How are microchips made? - George Zaidan and Sajan Saini

譯者: 楊佳穎 118-30 審譯者: 麗玲 辛

This is a computer chip, magnified 500 times.

這是一個放大了 500 倍的電腦晶片。

What you’re looking at is the top of a computing city,

你現在看到的是計算城市的頂部，

with distinct neighborhoods for different functions.

不同街區代表不同功能。

They’re linked by up to 100 kilometers of ultra-thin copper lines,

它們由多達 100 公里的 超薄銅線連接，

running across 10 or more stacked levels.

跨越了 10 個或更多堆疊層次。

At the very bottom, billions of electronic devices

在最底部，數十億個電子元件

generate the digital traffic that pulses across the chip.

產生數位流量， 並在晶片上脈動傳輸。

The most common of these devices is called a transistor;

這些元件中最常見的 稱為電晶體；

it’s a switch that allows current to flow if it receives a voltage.

它是一個開關， 接收到電壓時允許電流流過。

Transistors can be as small as 20 nanometers,

電晶體可以小至 20 奈米，

and more than 50 billion of them can fit on a single chip.

而單一晶片能夠容納 超過 500 億個。

Globally, we produce more than a trillion computer chips every year.

全球每年生產超過 一兆個電腦晶片，

That’s about 20 trillion transistors built every second,

代表每秒製造約 20 兆個電晶體，

and it’s done in fewer than 500 fabrication plants, known as fabs.

而且這在不到 500 座的 半導體製造廠（fab）內完成。

How do we build so many tiny, intricately-connected devices,

我們是如何極其快速地 建構這麼多微小又

so incredibly fast?

複雜精細的元件？

The answer involves a technology called photolithography,

答案涉及一種技術， 稱為微影製程，

which helps us build all the devices on a chip simultaneously.

它可以幫助我們在晶片上 同時建構所有元件。

It’s like constructing all the buildings in a city at the same time.

就像在一座城市中 同時建造所有建築物一樣。

And with no tiny construction crews to help,

沒有迷你施工團隊的協助，

we build using light as a measuring and sculpting tool.

我們使用光線作為 測量和雕刻工具來進行。

The process starts with a wafer of silicon,

該過程從矽晶圓開始，

which is doused in solvents and acids to strip it clean before entering a furnace.

將其浸泡在溶劑和酸液中 清洗乾淨，接著再送進熔爐。

Here, oxygen gas reacts with the wafer to form a layer of silicon dioxide.

在爐中，氧氣與晶圓產生反應， 形成一層二氧化矽。

Then, a liquid called “photoresist” is spun on and baked to harden.

然後，旋轉塗上一種稱作「光阻劑」 的液體，並經過烘烤硬化。

Next, ultraviolet light selectively illuminates the wafer,

接下來，紫外光藉由 穿透或反射於特殊光罩，

by passing through or reflecting off a specialized mask.

選擇性地照射晶圓。

In the lit areas, a reaction weakens the photoresist’s chemical bonds.

在被曝光的區域，光阻劑的 化學鍵會因反應而變弱。

The wafer is doused in another chemical to wash away that weakened photoresist,

晶圓被浸入另一種化學物質， 以清除弱化的光阻劑，

leaving an image of the mask.

並留下光罩的圖像。

And an etching machine’s reactive gases remove the exposed oxide,

蝕刻機的活性氣體會 去除裸露的氧化物，

creating windows that drill the mask’s pattern down to the wafer surface.

在晶圓表面鐫刻出 符合光罩圖案的窗口。

An implanter then accelerates boron or phosphorus ions

接著，離子植入機 加速硼或磷離子，

and slams them into the patterned openings.

並將它們注入 那些圖案的開口中。

These atoms form electropositive or electronegative regions

這些原子形成正電或負電區域，

that change silicon’s conductivity,

改變矽的導電性，

creating the foundation of the transistor switch.

進而建立了電晶體 開關的基礎。

The etched oxide windows, however, create hill-and-valley features.

然而，先前蝕刻出的 氧化物窗口造成了山谷地形。

Before the next level of copper lines are added,

在添加新一層的銅線之前，

this one’s uneven lines must be polished flat,

這片凹凸必須被拋光至

to near-atomic precision, using a sophisticated grinding process

接近原子級的精確度， 為此使用精密的研磨流程，

called chemical mechanical polishing, or CMP.

稱為化學機械研磨或 CMP 。

CMP uses a controlled slurry of sub-micron ceramic particles

CMP 利用受控的 次微米陶瓷顆粒漿液，

to gently scrape and flatten the bumpy features.

輕柔地刮平粗糙的表面。

These fab tools, and many others, are used hundreds of times on a wafer,

諸如此類的廠房設備， 會在一片晶圓上使用數百次，

to create and link transistors into computing logic gates,

目的是製作、連接電晶體， 形成運算邏輯閘，

and to make connected neighborhoods for memory storage and computation.

並創建相互連結的 記憶體儲存與計算區域。

Fabs run around the clock,

廠房全天候運行，

and it takes about three months to transform a single wafer from pure silicon

大約需要三個月才能將 單片晶圓從純矽轉化為

into hundreds of chips.

上百個晶片。

With this continuous operation,

由於這種持續運作，

fabs consume huge amounts of electricity, water, solvents, acids, bases,

製造廠消耗大量的電力、水、 溶劑、酸性與鹼性溶液、

process gases, and precious metals.

製程氣體和貴金屬。

Wafers are processed in ultra-high purity tool chambers,

晶圓在超高純度的 設備空間中加工，

maintained by pumps running constantly,

由不斷運行的幫浦維護，

to sustain a vacuum that resembles deep space.

以維持類似深空的真空環境。

High-temperature furnaces never turn off.

高溫熔爐永遠不會關閉。

Fab air handlers constantly expel filtered air

廠房的空氣處理系統 持續排出過濾後的空氣，

to corral dust and tiny particles away from wafers.

以驅散晶圓上的灰塵與微粒。

This takes a lot of electricity.

這需要龐大的電力。

The chemicals and purified water used in cleaning

用於清潔的化學物質和純淨水，

create nearly five gallons of waste per wafer run—

每處理一片晶圓，就會產生 將近五加侖的廢棄物——

which needs to be filtered and pH treated.

這些都須進行過濾和 pH 調整。

Meanwhile, CMP slurries are continually flushed with water

同時，CMP 漿液會 不斷地被水沖洗，

to keep their fine particles from forming chunks

以防止它們的微粒結塊，

that would tear apart the fragile copper lines.

撕裂脆弱的銅線。

This adds five times more liquid waste.

這增加了五倍的液態廢棄物。

Fabs plow through vast amounts of nitrogen and helium gas to run their tools.

製造廠耗費大量的氮氣和 氦氣來運轉其設備。

And other gases used and generated in these tools are greenhouse contributors.

在這些設備中使用與產生的 其他氣體會助長溫室效應。

To minimize their emission,

為了使排放量降到最低，

machines called scrubbers decompose and dissolve some gaseous byproducts

一種稱為洗滌器的機器 會分解氣態副產物，

into treatable wastewater.

並將其溶解到 可處理的廢水中。

That uses more electricity, and more water.

這用掉更多的電力和水。

As computing complexity grows,

隨著計算複雜性的增加，

more copper and precious metals are needed to link up chips.

需要更多的銅和貴金屬 來連接晶片。

And new problems arise:

另外，新的問題出現了：

today, PFAS-based photoresists are essential to make ever-smaller features.

如今，基於 PFAS 的光阻劑 對製造越來越小的結構至關重要。

But PFAS waste in the environment is ending up in our bodies,

但環境中的 PFAS 廢棄物 最終會進入我們體內，

and it may be harmful.

並且可能造成危害。

Computer chips are modern marvels that have transformed our world—

電腦晶片是現代奇蹟， 它們改變了我們的世界——

and the factories that build them are themselves engineering wonders.

而建構它們的廠房本身 就是工程壯舉。

But as our demand for chips accelerates,

然而，隨著我們對晶片的需求增長，

their fabrication is hitting hard sustainability limits.

它們的製造正面臨 嚴峻的永續發展限制。

Already, some places are beginning to ration water to farmers,

有些地方已經開始 對農民實施用水配給，

in favor of running fabs.

以利營運廠房。

For the sake of the future of computing and our environment,

為了運算技術與環境的未來，

tomorrow’s leaner, cleaner, and greener fabs

今後的製造廠必須變得 更精簡、乾淨、環保，

will need to run even smarter than the very chips they build.

運行起來比它們 建構的晶片還聰明。