What makes a language... a language? - Martin Hilpert

譯者: Lilian Chiu 審譯者: Helen Chang

The distinct forms of speech heard

在德國布萊梅和瑞士茵特拉肯附近

around Bremen, Germany and Interlaken, Switzerland

會聼到的獨特言語形式

are considered regional dialects of the German language.

被認爲是德語的區域性方言。

And yet, when someone from Bremen is visiting the Swiss Alps,

然而，當來自布萊梅的人 到瑞士阿爾卑斯山時，

the conversations they hear between locals will likely be incomprehensible to them.

他們很可能無法理解當地人的對話。

Similarly, outside of China,

同樣，在中國以外的地方，

Mandarin and Cantonese are often referred to as Chinese dialects.

北京話和廣東話

通常被稱為是中國話的方言。

But they’re even more dissimilar than Spanish and Italian.

但它們的差異可能還比西班牙語 和義大利語更不同。

On the other hand, speakers of Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish,

另一方面，說丹麥語、 挪威語，及瑞典語

which are recognized as three distinct languages,

這三種不同語言的人，

can usually communicate in their native tongues with little difficulty.

通常能用他們的母語 溝通，不太會有問題。

And Turkish language soap operas, broadcast without dubbing or subtitles,

沒有配音或字幕的土耳其語肥皂劇

are some of the most popular shows in Azeri-speaking Azerbaijan.

在說亞塞拜然語的亞塞拜然 竟是最熱門的節目之一。

So, when is a form of speech considered a dialect versus a language?

那麼，分別方言和語言的形式為何？

It seems reasonable that the degree of mutual intelligibility would determine

很合理的想法是： 用可相互理解的程度

whether two ways of speaking are classified as separate languages

來判斷兩種説話方式

是獨立的語言還是 同一種語言的方言。

or as dialects of the same language.

But as we've seen, there are many occasions where this is not the case.

但剛才已經說明過， 很多情況並非如此。

Perhaps surprisingly, the distinction between a language and a dialect

也許會很讓人驚訝， 語言和方言之間的區別

usually has nothing to do with pronunciation, vocabulary,

通常無關發音、

字彙，或任何其他語言特徵。

or any other linguistic features.

However, it’s not coincidental, either.

但是，這也不是巧合。

It’s a matter of politics.

這是政治問題。

The basis for what’s officially deemed a language

決定什麼是正式語言的 條件基礎來自於

was shaped by the emergence of a European nation states beginning around the 1500s.

歐洲民族國家 從 1500 年代開始出現。

In order to establish and maintain centralized governments,

爲了建立和維持中央集權的政府、

clear territorial boundaries, and state-sponsored education systems,

明確的領土邊界，

及國家贊助的教育系統，

many nation states promoted a standardized language.

許多民族國家提倡標準化語言。

Which form of speech was chosen to be the standard language

哪種言語形式會被選為標準語言

was usually based on what people spoke in the capital.

通常就看首都的人使用哪一種。

And while other forms of speech persisted, they were often treated as inferior.

雖然其他言語形式依然存在，

它們往往被視爲較次等。

This tradition extended across the globe with European colonization

這項傳統隨著歐洲殖民延伸至全球，

and into modern times.

一直到現代。

Italy, for example, has at least 15 of what might be called regional dialects.

比如，義大利就有至少十五種所謂的

地區性方言。

One of them, the Florentine dialect,

其中之一，佛羅倫斯方言，

became known as Standard Italian when the country politically unified in 1861.

成了標準義大利語，

它就是在 1861 年全國 政治統一時被選中的。

It was selected because legendary authors like Dante and Machiavelli

會選中它，是因為傳奇作家 如但丁和馬基雅弗利

used it in their original works,

在他們的原創作品中使用它。

And it came to represent an image of Italian national identity

它漸漸開始代表一些人非常滿意的

that some found particularly desirable.

義大利民族身分形象。

Later on, in his attempt to establish a unified, fascist state,

後來，義大利獨裁者墨索里尼 在試圖建立統一的

Italian dictator Benito Mussolini saw language standardization

法西斯主義國家時

把語言標準化視為

as an important objective.

一個重要的目標。

His government promoted standard Italian while prohibiting other forms of speech

他的政府提倡標準義大利語，

同時禁止在公共場合 使用其它形式的言語，

from the public sphere,

framing them as backward and unsophisticated.

聲稱這些言語形式 是落後的、簡略的。

In everything from job applications to court testimonies,

從工作應徵書到法庭證詞，

standard languages act as gatekeepers around the world.

在世界各地，標準語言 都扮演著守門人的角色。

For instance, one 1999 study showed that landlords responded to apartment inquiries

例如，一項 1999 年的研究

指出房東對於公寓探詢的回應

based on what form of speech their prospective tenants used.

會根據未來房客所使用的 言語形式而有所不同。

When callers spoke African-American Vernacular English, or AAVE,

若打電話來的人説的 是非裔美國人白話英語

即 AAVE，

landlords were more likely to reject their inquiries.

房東比較有可能拒絕他們的探詢。

When they spoke so-called Standard American English,

若説的是所謂的標準美語，

which is often associated with whiteness,

這種語言通常是白人在說的，

landlords responded more positively.

房東的回應會更正面。

Both of these forms of speech are considered English dialects.

這兩種言語形式都被 認爲是英語的方言。

In the United States, some people have cast AAVE

在美國，有些人會將 AAVE 歸為

as an incorrect or simplified version of mainstream US English.

不正確或簡化版的

美國主流英語。

But AAVE follows consistent grammatical rules

但 AAVE 其實有遵循 一致的語法規則，

every bit as sophisticated as other forms of English.

每一部分都和其他 形式的英語一樣複雜。

Linguists tend to avoid the term dialect altogether.

語言學家常常直接避免 使用「方言」這個詞。

Instead, many opt to call different forms of speech “varieties.”

許多人反而選擇把 不同形式的言語稱爲

「變體」。

This way, languages are seen as groups of varieties.

這麼一來，語言就能 被視爲成組的變體。

So the English language is made up of varieties

因此，英語就包含了這些變體：

including Standard British and American English, AAVE,

標準英式和美式英語、

AAVE、奈及利亞英語、

Nigerian English, Malaysian English, and many others.

馬來西亞英語，及許多其他的。

Each has its own unique history and characteristic pronunciation,

每種都有自己獨特的歷史

和獨有的發音、 字彙，以及文法結構。

vocabulary, and grammatical structures.

But the dividing line between varieties is murky.

但變體之間的分界限很模糊。

Human language, in all its cross-pollinating, ever-evolving glory,

有著相互影響且不斷演進 特性的堂堂人類語言

naturally resists the impulse to sort it into neat buckets.

很自然就會抗拒 將它明確分類的衝動。

Oftentimes, forms of speech exist on a kind of linguistic continuum

通常，言語形式都是存在於 一種語言連續體上，

where they overlap with others,

會相互重疊，

and the differences between them are gradual—

且它們之間的差異是漸進式的——

not clear cut.

不是一刀切開。

And that’s the confounding beauty of the dynamic, diverse,

人類交流動領域是動態的、 多樣性的、迷人的，

and dazzling universe of human communication.

這正是它讓人摸不清的美妙之處。