Mark Pagel: How language transformed humanity

262,539 views ・ 2011-08-03

TED


Fai dobre clic nos subtítulos en inglés a continuación para reproducir o vídeo.

Translator: Xosé María Moreno Reviewer: Juan Marcos Perez Gulin
00:15
Each of you possesses
0
15260
2000
Cada un de nós posúe
00:17
the most powerful, dangerous and subversive trait
1
17260
3000
o trazo máis poderoso, perigoso e subversivo
00:20
that natural selection has ever devised.
2
20260
3000
deseñado pola selección natural.
00:23
It's a piece of neural audio technology
3
23260
3000
É un peza de tecnoloxía audio-neuronal
00:26
for rewiring other people's minds.
4
26260
2000
para conectármonos coas mentes doutras persoas.
00:28
I'm talking about your language, of course,
5
28260
3000
Estou a falar da súa linguaxe, por suposto,
00:31
because it allows you to implant a thought from your mind
6
31260
3000
porque permite implantar un pensamento desde as súas mentes
00:34
directly into someone else's mind,
7
34260
3000
directamente na doutra persoa,
00:37
and they can attempt to do the same to you,
8
37260
2000
e eles poden facer o mesmo a vostedes,
00:39
without either of you having to perform surgery.
9
39260
3000
sen ninguén ter que practicar a cirurxía.
00:42
Instead, when you speak,
10
42260
2000
Pola contra, cando vostedes falan,
00:44
you're actually using a form of telemetry
11
44260
2000
empregan unha forma de telemetría
00:46
not so different
12
46260
2000
non tan diferente
00:48
from the remote control device for your television.
13
48260
2000
do mando a distancia da súa televisión.
00:50
It's just that, whereas that device
14
50260
2000
Simplemente, mentres ese trebello
00:52
relies on pulses of infrared light,
15
52260
2000
funciona en base a impulsos de luz infravermella,
00:54
your language relies on pulses,
16
54260
3000
a súa linguaxe funciona en base a impulsos,
00:57
discrete pulses, of sound.
17
57260
2000
impulsos individualizados, de son.
00:59
And just as you use the remote control device
18
59260
3000
E así como usan o mando a distancia
01:02
to alter the internal settings of your television
19
62260
2000
para alterar a configuración interna do seu televisor
01:04
to suit your mood,
20
64260
2000
para a súa completa satisfacción,
01:06
you use your language
21
66260
2000
vostedes usan a súa linguaxe
01:08
to alter the settings inside someone else's brain
22
68260
2000
para alterar a configuración interna do cerebro doutra persoa
01:10
to suit your interests.
23
70260
2000
para satisfacer os nosos intereses.
01:12
Languages are genes talking,
24
72260
2000
As linguaxes son xenes que falan,
01:14
getting things that they want.
25
74260
2000
para conseguir aquilo que desexan.
01:16
And just imagine the sense of wonder in a baby
26
76260
3000
Imaxinen o senso de abraiarse que un meniño ten
01:19
when it first discovers that, merely by uttering a sound,
27
79260
3000
cando por primeira vez descobre que ao emitir un son,
01:22
it can get objects to move across a room
28
82260
2000
pode conseguir que obxectos se movan na habitación
01:24
as if by magic,
29
84260
2000
como por arte de maxia,
01:26
and maybe even into its mouth.
30
86260
3000
e quizais incluso dentro da súa boca.
01:29
Now language's subversive power
31
89260
2000
O poder subversivo da linguaxe
01:31
has been recognized throughout the ages
32
91260
2000
ten sido recoñecido ao longo da Historia
01:33
in censorship, in books you can't read,
33
93260
2000
na censura, en libros que non podiamos ler,
01:35
phrases you can't use
34
95260
2000
frases que non podiamos usar
01:37
and words you can't say.
35
97260
2000
e palabras que non podiamos dicir.
01:39
In fact, the Tower of Babel story in the Bible
36
99260
3000
De feito, a historia bíblica da Torre de Babel
01:42
is a fable and warning
37
102260
2000
é unha fábula e un aviso
01:44
about the power of language.
38
104260
2000
sobre o poder da linguaxe.
01:46
According to that story, early humans developed the conceit
39
106260
3000
Segundo nos conta a lenda, os primeiros humanos pensaron
01:49
that, by using their language to work together,
40
109260
2000
que se usaban a linguaxe para traballaren xuntos,
01:51
they could build a tower
41
111260
2000
poderían construír unha torre
01:53
that would take them all the way to heaven.
42
113260
2000
que os levaría até o ceo.
01:55
Now God, angered at this attempt to usurp his power,
43
115260
3000
Deus, encabuxado ante este intento de usurpar o seu poder,
01:58
destroyed the tower,
44
118260
3000
destruíu a torre,
02:01
and then to ensure
45
121260
2000
e daquela para asegurarse
02:03
that it would never be rebuilt,
46
123260
2000
de que nunca sería reconstruída,
02:05
he scattered the people by giving them different languages --
47
125260
3000
dividiu a xente dándolles distintas linguaxes --
02:08
confused them by giving them different languages.
48
128260
3000
e confundilos así dándolles diferentes linguas.
02:11
And this leads to the wonderful irony
49
131260
2000
E isto non leva a unha ironía marabillosa:
02:13
that our languages exist to prevent us from communicating.
50
133260
3000
as linguas existen para evitar que nos comuniquemos
02:16
Even today,
51
136260
2000
Incluso hoxe,
02:18
we know that there are words we cannot use,
52
138260
2000
sabemos que hai palabras que non podemos usar,
02:20
phrases we cannot say,
53
140260
2000
frases que non podemos dicir,
02:22
because if we do so,
54
142260
2000
porque se o facemos,
02:24
we might be accosted, jailed,
55
144260
3000
poderiamos ser acosados, arrestados,
02:27
or even killed.
56
147260
2000
ou incluso asasinados.
02:29
And all of this from a puff of air
57
149260
2000
E todo isto a causa dun sopro de ar
02:31
emanating from our mouths.
58
151260
2000
que sae das nosas bocas.
02:33
Now all this fuss about a single one of our traits
59
153260
3000
Toda esta lea sobre un dos nosos trazos
02:36
tells us there's something worth explaining.
60
156260
2000
din que paga a pena dar explicacións.
02:38
And that is how and why
61
158260
2000
E iso é o como e o por que
02:40
did this remarkable trait evolve,
62
160260
2000
esta importante trazo evoluíu,
02:42
and why did it evolve
63
162260
2000
e por que evolúe
02:44
only in our species?
64
164260
2000
só na nosa especie?
02:46
Now it's a little bit of a surprise
65
166260
2000
É un pouco sorprendente
02:48
that to get an answer to that question,
66
168260
2000
que para ter unha resposta a esta pregunta,
02:50
we have to go to tool use
67
170260
2000
temos que estudar o uso de ferramentas
02:52
in the chimpanzees.
68
172260
2000
nos chimancés.
02:54
Now these chimpanzees are using tools,
69
174260
2000
Estes chimpacés están usando ferramentas,
02:56
and we take that as a sign of their intelligence.
70
176260
3000
e tomamos iso como un signo de intelixencia.
02:59
But if they really were intelligent,
71
179260
2000
Mais se eles fosen en verdade intelixentes,
03:01
why would they use a stick to extract termites from the ground
72
181260
3000
porque usan un garabullo para extraer térmites do chan
03:04
rather than a shovel?
73
184260
2000
e non unha pa?
03:06
And if they really were intelligent,
74
186260
3000
E se fosen en verdade intelixentes,
03:09
why would they crack open nuts with a rock?
75
189260
2000
por que escachan as noces cun croio?
03:11
Why wouldn't they just go to a shop and buy a bag of nuts
76
191260
3000
Por que non van a unha tenda e mercan unha bolsa de noces
03:14
that somebody else had already cracked open for them?
77
194260
3000
que previamente alguén llelas escachou?
03:17
Why not? I mean, that's what we do.
78
197260
2000
Por que non? Iso é o que nós facemos.
03:19
Now the reason the chimpanzees don't do that
79
199260
2000
A razón pola que os chimpacés non o fan
03:21
is that they lack what psychologists and anthropologists call
80
201260
3000
é porque carecen do que os psicólogos e antropólogos chaman
03:24
social learning.
81
204260
2000
aprendizaxe social.
03:26
They seem to lack the ability
82
206260
2000
Seica carecen da capacidade
03:28
to learn from others
83
208260
2000
de aprenderen dos outros
03:30
by copying or imitating
84
210260
2000
copiando ou imitando
03:32
or simply watching.
85
212260
2000
ou simplemente observando.
03:34
As a result,
86
214260
2000
En consecuencia,
03:36
they can't improve on others' ideas
87
216260
2000
non poden mellorar grazas ás ideas dos demais
03:38
or learn from others' mistakes --
88
218260
2000
ou aprenderen dos erros dos outros --
03:40
benefit from others' wisdom.
89
220260
2000
beneficiárense da sabedoría dos demais.
03:42
And so they just do the same thing
90
222260
2000
Non fan máis que repetir o mesmo
03:44
over and over and over again.
91
224260
2000
unha e outra vez.
03:46
In fact, we could go away for a million years and come back
92
226260
4000
De feito, poderíamos ausentarnos durante un millón de anos e regresarmos
03:50
and these chimpanzees would be doing the same thing
93
230260
3000
e estes chimpancés estarían facendo o mesmo
03:53
with the same sticks for the termites
94
233260
2000
co mesmo garabullo para as térmites
03:55
and the same rocks to crack open the nuts.
95
235260
3000
e o mesmo croio para escacharen as noces.
03:58
Now this may sound arrogant, or even full of hubris.
96
238260
3000
Isto pode soar arrogante, ou incluso petulante.
04:01
How do we know this?
97
241260
2000
Como sabemos todo isto?
04:03
Because this is exactly what our ancestors, the Homo erectus, did.
98
243260
3000
porque isto é exactamento o que os nosos devanceiros, o Homo erectus, fixeron.
04:06
These upright apes
99
246260
2000
Estes monos ergueitos
04:08
evolved on the African savanna
100
248260
2000
evolucionaron na sabana africana
04:10
about two million years ago,
101
250260
2000
hai aproximadamente dous millóns de anos,
04:12
and they made these splendid hand axes
102
252260
2000
fixeron estas impresionantes machadas
04:14
that fit wonderfully into your hands.
103
254260
2000
que se adaptan marabillosamente nas nosas mans.
04:16
But if we look at the fossil record,
104
256260
2000
Mais se estudamos os restos fósiles,
04:18
we see that they made the same hand axe
105
258260
3000
vemos que fixeron a mesma machada
04:21
over and over and over again
106
261260
2000
unha e outra vez
04:23
for one million years.
107
263260
2000
durante un millón de anos.
04:25
You can follow it through the fossil record.
108
265260
2000
Podemos comprobalo a través dos restos fósiles.
04:27
Now if we make some guesses about how long Homo erectus lived,
109
267260
2000
Se estimamos durante cantos anos viviu o Home erectus,
04:29
what their generation time was,
110
269260
2000
cal foi o tempo da súa xeración,
04:31
that's about 40,000 generations
111
271260
3000
pois unhas 40.000 xeracións
04:34
of parents to offspring, and other individuals watching,
112
274260
3000
de pais a crianzas, mais outros individuos observando,
04:37
in which that hand axe didn't change.
113
277260
2000
durante o que esta machada non foi alterou.
04:39
It's not even clear
114
279260
2000
Nin siquera está claro
04:41
that our very close genetic relatives, the Neanderthals,
115
281260
2000
se os nosos parentes xeneticamente próximos, os neardentais,
04:43
had social learning.
116
283260
2000
tiveran aprendizaxe social.
04:45
Sure enough, their tools were more complicated
117
285260
3000
Sen dúbida, as súas ferramentas eran máis complexas
04:48
than those of Homo erectus,
118
288260
2000
ca as dos Homo erectus,
04:50
but they too showed very little change
119
290260
2000
mais non se aprecian moitos cambios
04:52
over the 300,000 years or so
120
292260
3000
durante os 300.000 anos ou así
04:55
that those species, the Neanderthals,
121
295260
2000
que a especie dos Neandertais,
04:57
lived in Eurasia.
122
297260
2000
viviron en Eurasia.
04:59
Okay, so what this tells us
123
299260
2000
Daquela, o que isto nos di
05:01
is that, contrary to the old adage,
124
301260
3000
é que, ao contrario do vello adaxio,
05:04
"monkey see, monkey do,"
125
304260
3000
"o que o mono ve, o mono fai",
05:07
the surprise really is
126
307260
2000
a sorpresa está
05:09
that all of the other animals
127
309260
2000
en que todos os demais animais
05:11
really cannot do that -- at least not very much.
128
311260
3000
non poden facer o mesmo -- candomenos non moito.
05:14
And even this picture
129
314260
2000
E incluso esta foto
05:16
has the suspicious taint of being rigged about it --
130
316260
3000
podemos sospeitar que foi manipulada --
05:19
something from a Barnum & Bailey circus.
131
319260
2000
algún asuntiño do circo Barnum & Bailey.
05:21
But by comparison,
132
321260
2000
Mais en comparación,
05:23
we can learn.
133
323260
2000
nosoutros podemos aprender.
05:25
We can learn by watching other people
134
325260
3000
Podemos aprender observando os outros
05:28
and copying or imitating
135
328260
2000
e copiando ou remedando
05:30
what they can do.
136
330260
2000
o que poden facer.
05:32
We can then choose, from among a range of options,
137
332260
3000
Podemos daquela escoller, entre un abano de opcións,
05:35
the best one.
138
335260
2000
a mellor.
05:37
We can benefit from others' ideas.
139
337260
2000
Podemos beneficiarnos das ideas dos outros.
05:39
We can build on their wisdom.
140
339260
2000
Podemos construír a nosa propia sabedoría.
05:41
And as a result, our ideas do accumulate,
141
341260
3000
E como resultado, acumulamos as nosas ideas,
05:44
and our technology progresses.
142
344260
4000
e a nosa tecnoloxía progresa.
05:48
And this cumulative cultural adaptation,
143
348260
5000
E esta adaptación cultural acumulativa,
05:53
as anthropologists call
144
353260
2000
así é como o chaman os antropólogos
05:55
this accumulation of ideas,
145
355260
2000
esta acumulación de ideas,
05:57
is responsible for everything around you
146
357260
2000
é reponsabel de todo o que nos rodea
05:59
in your bustling and teeming everyday lives.
147
359260
2000
na nosa axetreada vida cotiá
06:01
I mean the world has changed out of all proportion
148
361260
2000
O mundo cambiou enormemente
06:03
to what we would recognize
149
363260
2000
con aquel que recoñeceriamos
06:05
even 1,000 or 2,000 years ago.
150
365260
3000
incluso hai 1000 ou 2000 anos.
06:08
And all of this because of cumulative cultural adaptation.
151
368260
3000
E todo isto debémosllo á adaptacion cultural acumulativa.
06:11
The chairs you're sitting in, the lights in this auditorium,
152
371260
2000
As cadeiras sobre as que están sentados, as luces neste auditorio
06:13
my microphone, the iPads and iPods that you carry around with you --
153
373260
3000
o meu micrófono, os iPads e iPods que portades --
06:16
all are a result
154
376260
2000
todos son resultado
06:18
of cumulative cultural adaptation.
155
378260
2000
da adaptación cultural acumulativa.
06:20
Now to many commentators,
156
380260
4000
Agora para moitos comentaristas,
06:24
cumulative cultural adaptation, or social learning,
157
384260
3000
a adaptación cultural acumulativa, ou aprendizaxe social,
06:27
is job done, end of story.
158
387260
3000
está xa o traballo feito, fin da historia.
06:30
Our species can make stuff,
159
390260
3000
A nosa especie pode facer cousas,
06:33
therefore we prospered in a way that no other species has.
160
393260
3000
daquela prosperamos nun xeito que outras especies non poden.
06:36
In fact, we can even make the "stuff of life" --
161
396260
3000
De feito, incluso podemos facer a "materia da vida" --
06:39
as I just said, all the stuff around us.
162
399260
2000
como xa dixen, todo o que nos rodea.
06:41
But in fact, it turns out
163
401260
2000
Pero en realidade, resulta
06:43
that some time around 200,000 years ago,
164
403260
3000
que hai arredor de 200.000 anos
06:46
when our species first arose
165
406260
2000
cando apareceu a nosa especie
06:48
and acquired social learning,
166
408260
2000
e adquiriu a aprendizaxe social,
06:50
that this was really the beginning of our story,
167
410260
2000
así foi realmente o principio da nosa historia,
06:52
not the end of our story.
168
412260
2000
non o final da nosa historia.
06:54
Because our acquisition of social learning
169
414260
3000
Porque a nosa adquisición da aprendizaxe social
06:57
would create a social and evolutionary dilemma,
170
417260
3000
crearía un dilema social e evolutivo,
07:00
the resolution of which, it's fair to say,
171
420260
3000
a súa resolución, é xusto dicilo,
07:03
would determine not only the future course of our psychology,
172
423260
4000
determinaría non só o curso futuro da nosa psicoloxía,
07:07
but the future course of the entire world.
173
427260
2000
senón o curso futuro do mundo enteiro.
07:09
And most importantly for this,
174
429260
3000
E máis importante que todo isto,
07:12
it'll tell us why we have language.
175
432260
3000
diríanos por que temos linguaxe.
07:15
And the reason that dilemma arose
176
435260
2000
e a razón que este dilema provoca
07:17
is, it turns out, that social learning is visual theft.
177
437260
3000
é que a aprendizaxe social é un roubo visual.
07:20
If I can learn by watching you,
178
440260
3000
Se eu podo aprender observándote,
07:23
I can steal your best ideas,
179
443260
2000
podo roubar as túas mellores ideas,
07:25
and I can benefit from your efforts,
180
445260
3000
e podo beneficiarme dos teus esforzos,
07:28
without having to put in the time and energy that you did
181
448260
2000
sen ter que poñer a tempo e enerxía que ti puxeches
07:30
into developing them.
182
450260
2000
para desenvolvelas.
07:32
If I can watch which lure you use to catch a fish,
183
452260
3000
Se podo observar que isca usas para pescar,
07:35
or I can watch how you flake your hand axe
184
455260
2000
ou podo observar como fas lascas coa túa machada
07:37
to make it better,
185
457260
2000
para perfeccionala,
07:39
or if I follow you secretly to your mushroom patch,
186
459260
3000
ou se secretamente te sigo até o teu roteiro de cogomelos
07:42
I can benefit from your knowledge and wisdom and skills,
187
462260
3000
podo beneficiarme do teu coñecemento, sabedoría e habilidades
07:45
and maybe even catch that fish
188
465260
2000
e incluso pescar ese peixe
07:47
before you do.
189
467260
2000
antes ca ti.
07:49
Social learning really is visual theft.
190
469260
3000
A aprendizaxe social en realidade é un roubo visual.
07:52
And in any species that acquired it,
191
472260
2000
E en calquera especie que a adquirise,
07:54
it would behoove you
192
474260
2000
sería moi oportuno
07:56
to hide your best ideas,
193
476260
2000
ocultar as túas mellores ideas,
07:58
lest somebody steal them from you.
194
478260
3000
para que ninguén poida roubarchas.
08:02
And so some time around 200,000 years ago,
195
482260
3000
Hai arredor de 200.000 anos,
08:05
our species confronted this crisis.
196
485260
3000
a nosa especie afrontou esta crise.
08:08
And we really had only two options
197
488260
3000
E tivemos só dúas opcións
08:11
for dealing with the conflicts
198
491260
2000
para lidar cos conflitos
08:13
that visual theft would bring.
199
493260
2000
que o roubo visual podería causarnos.
08:15
One of those options
200
495260
2000
Unha desas opcións
08:17
was that we could have retreated
201
497260
3000
foi que tiñamos que vivir
08:20
into small family groups.
202
500260
2000
en pequenos grupos familiares.
08:22
Because then the benefits of our ideas and knowledge
203
502260
3000
Porque así os beneficios das nosas ideas e coñecemento
08:25
would flow just to our relatives.
204
505260
2000
só sería transmitido aos nosos parentes.
08:27
Had we chosen this option,
205
507260
2000
Se escollésemos esta opción,
08:29
sometime around 200,000 years ago,
206
509260
3000
hai aproximadamente uns 200,000 anos,
08:32
we would probably still be living like the Neanderthals were
207
512260
3000
probabelmente estariamos vivindo como os Neandertais
08:35
when we first entered Europe 40,000 years ago.
208
515260
3000
cando por primeira vez entramos en Europa hai 40.000 anos.
08:38
And this is because in small groups
209
518260
2000
Porque en grupos pequenos
08:40
there are fewer ideas, there are fewer innovations.
210
520260
3000
hai menos ideas, hai menos innovacións.
08:43
And small groups are more prone to accidents and bad luck.
211
523260
3000
E os grupos pequenos son máis propensos a accidentes e mala sorte.
08:46
So if we'd chosen that path,
212
526260
2000
Daquela se escollésemos ese camiño,
08:48
our evolutionary path would have led into the forest --
213
528260
3000
a nosa liña evolutiva nos levaría ao bosque --
08:51
and been a short one indeed.
214
531260
2000
e sen dúbida sería moi curta.
08:53
The other option we could choose
215
533260
2000
A outra opción a escoller
08:55
was to develop the systems of communication
216
535260
3000
foi desenvolvermos uns sistemas de comunicación
08:58
that would allow us to share ideas
217
538260
2000
que nos permitiría compartir ideas
09:00
and to cooperate amongst others.
218
540260
3000
e cooperar con outros.
09:03
Choosing this option would mean
219
543260
2000
Escollermos esta opcións significaría
09:05
that a vastly greater fund of accumulated knowledge and wisdom
220
545260
3000
que unha inxente bolsa de coñecemento e sabedoría acumulada
09:08
would become available to any one individual
221
548260
3000
estaría ao dispor de calquera individuo
09:11
than would ever arise from within an individual family
222
551260
3000
en comparación co que xurdiría desde dentro dunha pequena familia
09:14
or an individual person on their own.
223
554260
3000
ou un individuo en particular.
09:18
Well, we chose the second option,
224
558260
3000
Pois ben, escollimos esta segunda opción,
09:21
and language is the result.
225
561260
3000
e o resultado é a linguaxe.
09:24
Language evolved to solve the crisis
226
564260
2000
A linguaxe desenvolveuse para solucionar a crise
09:26
of visual theft.
227
566260
2000
do roubo visual.
09:28
Language is a piece of social technology
228
568260
3000
A linguaxe é unha peza de tecnoloxía social
09:31
for enhancing the benefits of cooperation --
229
571260
3000
para mellorar os beneficios da cooperación --
09:34
for reaching agreements, for striking deals
230
574260
3000
para acadar acordos, para pechar negocios
09:37
and for coordinating our activities.
231
577260
4000
e para coordinar as nosas actividades.
09:41
And you can see that, in a developing society
232
581260
2000
Podedes ver que, nunha sociedade en desenvolvemento
09:43
that was beginning to acquire language,
233
583260
2000
que estaba empezando a adquirir a linguxe,
09:45
not having language
234
585260
2000
non ter linguaxe
09:47
would be a like a bird without wings.
235
587260
2000
sería como un paxaro sen as.
09:49
Just as wings open up this sphere of air
236
589260
3000
Como as as que abren esta esfera de ar
09:52
for birds to exploit,
237
592260
2000
para que os paxaros o utilicen,
09:54
language opened up the sphere of cooperation
238
594260
2000
a linguaxe abre a esfera da comunicación
09:56
for humans to exploit.
239
596260
2000
para que os humanos a utilicen.
09:58
And we take this utterly for granted,
240
598260
2000
E tomamos isto como algo xa dado,
10:00
because we're a species that is so at home with language,
241
600260
3000
porque somos unha especie que se sente como na casa coa linguxe
10:03
but you have to realize
242
603260
2000
mais teñen vostedes que decatarse de
10:05
that even the simplest acts of exchange that we engage in
243
605260
3000
que incluso os máis cativos actos de intercambio en que intervimos
10:08
are utterly dependent upon language.
244
608260
3000
son completamente dependentes da linguaxe.
10:11
And to see why, consider two scenarios
245
611260
2000
E para vermos o por que, consideren estes dous escenarios
10:13
from early in our evolution.
246
613260
2000
desde os inicios da nosa evolución.
10:15
Let's imagine that you are really good
247
615260
2000
Imaxinen que son vostedes moi bos
10:17
at making arrowheads,
248
617260
2000
facendo puntas de frecha,
10:19
but you're hopeless at making the wooden shafts
249
619260
3000
mais son incapaces de facer o corpo de madeira
10:22
with the flight feathers attached.
250
622260
3000
coas prumas incluídas.
10:25
Two other people you know are very good at making the wooden shafts,
251
625260
3000
Coñecen dúas persoas moi boas facendo a frecha de madeira,
10:28
but they're hopeless at making the arrowheads.
252
628260
3000
mais son negados ao faceren as puntas.
10:31
So what you do is --
253
631260
2000
O que hai que facer é --
10:33
one of those people has not really acquired language yet.
254
633260
3000
unha desas persoas non ten adquirida aínda a linguaxe.
10:36
And let's pretend the other one is good at language skills.
255
636260
2000
E poñamos que a outra é boa coas habilidades lingüísticas.
10:38
So what you do one day is you take a pile of arrowheads,
256
638260
3000
Así que o que facemos un día é coller un feixe de puntas de frecha,
10:41
and you walk up to the one that can't speak very well,
257
641260
2000
e camiñarmos até aquel que non sabe falar moi ben,
10:43
and you put the arrowheads down in front of him,
258
643260
2000
e poñemos as puntas diante del,
10:45
hoping that he'll get the idea that you want to trade your arrowheads
259
645260
3000
desexando que se figure que queremos trocar as puntas de frecha
10:48
for finished arrows.
260
648260
2000
polos corpos de madeira das frechas.
10:50
But he looks at the pile of arrowheads, thinks they're a gift,
261
650260
2000
Mais el olla para o feixe de puntas, pensa que son un agasallo,
10:52
picks them up, smiles and walks off.
262
652260
3000
recólleas, sorrí e marcha.
10:55
Now you pursue this guy, gesticulating.
263
655260
2000
Agora vostedes perseguen a este fulano, xesticulando.
10:57
A scuffle ensues and you get stabbed
264
657260
2000
Hai unha disputa e vostede é ferido
10:59
with one of your own arrowheads.
265
659260
3000
cunha das súas puntas de frecha.
11:02
Okay, now replay this scene now, and you're approaching the one who has language.
266
662260
3000
Moi ben, rebobinemos a escena, e agora dirímonos a persoa capaz de falar.
11:05
You put down your arrowheads and say,
267
665260
2000
Pousamos as puntas e dicimos,
11:07
"I'd like to trade these arrowheads for finished arrows. I'll split you 50/50."
268
667260
3000
"Gustaríame trocar estas puntas polo corpo de madeira rematados. Imos ao 50%."
11:10
The other one says, "Fine. Looks good to me.
269
670260
2000
O outro di, "De acordo. Paréceme ben.
11:12
We'll do that."
270
672260
3000
Fagámolo."
11:15
Now the job is done.
271
675260
3000
E o choio está feito.
11:18
Once we have language,
272
678260
2000
Unha vez que temos a linguaxe,
11:20
we can put our ideas together and cooperate
273
680260
2000
podemos compartir as nosas ideas e cooperar
11:22
to have a prosperity
274
682260
2000
para ter a prosperidade
11:24
that we couldn't have before we acquired it.
275
684260
3000
que non podiamos ter antes de saber falar.
11:27
And this is why our species
276
687260
2000
Isto explica por que a nosa especie
11:29
has prospered around the world
277
689260
2000
ten prosperado ao longo do mundo
11:31
while the rest of the animals
278
691260
2000
mentres o resto dos animais
11:33
sit behind bars in zoos, languishing.
279
693260
3000
están detrás dos barrotes dun zoo, esmorecendo.
11:36
That's why we build space shuttles and cathedrals
280
696260
3000
É a razón de que construamos lanzadeiras espaciais e catedrais
11:39
while the rest of the world sticks sticks into the ground
281
699260
2000
mentres o resto do mundo fica chantado no chan
11:41
to extract termites.
282
701260
2000
para extraer térmites.
11:43
All right, if this view of language
283
703260
3000
De acordo, se esta visión da linguaxe
11:46
and its value
284
706260
2000
e o seu valor
11:48
in solving the crisis of visual theft is true,
285
708260
3000
para resolver a crise do roubo visual é certa,
11:51
any species that acquires it
286
711260
2000
calquera especie que a adquira
11:53
should show an explosion of creativity and prosperity.
287
713260
3000
debería amosar unha explosión de creatividade e prosperidade.
11:56
And this is exactly what the archeological record shows.
288
716260
3000
E isto é exactamente o que proba o estudo arqueolóxico.
11:59
If you look at our ancestors,
289
719260
2000
Se observan os nosos devanceiros,
12:01
the Neanderthals and the Homo erectus, our immediate ancestors,
290
721260
3000
os Neandertais e os Homo erectus, os nosos devanceiros máis próximos,
12:04
they're confined to small regions of the world.
291
724260
3000
Eles ficaron confinados a pequenas rexións do mundo.
12:07
But when our species arose
292
727260
2000
Mais cando a nosa especie aparece
12:09
about 200,000 years ago,
293
729260
2000
hai uns 200.000 anos,
12:11
sometime after that we quickly walked out of Africa
294
731260
3000
algo máis tarde de que rapidamente abandonásemos África
12:14
and spread around the entire world,
295
734260
3000
e nos espallásemos polo mundo enteiro,
12:17
occupying nearly every habitat on Earth.
296
737260
3000
ocupando case todos os hábitats do mundo.
12:20
Now whereas other species are confined
297
740260
3000
Agora en calquera lugar en que outras especies estivesen confinadas
12:23
to places that their genes adapt them to,
298
743260
3000
en lugares para os que os seus xenes estives adaptados,
12:26
with social learning and language,
299
746260
2000
coa aprendizaxe social e a linguaxe,
12:28
we could transform the environment
300
748260
2000
poderiamos transformar o noso entorno
12:30
to suit our needs.
301
750260
2000
para satisfacer as nosas necesidades.
12:32
And so we prospered in a way
302
752260
2000
E así prosperamos dun xeito
12:34
that no other animal has.
303
754260
2000
único entre os animais.
12:36
Language really is
304
756260
3000
A linguaxe é realmente
12:39
the most potent trait that has ever evolved.
305
759260
3000
o trazo máis potente de toda a Evolución..
12:42
It is the most valuable trait we have
306
762260
3000
É o trazo máis valioso que temos
12:45
for converting new lands and resources
307
765260
3000
para convertir novos territorios e recursos
12:48
into more people and their genes
308
768260
3000
en máis xente e os seus xenes
12:51
that natural selection has ever devised.
309
771260
2000
desde que a Evolución está operativa.
12:53
Language really is
310
773260
2000
A linguaxe é realmente
12:55
the voice of our genes.
311
775260
2000
a voz dos nosos xenes.
12:57
Now having evolved language, though,
312
777260
2000
Agora unha vez evolucionada a linguaxe, daquela,
12:59
we did something peculiar,
313
779260
2000
fixemos algo peculiar,
13:01
even bizarre.
314
781260
2000
incluso raro.
13:03
As we spread out around the world,
315
783260
2000
Durante o noso espallamente polo mundo,
13:05
we developed thousands of different languages.
316
785260
3000
desenvolvemos milleiros de diferentes linguas.
13:08
Currently, there are about seven or 8,000
317
788260
2000
Seica hai entre sete e 8000
13:10
different languages spoken on Earth.
318
790260
3000
linguas diferentes faladas na Terra.
13:13
Now you might say, well, this is just natural.
319
793260
2000
Vostedes dirán, pois ben, isto é algo natural.
13:15
As we diverge, our languages are naturally going to diverge.
320
795260
3000
Ao tempo que nós diverxemos, as nosas linguas naturalmente tamén diverxirán.
13:18
But the real puzzle and irony
321
798260
2000
Máis o realmente complicado e irónico
13:20
is that the greatest density of different languages on Earth
322
800260
3000
é que a densidade máis grande de diferentes linguas na Terra
13:23
is found where people are most tightly packed together.
323
803260
4000
atópase onde a xente está máis xunta.
13:27
If we go to the island of Papua New Guinea,
324
807260
2000
Se imos á illa de Papua Nova Guinea,
13:29
we can find about 800 to 1,000
325
809260
3000
Podemos atopar entre 800 e 1000
13:32
distinct human languages,
326
812260
2000
linguas distintas,
13:34
different human languages,
327
814260
2000
linguas humanas diferentes,
13:36
spoken on that island alone.
328
816260
2000
faladas só nesa illa.
13:38
There are places on that island
329
818260
2000
Hai lugares nesa illa
13:40
where you can encounter a new language
330
820260
2000
onde podemos descubrir unha nova lingua
13:42
every two or three miles.
331
822260
2000
cada 3 ou 4,5 Km.
13:44
Now, incredible as this sounds,
332
824260
2000
Claro, por incríbel que pareza,
13:46
I once met a Papuan man, and I asked him if this could possibly be true.
333
826260
3000
coñecín unha vez a un Papuano e pregunteille se isto podía ser certo.
13:49
And he said to me, "Oh no.
334
829260
2000
Díxome, "Non oh.
13:51
They're far closer together than that."
335
831260
3000
Están moito máis preto ca iso."
13:54
And it's true; there are places on that island
336
834260
2000
E é verdade; hai lugares na illa
13:56
where you can encounter a new language in under a mile.
337
836260
3000
onde podemos topar cunha nova lingua sen saír dun 1,5 km.
13:59
And this is also true of some remote oceanic islands.
338
839260
3000
E isto tamén sucede nalgunhas remotas illas oceánicas.
14:03
And so it seems that we use our language,
339
843260
2000
Daquela parece que usamos a nosa linguaxe,
14:05
not just to cooperate,
340
845260
2000
non só para cooperar,
14:07
but to draw rings around our cooperative groups
341
847260
3000
senón para trazar aneis arredor dos nosos grupos coorporativos
14:10
and to establish identities,
342
850260
2000
e para establecer identidades,
14:12
and perhaps to protect our knowledge and wisdom and skills
343
852260
3000
e se cadra para protexer o noso coñecemento, sabedoría e habilidades
14:15
from eavesdropping from outside.
344
855260
3000
da curiosidade dos estraños.
14:18
And we know this
345
858260
2000
Sabemos todo isto
14:20
because when we study different language groups
346
860260
2000
porque cando estudamos diferentes grupos de linguas
14:22
and associate them with their cultures,
347
862260
2000
e asociámolas coas súas culturas,
14:24
we see that different languages
348
864260
2000
vemos que linguas diferentes
14:26
slow the flow of ideas between groups.
349
866260
3000
frean a transmisión de ideas entre os grupos.
14:29
They slow the flow of technologies.
350
869260
3000
Frean a transmisión de tecnoloxías.
14:32
And they even slow the flow of genes.
351
872260
3000
E incluso frean a transmisión de xenes.
14:35
Now I can't speak for you,
352
875260
2000
Non podo falar por vostedes,
14:37
but it seems to be the case
353
877260
2000
mais parece ser o caso
14:39
that we don't have sex with people we can't talk to.
354
879260
3000
de que non temos sexo con xente coa que non podemos falar.
14:43
(Laughter)
355
883260
2000
(Risas)
14:45
Now we have to counter that, though,
356
885260
2000
Debemos telo en conta, pois,
14:47
against the evidence we've heard
357
887260
2000
en contra da evidencia que ouvimos
14:49
that we might have had some rather distasteful genetic dalliances
358
889260
3000
sobre que puidemos ter algunhas desagradábeis alianzas xenéticas
14:52
with the Neanderthals and the Denisovans.
359
892260
2000
cos Neardentais e os homínidos de Denisova.
14:54
(Laughter)
360
894260
2000
(Risos)
14:56
Okay, this tendency we have,
361
896260
2000
Ben, esta tendencia que temos,
14:58
this seemingly natural tendency we have,
362
898260
2000
esta aparente tendencia natural que temos,
15:00
towards isolation, towards keeping to ourselves,
363
900260
3000
cara ao illamento, cara mirar para nosoutros,
15:03
crashes head first into our modern world.
364
903260
3000
esnáfrase contra o noso mundo moderno.
15:06
This remarkable image
365
906260
2000
Esta salientábel imaxe
15:08
is not a map of the world.
366
908260
2000
non é un mapa do mundo.
15:10
In fact, it's a map of Facebook friendship links.
367
910260
4000
De feito, é o mapa de ligazóns de amizade en Facebook.
15:14
And when you plot those friendship links
368
914260
2000
E cando localizamos esas ligazóns de amizade
15:16
by their latitude and longitude,
369
916260
2000
na súa latitude e lonxitude,
15:18
it literally draws a map of the world.
370
918260
3000
vese con exactitude o mapa do mundo.
15:21
Our modern world is communicating
371
921260
2000
O noso mundo moderno é comunicación
15:23
with itself and with each other
372
923260
2000
consigo mesmo e entre todos
15:25
more than it has
373
925260
2000
mais do que o fixo
15:27
at any time in its past.
374
927260
2000
en calquera momento do seu pasado.
15:29
And that communication, that connectivity around the world,
375
929260
3000
E esa comunicación, esa conectividade arredor do mundo,
15:32
that globalization
376
932260
2000
esa globalización
15:34
now raises a burden.
377
934260
3000
agora ten unha pexa.
15:37
Because these different languages
378
937260
2000
Porque esas diferentes linguas
15:39
impose a barrier, as we've just seen,
379
939260
2000
impoñen unha barreira, como acabamos de ver,
15:41
to the transfer of goods and ideas
380
941260
2000
para transferir bens e ideas
15:43
and technologies and wisdom.
381
943260
2000
e tecnoloxías e sabedoría.
15:45
And they impose a barrier to cooperation.
382
945260
3000
E impoñen unha barreira á cooperación.
15:48
And nowhere do we see that more clearly
383
948260
3000
E en ningures o vemos tan claro como
15:51
than in the European Union,
384
951260
2000
na Unión Europea,
15:53
whose 27 member countries
385
953260
3000
cuxos 27 membros
15:56
speak 23 official languages.
386
956260
3000
falan 23 linguas oficiais.
15:59
The European Union
387
959260
2000
A Unión Europea
16:01
is now spending over one billion euros annually
388
961260
4000
agora gasta uns 1000 millóns de euros ao ano
16:05
translating among their 23 official languages.
389
965260
3000
para a tradución entre as súas 23 linguas oficiais.
16:08
That's something on the order
390
968260
2000
Iso supón arredor
16:10
of 1.45 billion U.S. dollars
391
970260
2000
de 1.450 millóns de dólares
16:12
on translation costs alone.
392
972260
3000
só en gasto de tradución.
16:15
Now think of the absurdity of this situation.
393
975260
2000
Pensen no absurdo da situación.
16:17
If 27 individuals
394
977260
2000
Se 27 individuos
16:19
from those 27 member states
395
979260
2000
de cada un dos 27 estados membros
16:21
sat around table, speaking their 23 languages,
396
981260
3000
sentan arredor dunha mesa a falar nas súas 23 linguas,
16:24
some very simple mathematics will tell you
397
984260
2000
unha matemática moi simpre nos dirá
16:26
that you need an army of 253 translators
398
986260
4000
que necesitan vostedes un exército de 253 tradutores
16:30
to anticipate all the pairwise possibilities.
399
990260
4000
para cubrir todas as posibilidades de emparellamento.
16:34
The European Union employs a permanent staff
400
994260
3000
A Unión Europea emprega unha plantilla permanente
16:37
of about 2,500 translators.
401
997260
2000
de aproximadamente 2500 tradutores
16:39
And in 2007 alone --
402
999260
2000
E só en 2007 --
16:41
and I'm sure there are more recent figures --
403
1001260
2000
e estou seguro de que hai cifras máis actualizadas --
16:43
something on the order of 1.3 million pages
404
1003260
3000
arredor de 1,3 millóns de páxinas
16:46
were translated into English alone.
405
1006260
3000
foron traducidas en concreto ao inglés.
16:49
And so if language really is
406
1009260
3000
Se unha lingua realmente é
16:52
the solution to the crisis of visual theft,
407
1012260
3000
a solución á crise do roubo visual,
16:55
if language really is
408
1015260
2000
se a lingua é realmente
16:57
the conduit of our cooperation,
409
1017260
2000
o medio para a nosa cooperación,
16:59
the technology that our species derived
410
1019260
3000
a tecnoloxía que a nosa especie creou
17:02
to promote the free flow and exchange of ideas,
411
1022260
4000
para incentivar a libre transferencia e troca de ideas,
17:06
in our modern world,
412
1026260
2000
no mundo moderno,
17:08
we confront a question.
413
1028260
2000
debemos afrontar unha pregunta.
17:10
And that question is whether
414
1030260
2000
A pregunta é se
17:12
in this modern, globalized world
415
1032260
2000
neste moderno, globalizado mundo
17:14
we can really afford to have all these different languages.
416
1034260
3000
podemos asumir ter todas estas linguas diferentes.
17:17
To put it this way, nature knows no other circumstance
417
1037260
3000
A natureza non coñece outra situación
17:20
in which functionally equivalent traits coexist.
418
1040260
5000
en que trazos funcionalmente equivalentes coexistan.
17:25
One of them always drives the other extinct.
419
1045260
3000
Un deles sempre provoca a extinción do outro.
17:28
And we see this in the inexorable march
420
1048260
2000
Vémolo na inexorábel marcha
17:30
towards standardization.
421
1050260
2000
cara a estandarización.
17:32
There are lots and lots of ways of measuring things --
422
1052260
3000
Hai montes e moreas de xeitos para medir as cousas --
17:35
weighing them and measuring their length --
423
1055260
2000
pesando e medindo a súa lonxitude --
17:37
but the metric system is winning.
424
1057260
2000
máis o vencedor é o sistema métrico.
17:39
There are lots and lots of ways of measuring time,
425
1059260
3000
Hai moitas maneiras de medir o tempo,
17:42
but a really bizarre base 60 system
426
1062260
3000
máis o estrañísimo sistema de base 60
17:45
known as hours and minutes and seconds
427
1065260
2000
que mide as horas, minutos e segundos
17:47
is nearly universal around the world.
428
1067260
3000
é case universal en todo o mundo.
17:50
There are many, many ways
429
1070260
2000
Hai moitos, moitos xeitos
17:52
of imprinting CDs or DVDs,
430
1072260
2000
de imprimir CDs ou DVDs,
17:54
but those are all being standardized as well.
431
1074260
3000
mais todos estas xa estandarizados.
17:57
And you can probably think of many, many more
432
1077260
3000
Probablemente podemos pensar en moitos, moitos máis
18:00
in your own everyday lives.
433
1080260
2000
na nosa vida cotiá.
18:02
And so our modern world now
434
1082260
3000
O noso moderno mundo agora
18:05
is confronting us with a dilemma.
435
1085260
2000
colócanos antre un dilema.
18:07
And it's the dilemma
436
1087260
2000
O dilema é
18:09
that this Chinese man faces,
437
1089260
2000
o mesmo que este chinés ten que afrontar ,
18:11
who's language is spoken
438
1091260
2000
a súa é a lingua máis falada
18:13
by more people in the world
439
1093260
2000
en todo o mundo
18:15
than any other single language,
440
1095260
3000
máis que calquera outra,
18:18
and yet he is sitting at his blackboard,
441
1098260
4000
mais el está sentado ante o seu encerado,
18:22
converting Chinese phrases
442
1102260
3000
convertindo frases chinesas
18:25
into English language phrases.
443
1105260
2000
en inglesas.
18:27
And what this does is it raises the possibility to us
444
1107260
3000
O que isto fai é que nos ofrece a posibilidade
18:30
that in a world in which we want to promote
445
1110260
2000
de que nun mundo en que queremos incentivar
18:32
cooperation and exchange,
446
1112260
2000
a cooperación e o intercambio,
18:34
and in a world that might be dependent more than ever before
447
1114260
3000
e nun mundo que é máis dependente agora ca nunca
18:37
on cooperation
448
1117260
2000
na cooperación
18:39
to maintain and enhance our levels of prosperity,
449
1119260
3000
para manter e mellorar os nosos niveis de prosperidade,
18:42
his actions suggest to us
450
1122260
2000
as súas accións suxírennos
18:44
it might be inevitable
451
1124260
2000
que podería ser inevitábel
18:46
that we have to confront the idea
452
1126260
2000
que teñamos a asumir a idea
18:48
that our destiny is to be one world with one language.
453
1128260
3000
de que o noso destino é ser un único mundo cunha única lingua.
18:51
Thank you.
454
1131260
2000
Grazas.
18:53
(Applause)
455
1133260
8000
(Aplausos)
19:01
Matt Ridley: Mark, one question.
456
1141260
2000
Matt Ridley: Mark, unha pregunta.
19:03
Svante found that the FOXP2 gene,
457
1143260
3000
Svante descubriu que o xene FOXP2
19:06
which seems to be associated with language,
458
1146260
2000
ao parecer asociado coa linguaxe,
19:08
was also shared in the same form
459
1148260
2000
é compartido dalgún xeito
19:10
in Neanderthals as us.
460
1150260
2000
entre os Neanderthais e nós.
19:12
Do we have any idea
461
1152260
2000
Tes algunha idea
19:14
how we could have defeated Neanderthals
462
1154260
2000
en como puidemos vencer os Neandertais
19:16
if they also had language?
463
1156260
2000
se eles tamén tiñan linguaxe?
19:18
Mark Pagel: This is a very good question.
464
1158260
2000
Mark Pagel: Esta é unha moi boa pregunta.
19:20
So many of you will be familiar with the idea that there's this gene called FOXP2
465
1160260
3000
Moitos estades familiarizados coa idea de que hai un xene chamado FOXP2
19:23
that seems to be implicated in some ways
466
1163260
3000
que parece implicado dalgún xeito
19:26
in the fine motor control that's associated with language.
467
1166260
3000
no control motor asociado coa linguaxe.
19:29
The reason why I don't believe that tells us
468
1169260
2000
A razón porque eu non creo en que nos indique
19:31
that the Neanderthals had language
469
1171260
2000
que os Neardentais tiñan linguaxe
19:33
is -- here's a simple analogy:
470
1173260
3000
é --permítanme unha simple analoxía:
19:36
Ferraris are cars that have engines.
471
1176260
3000
Ferraris son coches que teñen motores.
19:39
My car has an engine,
472
1179260
2000
O meu coche ten un motor,
19:41
but it's not a Ferrari.
473
1181260
2000
mais non é un Ferrari.
19:43
Now the simple answer then
474
1183260
2000
Agora a resposta simple é
19:45
is that genes alone don't, all by themselves,
475
1185260
2000
que os xenes por si sós non
19:47
determine the outcome
476
1187260
2000
determinan un resultado final
19:49
of very complicated things like language.
477
1189260
2000
tan complicado coma a linguaxe.
19:51
What we know about this FOXP2 and Neanderthals
478
1191260
2000
O que sabemos sobre o FOXP2 e os Neandertais
19:53
is that they may have had fine motor control of their mouths -- who knows.
479
1193260
4000
é que puideron ter o control motor das súas bocas --quen sabe.
19:57
But that doesn't tell us they necessarily had language.
480
1197260
2000
Mais iso non nos di que necesariamente tiñan linguaxe.
19:59
MR: Thank you very much indeed.
481
1199260
2000
MR: Moitas grazas de verdade.
20:01
(Applause)
482
1201260
3000
(Aplausos)
About this website

Este sitio presentarache vídeos de YouTube que son útiles para aprender inglés. Verás clases de inglés impartidas por profesores de primeiro nivel de todo o mundo. Fai dobre clic nos subtítulos en inglés que aparecen en cada páxina de vídeo para reproducir o vídeo desde alí. Os subtítulos desprázanse sincronizados coa reprodución do vídeo. Se tes algún comentario ou solicitude, póñase en contacto connosco a través deste formulario de contacto.

https://forms.gle/WvT1wiN1qDtmnspy7