Mark Pagel: How language transformed humanity

262,057 views ・ 2011-08-03

TED


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Translator: Xosé María Moreno Reviewer: Juan Marcos Perez Gulin
00:15
Each of you possesses
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Cada un de nós posúe
00:17
the most powerful, dangerous and subversive trait
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o trazo máis poderoso, perigoso e subversivo
00:20
that natural selection has ever devised.
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deseñado pola selección natural.
00:23
It's a piece of neural audio technology
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É un peza de tecnoloxía audio-neuronal
00:26
for rewiring other people's minds.
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para conectármonos coas mentes doutras persoas.
00:28
I'm talking about your language, of course,
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Estou a falar da súa linguaxe, por suposto,
00:31
because it allows you to implant a thought from your mind
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porque permite implantar un pensamento desde as súas mentes
00:34
directly into someone else's mind,
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directamente na doutra persoa,
00:37
and they can attempt to do the same to you,
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e eles poden facer o mesmo a vostedes,
00:39
without either of you having to perform surgery.
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sen ninguén ter que practicar a cirurxía.
00:42
Instead, when you speak,
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Pola contra, cando vostedes falan,
00:44
you're actually using a form of telemetry
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empregan unha forma de telemetría
00:46
not so different
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non tan diferente
00:48
from the remote control device for your television.
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do mando a distancia da súa televisión.
00:50
It's just that, whereas that device
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Simplemente, mentres ese trebello
00:52
relies on pulses of infrared light,
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funciona en base a impulsos de luz infravermella,
00:54
your language relies on pulses,
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a súa linguaxe funciona en base a impulsos,
00:57
discrete pulses, of sound.
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impulsos individualizados, de son.
00:59
And just as you use the remote control device
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E así como usan o mando a distancia
01:02
to alter the internal settings of your television
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para alterar a configuración interna do seu televisor
01:04
to suit your mood,
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para a súa completa satisfacción,
01:06
you use your language
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vostedes usan a súa linguaxe
01:08
to alter the settings inside someone else's brain
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para alterar a configuración interna do cerebro doutra persoa
01:10
to suit your interests.
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para satisfacer os nosos intereses.
01:12
Languages are genes talking,
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As linguaxes son xenes que falan,
01:14
getting things that they want.
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para conseguir aquilo que desexan.
01:16
And just imagine the sense of wonder in a baby
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Imaxinen o senso de abraiarse que un meniño ten
01:19
when it first discovers that, merely by uttering a sound,
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cando por primeira vez descobre que ao emitir un son,
01:22
it can get objects to move across a room
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pode conseguir que obxectos se movan na habitación
01:24
as if by magic,
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como por arte de maxia,
01:26
and maybe even into its mouth.
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e quizais incluso dentro da súa boca.
01:29
Now language's subversive power
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O poder subversivo da linguaxe
01:31
has been recognized throughout the ages
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ten sido recoñecido ao longo da Historia
01:33
in censorship, in books you can't read,
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na censura, en libros que non podiamos ler,
01:35
phrases you can't use
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frases que non podiamos usar
01:37
and words you can't say.
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e palabras que non podiamos dicir.
01:39
In fact, the Tower of Babel story in the Bible
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De feito, a historia bíblica da Torre de Babel
01:42
is a fable and warning
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é unha fábula e un aviso
01:44
about the power of language.
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sobre o poder da linguaxe.
01:46
According to that story, early humans developed the conceit
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Segundo nos conta a lenda, os primeiros humanos pensaron
01:49
that, by using their language to work together,
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que se usaban a linguaxe para traballaren xuntos,
01:51
they could build a tower
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poderían construír unha torre
01:53
that would take them all the way to heaven.
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que os levaría até o ceo.
01:55
Now God, angered at this attempt to usurp his power,
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Deus, encabuxado ante este intento de usurpar o seu poder,
01:58
destroyed the tower,
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destruíu a torre,
02:01
and then to ensure
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e daquela para asegurarse
02:03
that it would never be rebuilt,
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de que nunca sería reconstruída,
02:05
he scattered the people by giving them different languages --
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dividiu a xente dándolles distintas linguaxes --
02:08
confused them by giving them different languages.
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e confundilos así dándolles diferentes linguas.
02:11
And this leads to the wonderful irony
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E isto non leva a unha ironía marabillosa:
02:13
that our languages exist to prevent us from communicating.
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as linguas existen para evitar que nos comuniquemos
02:16
Even today,
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Incluso hoxe,
02:18
we know that there are words we cannot use,
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sabemos que hai palabras que non podemos usar,
02:20
phrases we cannot say,
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frases que non podemos dicir,
02:22
because if we do so,
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porque se o facemos,
02:24
we might be accosted, jailed,
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poderiamos ser acosados, arrestados,
02:27
or even killed.
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ou incluso asasinados.
02:29
And all of this from a puff of air
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E todo isto a causa dun sopro de ar
02:31
emanating from our mouths.
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que sae das nosas bocas.
02:33
Now all this fuss about a single one of our traits
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Toda esta lea sobre un dos nosos trazos
02:36
tells us there's something worth explaining.
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din que paga a pena dar explicacións.
02:38
And that is how and why
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E iso é o como e o por que
02:40
did this remarkable trait evolve,
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esta importante trazo evoluíu,
02:42
and why did it evolve
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e por que evolúe
02:44
only in our species?
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só na nosa especie?
02:46
Now it's a little bit of a surprise
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É un pouco sorprendente
02:48
that to get an answer to that question,
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que para ter unha resposta a esta pregunta,
02:50
we have to go to tool use
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temos que estudar o uso de ferramentas
02:52
in the chimpanzees.
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nos chimancés.
02:54
Now these chimpanzees are using tools,
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Estes chimpacés están usando ferramentas,
02:56
and we take that as a sign of their intelligence.
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e tomamos iso como un signo de intelixencia.
02:59
But if they really were intelligent,
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Mais se eles fosen en verdade intelixentes,
03:01
why would they use a stick to extract termites from the ground
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porque usan un garabullo para extraer térmites do chan
03:04
rather than a shovel?
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e non unha pa?
03:06
And if they really were intelligent,
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E se fosen en verdade intelixentes,
03:09
why would they crack open nuts with a rock?
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por que escachan as noces cun croio?
03:11
Why wouldn't they just go to a shop and buy a bag of nuts
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Por que non van a unha tenda e mercan unha bolsa de noces
03:14
that somebody else had already cracked open for them?
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que previamente alguén llelas escachou?
03:17
Why not? I mean, that's what we do.
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Por que non? Iso é o que nós facemos.
03:19
Now the reason the chimpanzees don't do that
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A razón pola que os chimpacés non o fan
03:21
is that they lack what psychologists and anthropologists call
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é porque carecen do que os psicólogos e antropólogos chaman
03:24
social learning.
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aprendizaxe social.
03:26
They seem to lack the ability
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Seica carecen da capacidade
03:28
to learn from others
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de aprenderen dos outros
03:30
by copying or imitating
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copiando ou imitando
03:32
or simply watching.
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ou simplemente observando.
03:34
As a result,
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En consecuencia,
03:36
they can't improve on others' ideas
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non poden mellorar grazas ás ideas dos demais
03:38
or learn from others' mistakes --
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ou aprenderen dos erros dos outros --
03:40
benefit from others' wisdom.
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beneficiárense da sabedoría dos demais.
03:42
And so they just do the same thing
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Non fan máis que repetir o mesmo
03:44
over and over and over again.
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unha e outra vez.
03:46
In fact, we could go away for a million years and come back
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De feito, poderíamos ausentarnos durante un millón de anos e regresarmos
03:50
and these chimpanzees would be doing the same thing
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e estes chimpancés estarían facendo o mesmo
03:53
with the same sticks for the termites
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co mesmo garabullo para as térmites
03:55
and the same rocks to crack open the nuts.
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e o mesmo croio para escacharen as noces.
03:58
Now this may sound arrogant, or even full of hubris.
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Isto pode soar arrogante, ou incluso petulante.
04:01
How do we know this?
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Como sabemos todo isto?
04:03
Because this is exactly what our ancestors, the Homo erectus, did.
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porque isto é exactamento o que os nosos devanceiros, o Homo erectus, fixeron.
04:06
These upright apes
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Estes monos ergueitos
04:08
evolved on the African savanna
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evolucionaron na sabana africana
04:10
about two million years ago,
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hai aproximadamente dous millóns de anos,
04:12
and they made these splendid hand axes
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fixeron estas impresionantes machadas
04:14
that fit wonderfully into your hands.
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que se adaptan marabillosamente nas nosas mans.
04:16
But if we look at the fossil record,
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Mais se estudamos os restos fósiles,
04:18
we see that they made the same hand axe
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vemos que fixeron a mesma machada
04:21
over and over and over again
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unha e outra vez
04:23
for one million years.
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durante un millón de anos.
04:25
You can follow it through the fossil record.
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Podemos comprobalo a través dos restos fósiles.
04:27
Now if we make some guesses about how long Homo erectus lived,
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Se estimamos durante cantos anos viviu o Home erectus,
04:29
what their generation time was,
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cal foi o tempo da súa xeración,
04:31
that's about 40,000 generations
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pois unhas 40.000 xeracións
04:34
of parents to offspring, and other individuals watching,
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de pais a crianzas, mais outros individuos observando,
04:37
in which that hand axe didn't change.
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durante o que esta machada non foi alterou.
04:39
It's not even clear
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Nin siquera está claro
04:41
that our very close genetic relatives, the Neanderthals,
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se os nosos parentes xeneticamente próximos, os neardentais,
04:43
had social learning.
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tiveran aprendizaxe social.
04:45
Sure enough, their tools were more complicated
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Sen dúbida, as súas ferramentas eran máis complexas
04:48
than those of Homo erectus,
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ca as dos Homo erectus,
04:50
but they too showed very little change
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mais non se aprecian moitos cambios
04:52
over the 300,000 years or so
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durante os 300.000 anos ou así
04:55
that those species, the Neanderthals,
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que a especie dos Neandertais,
04:57
lived in Eurasia.
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viviron en Eurasia.
04:59
Okay, so what this tells us
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Daquela, o que isto nos di
05:01
is that, contrary to the old adage,
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é que, ao contrario do vello adaxio,
05:04
"monkey see, monkey do,"
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"o que o mono ve, o mono fai",
05:07
the surprise really is
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a sorpresa está
05:09
that all of the other animals
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en que todos os demais animais
05:11
really cannot do that -- at least not very much.
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non poden facer o mesmo -- candomenos non moito.
05:14
And even this picture
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E incluso esta foto
05:16
has the suspicious taint of being rigged about it --
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podemos sospeitar que foi manipulada --
05:19
something from a Barnum & Bailey circus.
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algún asuntiño do circo Barnum & Bailey.
05:21
But by comparison,
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Mais en comparación,
05:23
we can learn.
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nosoutros podemos aprender.
05:25
We can learn by watching other people
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Podemos aprender observando os outros
05:28
and copying or imitating
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e copiando ou remedando
05:30
what they can do.
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o que poden facer.
05:32
We can then choose, from among a range of options,
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Podemos daquela escoller, entre un abano de opcións,
05:35
the best one.
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a mellor.
05:37
We can benefit from others' ideas.
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Podemos beneficiarnos das ideas dos outros.
05:39
We can build on their wisdom.
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Podemos construír a nosa propia sabedoría.
05:41
And as a result, our ideas do accumulate,
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E como resultado, acumulamos as nosas ideas,
05:44
and our technology progresses.
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e a nosa tecnoloxía progresa.
05:48
And this cumulative cultural adaptation,
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E esta adaptación cultural acumulativa,
05:53
as anthropologists call
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así é como o chaman os antropólogos
05:55
this accumulation of ideas,
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esta acumulación de ideas,
05:57
is responsible for everything around you
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é reponsabel de todo o que nos rodea
05:59
in your bustling and teeming everyday lives.
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na nosa axetreada vida cotiá
06:01
I mean the world has changed out of all proportion
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O mundo cambiou enormemente
06:03
to what we would recognize
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con aquel que recoñeceriamos
06:05
even 1,000 or 2,000 years ago.
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incluso hai 1000 ou 2000 anos.
06:08
And all of this because of cumulative cultural adaptation.
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E todo isto debémosllo á adaptacion cultural acumulativa.
06:11
The chairs you're sitting in, the lights in this auditorium,
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As cadeiras sobre as que están sentados, as luces neste auditorio
06:13
my microphone, the iPads and iPods that you carry around with you --
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o meu micrófono, os iPads e iPods que portades --
06:16
all are a result
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todos son resultado
06:18
of cumulative cultural adaptation.
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da adaptación cultural acumulativa.
06:20
Now to many commentators,
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Agora para moitos comentaristas,
06:24
cumulative cultural adaptation, or social learning,
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a adaptación cultural acumulativa, ou aprendizaxe social,
06:27
is job done, end of story.
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está xa o traballo feito, fin da historia.
06:30
Our species can make stuff,
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A nosa especie pode facer cousas,
06:33
therefore we prospered in a way that no other species has.
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daquela prosperamos nun xeito que outras especies non poden.
06:36
In fact, we can even make the "stuff of life" --
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De feito, incluso podemos facer a "materia da vida" --
06:39
as I just said, all the stuff around us.
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como xa dixen, todo o que nos rodea.
06:41
But in fact, it turns out
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Pero en realidade, resulta
06:43
that some time around 200,000 years ago,
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que hai arredor de 200.000 anos
06:46
when our species first arose
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cando apareceu a nosa especie
06:48
and acquired social learning,
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e adquiriu a aprendizaxe social,
06:50
that this was really the beginning of our story,
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así foi realmente o principio da nosa historia,
06:52
not the end of our story.
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non o final da nosa historia.
06:54
Because our acquisition of social learning
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Porque a nosa adquisición da aprendizaxe social
06:57
would create a social and evolutionary dilemma,
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crearía un dilema social e evolutivo,
07:00
the resolution of which, it's fair to say,
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a súa resolución, é xusto dicilo,
07:03
would determine not only the future course of our psychology,
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determinaría non só o curso futuro da nosa psicoloxía,
07:07
but the future course of the entire world.
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senón o curso futuro do mundo enteiro.
07:09
And most importantly for this,
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E máis importante que todo isto,
07:12
it'll tell us why we have language.
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diríanos por que temos linguaxe.
07:15
And the reason that dilemma arose
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e a razón que este dilema provoca
07:17
is, it turns out, that social learning is visual theft.
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é que a aprendizaxe social é un roubo visual.
07:20
If I can learn by watching you,
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Se eu podo aprender observándote,
07:23
I can steal your best ideas,
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podo roubar as túas mellores ideas,
07:25
and I can benefit from your efforts,
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e podo beneficiarme dos teus esforzos,
07:28
without having to put in the time and energy that you did
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sen ter que poñer a tempo e enerxía que ti puxeches
07:30
into developing them.
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para desenvolvelas.
07:32
If I can watch which lure you use to catch a fish,
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Se podo observar que isca usas para pescar,
07:35
or I can watch how you flake your hand axe
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ou podo observar como fas lascas coa túa machada
07:37
to make it better,
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para perfeccionala,
07:39
or if I follow you secretly to your mushroom patch,
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ou se secretamente te sigo até o teu roteiro de cogomelos
07:42
I can benefit from your knowledge and wisdom and skills,
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podo beneficiarme do teu coñecemento, sabedoría e habilidades
07:45
and maybe even catch that fish
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e incluso pescar ese peixe
07:47
before you do.
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antes ca ti.
07:49
Social learning really is visual theft.
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A aprendizaxe social en realidade é un roubo visual.
07:52
And in any species that acquired it,
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E en calquera especie que a adquirise,
07:54
it would behoove you
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sería moi oportuno
07:56
to hide your best ideas,
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ocultar as túas mellores ideas,
07:58
lest somebody steal them from you.
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para que ninguén poida roubarchas.
08:02
And so some time around 200,000 years ago,
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Hai arredor de 200.000 anos,
08:05
our species confronted this crisis.
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a nosa especie afrontou esta crise.
08:08
And we really had only two options
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E tivemos só dúas opcións
08:11
for dealing with the conflicts
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para lidar cos conflitos
08:13
that visual theft would bring.
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que o roubo visual podería causarnos.
08:15
One of those options
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Unha desas opcións
08:17
was that we could have retreated
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foi que tiñamos que vivir
08:20
into small family groups.
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en pequenos grupos familiares.
08:22
Because then the benefits of our ideas and knowledge
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Porque así os beneficios das nosas ideas e coñecemento
08:25
would flow just to our relatives.
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só sería transmitido aos nosos parentes.
08:27
Had we chosen this option,
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Se escollésemos esta opción,
08:29
sometime around 200,000 years ago,
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hai aproximadamente uns 200,000 anos,
08:32
we would probably still be living like the Neanderthals were
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probabelmente estariamos vivindo como os Neandertais
08:35
when we first entered Europe 40,000 years ago.
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cando por primeira vez entramos en Europa hai 40.000 anos.
08:38
And this is because in small groups
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Porque en grupos pequenos
08:40
there are fewer ideas, there are fewer innovations.
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hai menos ideas, hai menos innovacións.
08:43
And small groups are more prone to accidents and bad luck.
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E os grupos pequenos son máis propensos a accidentes e mala sorte.
08:46
So if we'd chosen that path,
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Daquela se escollésemos ese camiño,
08:48
our evolutionary path would have led into the forest --
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a nosa liña evolutiva nos levaría ao bosque --
08:51
and been a short one indeed.
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e sen dúbida sería moi curta.
08:53
The other option we could choose
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A outra opción a escoller
08:55
was to develop the systems of communication
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foi desenvolvermos uns sistemas de comunicación
08:58
that would allow us to share ideas
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que nos permitiría compartir ideas
09:00
and to cooperate amongst others.
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e cooperar con outros.
09:03
Choosing this option would mean
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Escollermos esta opcións significaría
09:05
that a vastly greater fund of accumulated knowledge and wisdom
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que unha inxente bolsa de coñecemento e sabedoría acumulada
09:08
would become available to any one individual
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estaría ao dispor de calquera individuo
09:11
than would ever arise from within an individual family
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en comparación co que xurdiría desde dentro dunha pequena familia
09:14
or an individual person on their own.
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ou un individuo en particular.
09:18
Well, we chose the second option,
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Pois ben, escollimos esta segunda opción,
09:21
and language is the result.
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e o resultado é a linguaxe.
09:24
Language evolved to solve the crisis
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A linguaxe desenvolveuse para solucionar a crise
09:26
of visual theft.
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do roubo visual.
09:28
Language is a piece of social technology
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A linguaxe é unha peza de tecnoloxía social
09:31
for enhancing the benefits of cooperation --
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para mellorar os beneficios da cooperación --
09:34
for reaching agreements, for striking deals
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para acadar acordos, para pechar negocios
09:37
and for coordinating our activities.
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e para coordinar as nosas actividades.
09:41
And you can see that, in a developing society
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Podedes ver que, nunha sociedade en desenvolvemento
09:43
that was beginning to acquire language,
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que estaba empezando a adquirir a linguxe,
09:45
not having language
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non ter linguaxe
09:47
would be a like a bird without wings.
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sería como un paxaro sen as.
09:49
Just as wings open up this sphere of air
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Como as as que abren esta esfera de ar
09:52
for birds to exploit,
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para que os paxaros o utilicen,
09:54
language opened up the sphere of cooperation
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a linguaxe abre a esfera da comunicación
09:56
for humans to exploit.
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para que os humanos a utilicen.
09:58
And we take this utterly for granted,
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E tomamos isto como algo xa dado,
10:00
because we're a species that is so at home with language,
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porque somos unha especie que se sente como na casa coa linguxe
10:03
but you have to realize
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mais teñen vostedes que decatarse de
10:05
that even the simplest acts of exchange that we engage in
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que incluso os máis cativos actos de intercambio en que intervimos
10:08
are utterly dependent upon language.
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son completamente dependentes da linguaxe.
10:11
And to see why, consider two scenarios
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E para vermos o por que, consideren estes dous escenarios
10:13
from early in our evolution.
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desde os inicios da nosa evolución.
10:15
Let's imagine that you are really good
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Imaxinen que son vostedes moi bos
10:17
at making arrowheads,
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facendo puntas de frecha,
10:19
but you're hopeless at making the wooden shafts
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mais son incapaces de facer o corpo de madeira
10:22
with the flight feathers attached.
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coas prumas incluídas.
10:25
Two other people you know are very good at making the wooden shafts,
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Coñecen dúas persoas moi boas facendo a frecha de madeira,
10:28
but they're hopeless at making the arrowheads.
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mais son negados ao faceren as puntas.
10:31
So what you do is --
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O que hai que facer é --
10:33
one of those people has not really acquired language yet.
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unha desas persoas non ten adquirida aínda a linguaxe.
10:36
And let's pretend the other one is good at language skills.
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E poñamos que a outra é boa coas habilidades lingüísticas.
10:38
So what you do one day is you take a pile of arrowheads,
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Así que o que facemos un día é coller un feixe de puntas de frecha,
10:41
and you walk up to the one that can't speak very well,
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e camiñarmos até aquel que non sabe falar moi ben,
10:43
and you put the arrowheads down in front of him,
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e poñemos as puntas diante del,
10:45
hoping that he'll get the idea that you want to trade your arrowheads
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desexando que se figure que queremos trocar as puntas de frecha
10:48
for finished arrows.
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polos corpos de madeira das frechas.
10:50
But he looks at the pile of arrowheads, thinks they're a gift,
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Mais el olla para o feixe de puntas, pensa que son un agasallo,
10:52
picks them up, smiles and walks off.
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recólleas, sorrí e marcha.
10:55
Now you pursue this guy, gesticulating.
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Agora vostedes perseguen a este fulano, xesticulando.
10:57
A scuffle ensues and you get stabbed
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Hai unha disputa e vostede é ferido
10:59
with one of your own arrowheads.
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cunha das súas puntas de frecha.
11:02
Okay, now replay this scene now, and you're approaching the one who has language.
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Moi ben, rebobinemos a escena, e agora dirímonos a persoa capaz de falar.
11:05
You put down your arrowheads and say,
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Pousamos as puntas e dicimos,
11:07
"I'd like to trade these arrowheads for finished arrows. I'll split you 50/50."
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"Gustaríame trocar estas puntas polo corpo de madeira rematados. Imos ao 50%."
11:10
The other one says, "Fine. Looks good to me.
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O outro di, "De acordo. Paréceme ben.
11:12
We'll do that."
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Fagámolo."
11:15
Now the job is done.
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E o choio está feito.
11:18
Once we have language,
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Unha vez que temos a linguaxe,
11:20
we can put our ideas together and cooperate
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podemos compartir as nosas ideas e cooperar
11:22
to have a prosperity
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para ter a prosperidade
11:24
that we couldn't have before we acquired it.
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que non podiamos ter antes de saber falar.
11:27
And this is why our species
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Isto explica por que a nosa especie
11:29
has prospered around the world
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ten prosperado ao longo do mundo
11:31
while the rest of the animals
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mentres o resto dos animais
11:33
sit behind bars in zoos, languishing.
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están detrás dos barrotes dun zoo, esmorecendo.
11:36
That's why we build space shuttles and cathedrals
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É a razón de que construamos lanzadeiras espaciais e catedrais
11:39
while the rest of the world sticks sticks into the ground
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mentres o resto do mundo fica chantado no chan
11:41
to extract termites.
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para extraer térmites.
11:43
All right, if this view of language
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De acordo, se esta visión da linguaxe
11:46
and its value
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e o seu valor
11:48
in solving the crisis of visual theft is true,
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para resolver a crise do roubo visual é certa,
11:51
any species that acquires it
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calquera especie que a adquira
11:53
should show an explosion of creativity and prosperity.
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debería amosar unha explosión de creatividade e prosperidade.
11:56
And this is exactly what the archeological record shows.
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E isto é exactamente o que proba o estudo arqueolóxico.
11:59
If you look at our ancestors,
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Se observan os nosos devanceiros,
12:01
the Neanderthals and the Homo erectus, our immediate ancestors,
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os Neandertais e os Homo erectus, os nosos devanceiros máis próximos,
12:04
they're confined to small regions of the world.
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Eles ficaron confinados a pequenas rexións do mundo.
12:07
But when our species arose
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Mais cando a nosa especie aparece
12:09
about 200,000 years ago,
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hai uns 200.000 anos,
12:11
sometime after that we quickly walked out of Africa
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algo máis tarde de que rapidamente abandonásemos África
12:14
and spread around the entire world,
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e nos espallásemos polo mundo enteiro,
12:17
occupying nearly every habitat on Earth.
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ocupando case todos os hábitats do mundo.
12:20
Now whereas other species are confined
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Agora en calquera lugar en que outras especies estivesen confinadas
12:23
to places that their genes adapt them to,
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en lugares para os que os seus xenes estives adaptados,
12:26
with social learning and language,
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coa aprendizaxe social e a linguaxe,
12:28
we could transform the environment
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poderiamos transformar o noso entorno
12:30
to suit our needs.
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para satisfacer as nosas necesidades.
12:32
And so we prospered in a way
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E así prosperamos dun xeito
12:34
that no other animal has.
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único entre os animais.
12:36
Language really is
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A linguaxe é realmente
12:39
the most potent trait that has ever evolved.
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o trazo máis potente de toda a Evolución..
12:42
It is the most valuable trait we have
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É o trazo máis valioso que temos
12:45
for converting new lands and resources
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para convertir novos territorios e recursos
12:48
into more people and their genes
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en máis xente e os seus xenes
12:51
that natural selection has ever devised.
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desde que a Evolución está operativa.
12:53
Language really is
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A linguaxe é realmente
12:55
the voice of our genes.
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a voz dos nosos xenes.
12:57
Now having evolved language, though,
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Agora unha vez evolucionada a linguaxe, daquela,
12:59
we did something peculiar,
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fixemos algo peculiar,
13:01
even bizarre.
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incluso raro.
13:03
As we spread out around the world,
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Durante o noso espallamente polo mundo,
13:05
we developed thousands of different languages.
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desenvolvemos milleiros de diferentes linguas.
13:08
Currently, there are about seven or 8,000
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Seica hai entre sete e 8000
13:10
different languages spoken on Earth.
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linguas diferentes faladas na Terra.
13:13
Now you might say, well, this is just natural.
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Vostedes dirán, pois ben, isto é algo natural.
13:15
As we diverge, our languages are naturally going to diverge.
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Ao tempo que nós diverxemos, as nosas linguas naturalmente tamén diverxirán.
13:18
But the real puzzle and irony
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Máis o realmente complicado e irónico
13:20
is that the greatest density of different languages on Earth
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é que a densidade máis grande de diferentes linguas na Terra
13:23
is found where people are most tightly packed together.
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atópase onde a xente está máis xunta.
13:27
If we go to the island of Papua New Guinea,
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Se imos á illa de Papua Nova Guinea,
13:29
we can find about 800 to 1,000
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Podemos atopar entre 800 e 1000
13:32
distinct human languages,
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linguas distintas,
13:34
different human languages,
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linguas humanas diferentes,
13:36
spoken on that island alone.
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faladas só nesa illa.
13:38
There are places on that island
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Hai lugares nesa illa
13:40
where you can encounter a new language
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onde podemos descubrir unha nova lingua
13:42
every two or three miles.
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cada 3 ou 4,5 Km.
13:44
Now, incredible as this sounds,
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Claro, por incríbel que pareza,
13:46
I once met a Papuan man, and I asked him if this could possibly be true.
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coñecín unha vez a un Papuano e pregunteille se isto podía ser certo.
13:49
And he said to me, "Oh no.
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Díxome, "Non oh.
13:51
They're far closer together than that."
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Están moito máis preto ca iso."
13:54
And it's true; there are places on that island
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E é verdade; hai lugares na illa
13:56
where you can encounter a new language in under a mile.
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onde podemos topar cunha nova lingua sen saír dun 1,5 km.
13:59
And this is also true of some remote oceanic islands.
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E isto tamén sucede nalgunhas remotas illas oceánicas.
14:03
And so it seems that we use our language,
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Daquela parece que usamos a nosa linguaxe,
14:05
not just to cooperate,
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non só para cooperar,
14:07
but to draw rings around our cooperative groups
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senón para trazar aneis arredor dos nosos grupos coorporativos
14:10
and to establish identities,
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e para establecer identidades,
14:12
and perhaps to protect our knowledge and wisdom and skills
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e se cadra para protexer o noso coñecemento, sabedoría e habilidades
14:15
from eavesdropping from outside.
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da curiosidade dos estraños.
14:18
And we know this
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Sabemos todo isto
14:20
because when we study different language groups
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porque cando estudamos diferentes grupos de linguas
14:22
and associate them with their cultures,
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e asociámolas coas súas culturas,
14:24
we see that different languages
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vemos que linguas diferentes
14:26
slow the flow of ideas between groups.
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frean a transmisión de ideas entre os grupos.
14:29
They slow the flow of technologies.
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Frean a transmisión de tecnoloxías.
14:32
And they even slow the flow of genes.
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E incluso frean a transmisión de xenes.
14:35
Now I can't speak for you,
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Non podo falar por vostedes,
14:37
but it seems to be the case
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mais parece ser o caso
14:39
that we don't have sex with people we can't talk to.
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de que non temos sexo con xente coa que non podemos falar.
14:43
(Laughter)
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(Risas)
14:45
Now we have to counter that, though,
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Debemos telo en conta, pois,
14:47
against the evidence we've heard
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en contra da evidencia que ouvimos
14:49
that we might have had some rather distasteful genetic dalliances
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sobre que puidemos ter algunhas desagradábeis alianzas xenéticas
14:52
with the Neanderthals and the Denisovans.
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cos Neardentais e os homínidos de Denisova.
14:54
(Laughter)
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(Risos)
14:56
Okay, this tendency we have,
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Ben, esta tendencia que temos,
14:58
this seemingly natural tendency we have,
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esta aparente tendencia natural que temos,
15:00
towards isolation, towards keeping to ourselves,
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cara ao illamento, cara mirar para nosoutros,
15:03
crashes head first into our modern world.
364
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esnáfrase contra o noso mundo moderno.
15:06
This remarkable image
365
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Esta salientábel imaxe
15:08
is not a map of the world.
366
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non é un mapa do mundo.
15:10
In fact, it's a map of Facebook friendship links.
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De feito, é o mapa de ligazóns de amizade en Facebook.
15:14
And when you plot those friendship links
368
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E cando localizamos esas ligazóns de amizade
15:16
by their latitude and longitude,
369
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na súa latitude e lonxitude,
15:18
it literally draws a map of the world.
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vese con exactitude o mapa do mundo.
15:21
Our modern world is communicating
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O noso mundo moderno é comunicación
15:23
with itself and with each other
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consigo mesmo e entre todos
15:25
more than it has
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mais do que o fixo
15:27
at any time in its past.
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en calquera momento do seu pasado.
15:29
And that communication, that connectivity around the world,
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E esa comunicación, esa conectividade arredor do mundo,
15:32
that globalization
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esa globalización
15:34
now raises a burden.
377
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agora ten unha pexa.
15:37
Because these different languages
378
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Porque esas diferentes linguas
15:39
impose a barrier, as we've just seen,
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impoñen unha barreira, como acabamos de ver,
15:41
to the transfer of goods and ideas
380
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para transferir bens e ideas
15:43
and technologies and wisdom.
381
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e tecnoloxías e sabedoría.
15:45
And they impose a barrier to cooperation.
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E impoñen unha barreira á cooperación.
15:48
And nowhere do we see that more clearly
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E en ningures o vemos tan claro como
15:51
than in the European Union,
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na Unión Europea,
15:53
whose 27 member countries
385
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cuxos 27 membros
15:56
speak 23 official languages.
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falan 23 linguas oficiais.
15:59
The European Union
387
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A Unión Europea
16:01
is now spending over one billion euros annually
388
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agora gasta uns 1000 millóns de euros ao ano
16:05
translating among their 23 official languages.
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para a tradución entre as súas 23 linguas oficiais.
16:08
That's something on the order
390
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2000
Iso supón arredor
16:10
of 1.45 billion U.S. dollars
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de 1.450 millóns de dólares
16:12
on translation costs alone.
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só en gasto de tradución.
16:15
Now think of the absurdity of this situation.
393
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Pensen no absurdo da situación.
16:17
If 27 individuals
394
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Se 27 individuos
16:19
from those 27 member states
395
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de cada un dos 27 estados membros
16:21
sat around table, speaking their 23 languages,
396
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sentan arredor dunha mesa a falar nas súas 23 linguas,
16:24
some very simple mathematics will tell you
397
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unha matemática moi simpre nos dirá
16:26
that you need an army of 253 translators
398
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que necesitan vostedes un exército de 253 tradutores
16:30
to anticipate all the pairwise possibilities.
399
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4000
para cubrir todas as posibilidades de emparellamento.
16:34
The European Union employs a permanent staff
400
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3000
A Unión Europea emprega unha plantilla permanente
16:37
of about 2,500 translators.
401
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de aproximadamente 2500 tradutores
16:39
And in 2007 alone --
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E só en 2007 --
16:41
and I'm sure there are more recent figures --
403
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e estou seguro de que hai cifras máis actualizadas --
16:43
something on the order of 1.3 million pages
404
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arredor de 1,3 millóns de páxinas
16:46
were translated into English alone.
405
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foron traducidas en concreto ao inglés.
16:49
And so if language really is
406
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Se unha lingua realmente é
16:52
the solution to the crisis of visual theft,
407
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a solución á crise do roubo visual,
16:55
if language really is
408
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se a lingua é realmente
16:57
the conduit of our cooperation,
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o medio para a nosa cooperación,
16:59
the technology that our species derived
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a tecnoloxía que a nosa especie creou
17:02
to promote the free flow and exchange of ideas,
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para incentivar a libre transferencia e troca de ideas,
17:06
in our modern world,
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no mundo moderno,
17:08
we confront a question.
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debemos afrontar unha pregunta.
17:10
And that question is whether
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A pregunta é se
17:12
in this modern, globalized world
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neste moderno, globalizado mundo
17:14
we can really afford to have all these different languages.
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podemos asumir ter todas estas linguas diferentes.
17:17
To put it this way, nature knows no other circumstance
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A natureza non coñece outra situación
17:20
in which functionally equivalent traits coexist.
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en que trazos funcionalmente equivalentes coexistan.
17:25
One of them always drives the other extinct.
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Un deles sempre provoca a extinción do outro.
17:28
And we see this in the inexorable march
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Vémolo na inexorábel marcha
17:30
towards standardization.
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cara a estandarización.
17:32
There are lots and lots of ways of measuring things --
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Hai montes e moreas de xeitos para medir as cousas --
17:35
weighing them and measuring their length --
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pesando e medindo a súa lonxitude --
17:37
but the metric system is winning.
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máis o vencedor é o sistema métrico.
17:39
There are lots and lots of ways of measuring time,
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Hai moitas maneiras de medir o tempo,
17:42
but a really bizarre base 60 system
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máis o estrañísimo sistema de base 60
17:45
known as hours and minutes and seconds
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que mide as horas, minutos e segundos
17:47
is nearly universal around the world.
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é case universal en todo o mundo.
17:50
There are many, many ways
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Hai moitos, moitos xeitos
17:52
of imprinting CDs or DVDs,
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de imprimir CDs ou DVDs,
17:54
but those are all being standardized as well.
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mais todos estas xa estandarizados.
17:57
And you can probably think of many, many more
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Probablemente podemos pensar en moitos, moitos máis
18:00
in your own everyday lives.
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na nosa vida cotiá.
18:02
And so our modern world now
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O noso moderno mundo agora
18:05
is confronting us with a dilemma.
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colócanos antre un dilema.
18:07
And it's the dilemma
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O dilema é
18:09
that this Chinese man faces,
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o mesmo que este chinés ten que afrontar ,
18:11
who's language is spoken
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a súa é a lingua máis falada
18:13
by more people in the world
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en todo o mundo
18:15
than any other single language,
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máis que calquera outra,
18:18
and yet he is sitting at his blackboard,
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mais el está sentado ante o seu encerado,
18:22
converting Chinese phrases
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convertindo frases chinesas
18:25
into English language phrases.
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en inglesas.
18:27
And what this does is it raises the possibility to us
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O que isto fai é que nos ofrece a posibilidade
18:30
that in a world in which we want to promote
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de que nun mundo en que queremos incentivar
18:32
cooperation and exchange,
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a cooperación e o intercambio,
18:34
and in a world that might be dependent more than ever before
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e nun mundo que é máis dependente agora ca nunca
18:37
on cooperation
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na cooperación
18:39
to maintain and enhance our levels of prosperity,
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para manter e mellorar os nosos niveis de prosperidade,
18:42
his actions suggest to us
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as súas accións suxírennos
18:44
it might be inevitable
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que podería ser inevitábel
18:46
that we have to confront the idea
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que teñamos a asumir a idea
18:48
that our destiny is to be one world with one language.
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de que o noso destino é ser un único mundo cunha única lingua.
18:51
Thank you.
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Grazas.
18:53
(Applause)
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(Aplausos)
19:01
Matt Ridley: Mark, one question.
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Matt Ridley: Mark, unha pregunta.
19:03
Svante found that the FOXP2 gene,
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Svante descubriu que o xene FOXP2
19:06
which seems to be associated with language,
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ao parecer asociado coa linguaxe,
19:08
was also shared in the same form
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é compartido dalgún xeito
19:10
in Neanderthals as us.
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entre os Neanderthais e nós.
19:12
Do we have any idea
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Tes algunha idea
19:14
how we could have defeated Neanderthals
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en como puidemos vencer os Neandertais
19:16
if they also had language?
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se eles tamén tiñan linguaxe?
19:18
Mark Pagel: This is a very good question.
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Mark Pagel: Esta é unha moi boa pregunta.
19:20
So many of you will be familiar with the idea that there's this gene called FOXP2
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Moitos estades familiarizados coa idea de que hai un xene chamado FOXP2
19:23
that seems to be implicated in some ways
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que parece implicado dalgún xeito
19:26
in the fine motor control that's associated with language.
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no control motor asociado coa linguaxe.
19:29
The reason why I don't believe that tells us
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A razón porque eu non creo en que nos indique
19:31
that the Neanderthals had language
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que os Neardentais tiñan linguaxe
19:33
is -- here's a simple analogy:
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é --permítanme unha simple analoxía:
19:36
Ferraris are cars that have engines.
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Ferraris son coches que teñen motores.
19:39
My car has an engine,
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O meu coche ten un motor,
19:41
but it's not a Ferrari.
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mais non é un Ferrari.
19:43
Now the simple answer then
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Agora a resposta simple é
19:45
is that genes alone don't, all by themselves,
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que os xenes por si sós non
19:47
determine the outcome
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determinan un resultado final
19:49
of very complicated things like language.
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tan complicado coma a linguaxe.
19:51
What we know about this FOXP2 and Neanderthals
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O que sabemos sobre o FOXP2 e os Neandertais
19:53
is that they may have had fine motor control of their mouths -- who knows.
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é que puideron ter o control motor das súas bocas --quen sabe.
19:57
But that doesn't tell us they necessarily had language.
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Mais iso non nos di que necesariamente tiñan linguaxe.
19:59
MR: Thank you very much indeed.
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MR: Moitas grazas de verdade.
20:01
(Applause)
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(Aplausos)
About this website

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