What makes a language... a language? - Martin Hilpert

翻译人员: Chuner Chen 校对人员: Helen Chang

The distinct forms of speech heard

我们听到的不同的语音

around Bremen, Germany and Interlaken, Switzerland

在德国的不来梅以及瑞士的因特拉肯

are considered regional dialects of the German language.

被认为是德语的地区方言。

And yet, when someone from Bremen is visiting the Swiss Alps,

然而，当来自不来梅的游客 游览瑞士的阿尔卑斯山时，

the conversations they hear between locals will likely be incomprehensible to them.

当地人的交流，他们可能完全无法理解。

Similarly, outside of China,

同样的，在中国之外，

Mandarin and Cantonese are often referred to as Chinese dialects.

普通话和粤语常被作为中文的方言，

But they’re even more dissimilar than Spanish and Italian.

但他们之间的差别 比西班牙语和意大利语的差别还大。

On the other hand, speakers of Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish,

同时，说丹麦语、挪威语和瑞典语的人

which are recognized as three distinct languages,

尽管这些是被认为三种截然不同的语言，

can usually communicate in their native tongues with little difficulty.

却可以毫不费力的用母语交流。

And Turkish language soap operas, broadcast without dubbing or subtitles,

若干土耳其语的肥皂剧， 在播放时没有配音或字幕，

are some of the most popular shows in Azeri-speaking Azerbaijan.

竟然是阿塞拜疆语观众最喜爱的节目。

So, when is a form of speech considered a dialect versus a language?

那么，我们是怎么将一种语音 判定为语言或方言呢？

It seems reasonable that the degree of mutual intelligibility would determine

以能够互相理解的程度 来定义看起来比较合理，

whether two ways of speaking are classified as separate languages

用这种标准，可以 将两个不同的语音定义为语言，

or as dialects of the same language.

或是将其定义为同一语言下的方言。

But as we've seen, there are many occasions where this is not the case.

但正如我们所见，往往并非如此。

Perhaps surprisingly, the distinction between a language and a dialect

也许，令人惊讶的是， 语言和方言的区分

usually has nothing to do with pronunciation, vocabulary,

通常和发音、词汇毫无关联，

or any other linguistic features.

和其他语言学特征也没有关系。

However, it’s not coincidental, either.

然而，这也并非巧合。

It’s a matter of politics.

这是一个政治问题。

The basis for what’s officially deemed a language

正式认定一种语言的依据

was shaped by the emergence of a European nation states beginning around the 1500s.

始于1500年代，是随着欧洲 各个民族国家出现而形成的。

In order to establish and maintain centralized governments,

为了建立并维持中央集权的政府，

clear territorial boundaries, and state-sponsored education systems,

明确领土边界， 以及建立国有教育系统，

many nation states promoted a standardized language.

各个国家开始推行单一标准语言。

Which form of speech was chosen to be the standard language

选择哪种语音作为标准语言，

was usually based on what people spoke in the capital.

通常取决于该国首都人们所说的话。

And while other forms of speech persisted, they were often treated as inferior.

尽管其他形式的语音依然存在， 它们常常被视为低等语言。

This tradition extended across the globe with European colonization

这一传统随着欧洲的 殖民进程遍布全球，

and into modern times.

并一直持续到现在。

Italy, for example, has at least 15 of what might be called regional dialects.

例如，在意大利至少有 所谓的15种地方方言。

One of them, the Florentine dialect,

其中之一，佛罗伦萨方言，

became known as Standard Italian when the country politically unified in 1861.

在1861年统一意大利全境时， 曾作为标准意大利语。

It was selected because legendary authors like Dante and Machiavelli

它入选是因为传奇作家， 如但丁、马基雅维利

used it in their original works,

创作手稿时，使用这一语言。

And it came to represent an image of Italian national identity

进而把它作为意大利民族形象的代表，

that some found particularly desirable.

也让一些人觉得非常合适。

Later on, in his attempt to establish a unified, fascist state,

后来为了建立一个统一的法西斯国家，

Italian dictator Benito Mussolini saw language standardization

意大利独裁者贝尼托墨索里尼 将语言标准化

as an important objective.

作为一个重要的目标。

His government promoted standard Italian while prohibiting other forms of speech

墨索里尼政府推行标准意大利语， 同时严令禁止其他意大利的语音，

from the public sphere,

特别是在公共领域，

framing them as backward and unsophisticated.

将这些语音形式 塑造为愚昧落后的代表。

In everything from job applications to court testimonies,

生活中的一切， 从工作申请到法庭证词，

standard languages act as gatekeepers around the world.

标准语言在世界各地 扮演者守门员的角色。

For instance, one 1999 study showed that landlords responded to apartment inquiries

例如，1999年的一项研究表明， 房东对于租客的选择

based on what form of speech their prospective tenants used.

取决于准租客所使用的语音。

When callers spoke African-American Vernacular English, or AAVE,

当准租客说非洲英语、土话英语 或者非洲裔土话英语（AAVE）时，

landlords were more likely to reject their inquiries.

房东倾向于拒绝他们的租房申请。

When they spoke so-called Standard American English,

当准租客使用所谓的标准美式英语时，

which is often associated with whiteness,

通常被认为是白人，

landlords responded more positively.

房东的反应则通常会比较积极。

Both of these forms of speech are considered English dialects.

以上这些语音都被认作是英语的方言。

In the United States, some people have cast AAVE

在美国，有些人会将非洲裔土话英语（AAVE）

as an incorrect or simplified version of mainstream US English.

认为是主流美式英语的 简化或错误的版本。

But AAVE follows consistent grammatical rules

但是，非洲裔土话英语（AAVE） 遵循相同的语法规则，

every bit as sophisticated as other forms of English.

样样与其他形式的英语一样复杂。

Linguists tend to avoid the term dialect altogether.

语言学家倾向于避免使用方言一词。

Instead, many opt to call different forms of speech “varieties.”

取而代之，很多人选择称其为 不同“变异”的语音形式。

This way, languages are seen as groups of varieties.

这样一来，语言被看作是 不同组别的变异。

So the English language is made up of varieties

所以，英语由以下变异组成，

including Standard British and American English, AAVE,

包括英式英语、美式英语， 非洲裔土话英语（AAVE）、

Nigerian English, Malaysian English, and many others.

尼日利亚英语、马来西亚英语等...

Each has its own unique history and characteristic pronunciation,

各有自己独特的历史、特色的发音、

vocabulary, and grammatical structures.

词汇以及语法结构。

But the dividing line between varieties is murky.

但不同变异间的界限是模糊的。

Human language, in all its cross-pollinating, ever-evolving glory,

人类语言的美妙之处 就在于相互交融、自我进化，

naturally resists the impulse to sort it into neat buckets.

自然拒绝将其标准化并整齐排列。

Oftentimes, forms of speech exist on a kind of linguistic continuum

多数情况下，语言形式 存在于语言的连续体中，

where they overlap with others,

并在其中相互交叠嵌套，

and the differences between them are gradual—

使得他们之间的区别

not clear cut.

逐渐模糊，不是一切两半。

And that’s the confounding beauty of the dynamic, diverse,

这就是语言的精妙之处： 动感，多元

and dazzling universe of human communication.

并闪耀在人类交流的宇宙之中。