ืœืžื ื• ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™,
17:08
we confront a question.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื ื™ืฆื‘ื™ื ืืœ ืžื•ืœ ืฉืืœื”.
17:10
And that question is whether
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ื•ื”ืฉืืœื” ื”ื™ื ื” ื”ืื
17:12
in this modern, globalized world
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ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™, ื”ื’ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ ื”ื–ื”
17:14
we can really afford to have all these different languages.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื‘ืืžืช ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืจืฉื•ืช ืœืขืฆืžื ื• ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืฉืคื•ืช ื”ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืœืœื•.
17:17
To put it this way, nature knows no other circumstance
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ื›ืœื•ืžืจ, ื”ื˜ื‘ืข ืœื ืžื›ื™ืจ ืฉื•ื ืžืฆื‘ ืื—ืจ
17:20
in which functionally equivalent traits coexist.
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ื‘ื• ืชื›ื•ื ื•ืช ืฉื•ื•ืช ืคื•ื ืงืฆื™ื•ื ืืœื™ืช ืžืชืงื™ื™ืžื•ืช ื‘ื•-ื–ืžื ื™ืช.
17:25
One of them always drives the other extinct.
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ืื—ืช ืžื”ืŸ ืชืžื™ื“ ืžื ื™ืขื” ืืช ื”ืื—ืจืช ืœื”ื›ื—ื“ื”.
17:28
And we see this in the inexorable march
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ื•ืื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ื–ืืช ื‘ืฆืขื“ื” ื”ืงืฉื”
17:30
towards standardization.
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ืืœ ืขื‘ืจ ื”ื”ืื—ื“ื”.
17:32
There are lots and lots of ways of measuring things --
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ื™ืฉื ืŸ ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืจื‘ื•ืช ืžืื•ื“ ืœืžื“ื•ื“ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื --
17:35
weighing them and measuring their length --
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ืœืฉืงื•ืœ ืื•ืชื ื•ืœืžื“ื•ื“ ืืช ืื•ืจื›ื --
17:37
but the metric system is winning.
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ืืš ื”ืฉื™ื˜ื” ื”ืžื˜ืจื™ืช ืžื ืฆื—ืช.
17:39
There are lots and lots of ways of measuring time,
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ื™ืฉื ืŸ ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืจื‘ื•ืช ืžืื•ื“ ืœืžื“ื•ื“ ืืช ื”ื–ืžืŸ,
17:42
but a really bizarre base 60 system
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ืืš ืฉื™ื˜ื” ืžื•ื–ืจื” ื”ืžื‘ื•ืกืกืช ืขืœ 60
17:45
known as hours and minutes and seconds
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ื”ื™ื“ื•ืขื” ื›ืฉืขื•ืช ื•ื“ืงื•ืช ื•ืฉื ื™ื•ืช
17:47
is nearly universal around the world.
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ื”ื™ื ื›ืžืขื˜ ื›ืœืœ ืขื•ืœืžื™ืช.
17:50
There are many, many ways
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ื™ืฉื ืŸ ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืจื‘ื•ืช
17:52
of imprinting CDs or DVDs,
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ืฉืœ ื”ื—ืชืžื” ืขืœ ื“ื™ืกืงื™ื ื•ืขืœ DVD,
17:54
but those are all being standardized as well.
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ืืš ื›ื•ืœืŸ ืขื•ื‘ืจื•ืช ื”ืื—ื“ื” ื’ื ื›ืŸ.
17:57
And you can probably think of many, many more
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ื•ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ื‘ื•ื•ื“ืื™ ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ืขื•ื“ ื“ื•ื’ืžืื•ืช
18:00
in your own everyday lives.
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ื‘ื—ื™ื™ ื”ื™ื•ื ื™ื•ื ืฉืœื›ื.
18:02
And so our modern world now
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ื•ื›ืš ืขื•ืœืžื ื• ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ ื›ืขืช
18:05
is confronting us with a dilemma.
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ืžืฆื™ื‘ ืื•ืชื ื• ืืœ ืžื•ืœ ื‘ืขื™ื”.
18:07
And it's the dilemma
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ื•ื–ื• ืื•ืชื” ื‘ืขื™ื”
18:09
that this Chinese man faces,
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ืฉืขื•ืžื“ืช ื‘ืคื ื™ ื”ืื™ืฉ ื”ืกื™ื ื™ ื”ื–ื”,
18:11
who's language is spoken
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ืืฉืจ ืฉืคืชื• ืžื“ื•ื‘ืจืช
18:13
by more people in the world
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ืขืœ-ื™ื“ื™ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืื ืฉื™ื ื‘ืขื•ืœื
18:15
than any other single language,
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ืžืืฉืจ ื›ืœ ืฉืคื” ืื—ืจืช,
18:18
and yet he is sitting at his blackboard,
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ื•ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ื•ื ื™ื•ืฉื‘ ืœื™ื“ ื”ืœื•ื— ืฉืœื•,
18:22
converting Chinese phrases
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ื•ืžืชืจื’ื ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ื™ื ืกื™ื ื™ื™ื
18:25
into English language phrases.
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ืœื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ืฉืคื” ื”ืื ื’ืœื™ืช
18:27
And what this does is it raises the possibility to us
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ื•ื–ื” ืžืขืœื” ื‘ืคื ื™ื ื• ืืช ื”ืืคืฉืจื•ืช
18:30
that in a world in which we want to promote
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ืฉื‘ืขื•ืœื ื‘ื• ืื ื• ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœืงื“ื
18:32
cooperation and exchange,
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ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ืคืขื•ืœื” ื•ื—ืœื™ืคื™ืŸ,
18:34
and in a world that might be dependent more than ever before
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ื•ื‘ืขื•ืœื ืฉื™ื™ืชื›ืŸ ื•ื”ื•ื ืชืœื•ื™ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืื™ ืคืขื
18:37
on cooperation
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ื‘ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ืคืขื•ืœื”
18:39
to maintain and enhance our levels of prosperity,
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ื‘ื›ื“ื™ ืœืฉืžืจ ื•ืœืงื“ื ืืช ืจืžื•ืช ื”ืฉื’ืฉื•ื’ ืฉืœื ื•,
18:42
his actions suggest to us
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ืžืขืฉื™ื• ืžืจืžื–ื™ื ืœื ื•
18:44
it might be inevitable
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ืฉื–ื” ืื•ืœื™ ื‘ืœืชื™ ื ืžื ืข
18:46
that we have to confront the idea
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ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ ืขื ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ
18:48
that our destiny is to be one world with one language.
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ืฉื’ื•ืจืœื ื• ื”ื•ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืขื•ืœื ืื—ื“ ืขื ืฉืคื” ืื—ืช.
18:51
Thank you.
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ืชื•ื“ื” ืจื‘ื”.
18:53
(Applause)
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
19:01
Matt Ridley: Mark, one question.
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ืžืื˜ ืจื™ื“ืœื™: ืžืืจืง, ืฉืืœื” ืื—ืช.
19:03
Svante found that the FOXP2 gene,
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ืกื•ื•ืื ื˜ื” ืžืฆื ื›ื™ ื”ื’ืŸ FOXP2,
19:06
which seems to be associated with language,
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ืฉื ืจืื” ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ืžืงื•ืฉืจ ืขื ื”ืฉืคื”,
19:08
was also shared in the same form
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ื”ื™ื” ื’ื ืฉื•ืชืฃ ื‘ืื•ืชื” ืฆื•ืจื”
19:10
in Neanderthals as us.
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ื‘ื ื™ืื ื“ืจื˜ืœื™ื ื›ืžื• ืืฆืœื ื•.
19:12
Do we have any idea
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ื”ืื ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืื™ื–ืฉื”ื• ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ
19:14
how we could have defeated Neanderthals
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ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื™ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืœื ืฆื— ืืช ื”ื ื™ืื ื“ืจื˜ืืœื™ื
19:16
if they also had language?
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ืื ื’ื ืœื”ื ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืฉืคื”?
19:18
Mark Pagel: This is a very good question.
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ืžืืจืง ืคืื’ืœ: ื–ื•ื”ื™ ืฉืืœื” ื˜ื•ื‘ื” ืžืื•ื“.
19:20
So many of you will be familiar with the idea that there's this gene called FOXP2
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ืื– ืจื‘ื™ื ืžื›ื ื™ื›ื™ืจื• ืืช ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื™ืฉื ื• ื’ืŸ ื”ื ืงืจื FOXP2
19:23
that seems to be implicated in some ways
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ืฉื ื“ืžื” ืฉื”ื•ื ืžืงื•ืฉืจ ื‘ื›ืžื” ื“ืจื›ื™ื
19:26
in the fine motor control that's associated with language.
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ื‘ืžื•ื˜ื•ืจื™ืงื” ื”ืขื“ื™ื ื” ื”ืžืงื•ืฉืจืช ืขื ื”ืฉืคื”.
19:29
The reason why I don't believe that tells us
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ื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ื‘ื’ืœืœื” ืื ื™ ืœื ืžืืžื™ืŸ ืฉื–ื” ืื•ืžืจ ืœื ื•
19:31
that the Neanderthals had language
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ืฉืœื ื™ืื ื“ืจื˜ืืœื™ื ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืฉืคื”
19:33
is -- here's a simple analogy:
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ื”ื™ื -- ื™ืฉื ื” ืื ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ืคืฉื•ื˜ื”:
19:36
Ferraris are cars that have engines.
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ืคืจืืจื™ ื”ืŸ ืžื›ื•ื ื™ื•ืช ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื”ืŸ ืžื ื•ืขื™ื.
19:39
My car has an engine,
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ืœืžื›ื•ื ื™ืช ืฉืœื™ ื™ืฉ ืžื ื•ืข,
19:41
but it's not a Ferrari.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื™ื ืื™ื ื” ืคืจืืจื™.
19:43
Now the simple answer then
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื”ืคืฉื•ื˜ื” ืœื–ื”
19:45
is that genes alone don't, all by themselves,
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ืชื”ื™ื” ืฉื’ื ื™ื ืœื‘ื“ ืœื, ืœื’ืžืจื™ ืœื‘ื“ื,
19:47
determine the outcome
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ืงื•ื‘ืขื™ื ืืช ื”ืชื•ืฆืื” ื”ืกื•ืคื™ืช
19:49
of very complicated things like language.
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ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ืžืกื•ื‘ืš ื›ืœ-ื›ืš ื›ืžื• ืฉืคื”.
19:51
What we know about this FOXP2 and Neanderthals
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ืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื’ืŸ ื”ื–ื” FOXP2 ื•ืขืœ ื”ื ื™ืื ื“ืจื˜ืืœื™ื
19:53
is that they may have had fine motor control of their mouths -- who knows.
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ื”ื•ื ืฉื™ื™ืชื›ืŸ ื•ื”ื™ื” ืœื”ื ืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ืžื•ื˜ื•ืจื™ืช ืขื“ื™ื ื” ืขืœ ื”ืคื” ืฉืœื”ื -- ืžื™ ื™ื•ื“ืข.
19:57
But that doesn't tell us they necessarily had language.
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ืืš ื–ื” ืœื ื‘ื”ื›ืจื— ืื•ืžืจ ืœื ื• ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืœื”ื ืฉืคื”.
19:59
MR: Thank you very much indeed.
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ืžืื˜ ืจื™ื“ืœื™: ื‘ืืžืช ืชื•ื“ื” ืจื‘ื” ืœืš.
20:01
(Applause)
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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