What makes a language... a language? - Martin Hilpert

786,986 views ใƒป 2021-09-09

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: Ido Dekkers ืขืจื™ื›ื”: zeeva livshitz
00:07
The distinct forms of speech heard
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ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ื”ื“ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืžื•ื‘ื—ื ื•ืช ืฉื ืฉืžืขื•ืช
00:09
around Bremen, Germany and Interlaken, Switzerland
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ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ื‘ืจืžืŸ ื’ืจืžื ื™ื” ื•ืื™ื ื˜ืจืœืงืŸ ืฉื•ื•ื™ืฆืจื™ื”
00:12
are considered regional dialects of the German language.
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ื ื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช ืœื ื™ื‘ื™ื ืžืงื•ืžื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืคื” ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช.
00:15
And yet, when someone from Bremen is visiting the Swiss Alps,
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ื•ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ, ื›ืฉืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืžื‘ืจืžืŸ ืžื‘ืงืจ ื‘ืืœืคื™ื ื”ืฉื•ื•ื™ืฆืจื™ื,
00:19
the conversations they hear between locals will likely be incomprehensible to them.
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ื”ืฉื™ื—ื” ืฉื”ื ืฉื•ืžืขื™ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืžืงื•ืžื™ื™ื ื›ื ืจืื” ืชื”ื™ื” ื‘ืœืชื™ ืžื•ื‘ื ืช ืœื”ื.
00:24
Similarly, outside of China,
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ื‘ื“ื•ืžื”, ืžื—ื•ืฅ ืœืกื™ืŸ,
00:26
Mandarin and Cantonese are often referred to as Chinese dialects.
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ืคืขืžื™ื ืžืชื™ื™ื—ืกื™ื ืœืžื ื“ืจื™ื ื™ืช ื•ืงื ื˜ื•ื ื–ื™ืช ื›ื ื™ื‘ื™ื ืฉืœ ืกื™ื ื™ืช.
00:31
But theyโ€™re even more dissimilar than Spanish and Italian.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื ืืคื™ืœื• ืฉื•ื ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืกืคืจื“ื™ืช ื•ืื™ื˜ืœืงื™ืช.
00:35
On the other hand, speakers of Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish,
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ืžืฆื“ ืฉื ื™, ื“ื•ื‘ืจื™ ื“ื ื™ืช, ื ื•ืจื•ื•ื’ื™ืช ื•ืฉื•ื•ื“ื™ืช,
00:38
which are recognized as three distinct languages,
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ืฉืžื–ื•ื”ื•ืช ื›ืฉืœื•ืฉ ืฉืคื•ืช ืžื•ื‘ื—ื ื•ืช,
00:41
can usually communicate in their native tongues with little difficulty.
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ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืชืงืฉืจ ื‘ืฉืคื” ืฉืœื”ื ื‘ืœื™ ืงื•ืฉื™.
00:44
And Turkish language soap operas, broadcast without dubbing or subtitles,
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ื•ืื•ืคืจื•ืช ืกื‘ื•ืŸ ื‘ืฉืคื” ื”ื˜ื•ืจืงื™ืช, ืฉืžืฉื•ื“ืจื•ืช ื‘ืœื™ ื“ื™ื‘ื•ื‘ ืื• ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช,
00:49
are some of the most popular shows in Azeri-speaking Azerbaijan.
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ื”ืŸ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืคื•ืคื•ืœืจื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื–ืจื‘ื™ื’โ€™ืŸ ื“ื•ื‘ืจืช ื”ืื–ืจื™ืช.
00:54
So, when is a form of speech considered a dialect versus a language?
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ืื–, ืžืชื™ ืฆื•ืจื” ืฉืœ ื“ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื ื—ืฉื‘ืช ืœื ื™ื‘ ืžื•ืœ ืฉืคื”?
00:58
It seems reasonable that the degree of mutual intelligibility would determine
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ื ืจืื” ื”ื’ื™ื•ื ื™ ืฉืจืžืช ื”ื”ื‘ื ื” ื”ื”ื“ื“ื™ืช ืชืงื‘ืข
01:02
whether two ways of speaking are classified as separate languages
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ืื ืฉืชื™ ื“ืจื›ื™ ื“ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ืžื•ื’ื“ืจื•ืช ื›ืฉืคื•ืช ื ืคืจื“ื•ืช
01:06
or as dialects of the same language.
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ืื• ื›ื ื™ื‘ื™ื ืฉืœ ืื•ืชื” ืฉืคื”.
01:08
But as we've seen, there are many occasions where this is not the case.
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืžื• ืฉืจืื™ื ื•, ื™ืฉ ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžืงืจื™ื ืฉื–ื” ืœื ื”ืžืงืจื”.
01:12
Perhaps surprisingly, the distinction between a language and a dialect
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ืื•ืœื™ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžืคืชื™ืข, ืœืื‘ื—ื ื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉืคื•ืช ืœื ื™ื‘ื™ื
01:16
usually has nothing to do with pronunciation, vocabulary,
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ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ืื™ืŸ ืงืฉืจ ืœื”ื’ื™ื”, ืœืื•ืฆืจ ื”ืžื™ืœื™ื,
01:20
or any other linguistic features.
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ืื• ืœื›ืœ ืชื›ื•ื ื” ืœืฉื•ื ื™ืช ืื—ืจืช.
01:22
However, itโ€™s not coincidental, either.
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ืขื ื–ืืช, ื–ื” ื’ื ืœื ืžืงืจื™.
01:25
Itโ€™s a matter of politics.
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ื–ื” ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืฉืœ ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืงื”.
01:27
The basis for whatโ€™s officially deemed a language
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ื”ื‘ืกื™ืก ืœืžื” ืฉื ื—ืฉื‘ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืจืฉืžื™ ื›ืฉืคื”
01:30
was shaped by the emergence of a European nation states beginning around the 1500s.
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ืขื•ืฆื‘ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืขืœื™ื™ืช ื”ืื•ืžื•ืช ื”ืืจื•ืคืื™ื•ืช ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื”ืžืื” ื” 16.
01:35
In order to establish and maintain centralized governments,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืงื™ื ื•ืœืงื™ื™ื ืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืจื›ื–ื™,
01:38
clear territorial boundaries, and state-sponsored education systems,
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ื’ื‘ื•ืœื•ืช ื˜ืจื™ื˜ื•ืจื™ืืœื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื•ืจื™ื, ื•ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ืžืžื•ืžื ื•ืช ืžื“ื™ื ื”,
01:43
many nation states promoted a standardized language.
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ืื•ืžื•ืช ืงื™ื“ืžื• ืฉืคื” ืกื˜ื ื“ืจื˜ื™ืช.
01:46
Which form of speech was chosen to be the standard language
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ืื™ื–ื” ืฆื•ืจื” ืฉืœ ื“ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื ื‘ื—ืจื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื”ืฉืคื” ื”ืกื˜ื ื“ืจื˜ื™ืช
01:49
was usually based on what people spoke in the capital.
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ื”ืชื‘ืกืกื” ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ืขืœ ืžื” ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ื“ื™ื‘ืจื• ื‘ื‘ื™ืจื”.
01:52
And while other forms of speech persisted, they were often treated as inferior.
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ื•ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉืฆื•ืจื•ืช ื“ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ืื—ืจื•ืช ื ืฉืืจื•, ื”ืŸ ื”ืจื‘ื” ืคืขืžื™ื ื ื—ืฉื‘ื• ืœื ื—ื•ืชื•ืช.
01:57
This tradition extended across the globe with European colonization
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ื”ืžืกื•ืจืช ื”ื–ื• ื ืžืฉื›ื” ืœืจื•ื—ื‘ ื”ื’ืœื•ื‘ื•ืก ืขื ื”ืงื•ืœื•ื ื™ื–ืฆื™ื” ื”ืืจื•ืคืื™ืช
02:01
and into modern times.
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ื•ืขื“ ืœื–ืžื ื™ื ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ื™ื.
02:03
Italy, for example, has at least 15 of what might be called regional dialects.
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ืœืื™ื˜ืœื™ื”, ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”, ื™ืฉ ืœืคื—ื•ืช 15 ืžืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืงื•ืจืื™ื ืœื”ื ื ื™ื‘ื™ื ืžืงื•ืžื™ื™ื.
02:09
One of them, the Florentine dialect,
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ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื, ื”ื“ื™ืืœืงื˜ ื”ืคืœื•ืจื ื˜ื™ื ื™,
02:11
became known as Standard Italian when the country politically unified in 1861.
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ื”ืคืš ืœื™ื“ื•ืข ื›ืื™ื˜ืœืงื™ืช ื”ืกื˜ื ื“ืจื˜ื™ืช ื›ืฉื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื”ืชืื—ื“ื” ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืช ื‘ 1861.
02:17
It was selected because legendary authors like Dante and Machiavelli
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ื”ื•ื ื ื‘ื—ืจ ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉืกื•ืคืจื™ื ืื’ื“ื™ื™ื ื›ืžื• ื“ื ื˜ื” ื•ืžืงื™ืื•ื•ืœื™
02:21
used it in their original works,
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ื”ืฉืชืžืฉื• ื‘ื• ื‘ื™ืฆื™ืจื•ืช ื”ืžืงื•ืจื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื,
02:23
And it came to represent an image of Italian national identity
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ื•ื”ื•ื ื”ื’ื™ืข ืœื™ื™ืฆื’ ืชืžื•ื ื” ืฉืœ ื”ื–ื”ื•ืช ื”ืื™ื˜ืœืงื™ืช ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ืช
02:27
that some found particularly desirable.
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ืฉื›ืžื” ืžืฆืื• ื ื—ืฉืงืช ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“.
02:30
Later on, in his attempt to establish a unified, fascist state,
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ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ, ื‘ื ื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ืื•ืžื” ืคืฉื™ืกื˜ื™ืช ืžืื•ื—ื“ืช,
02:34
Italian dictator Benito Mussolini saw language standardization
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ื”ื“ื™ืงื˜ื˜ื•ืจ ื”ืื™ื˜ืœืงื™ ื‘ื ื™ื˜ื• ืžื•ืกื•ืœื™ื ื™ ืจืื” ืืช ืชืงื™ื ืช ื”ืฉืคื”
02:39
as an important objective.
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ื›ื™ืขื“ ื—ืฉื•ื‘.
02:41
His government promoted standard Italian while prohibiting other forms of speech
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ื”ืžืžืฉืœ ืฉืœื• ืงื™ื“ื ืื™ื˜ืœืงื™ืช ืกื˜ื ื“ืจื˜ื™ืช ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉืืกืจ ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ื“ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ืื—ืจื•ืช
02:45
from the public sphere,
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ืžื”ืžืจื—ื‘ ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจื™,
02:46
framing them as backward and unsophisticated.
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ืžื™ืกื’ืจ ืื•ืชืŸ ื›ื™ืฉื ื•ืช ื•ืœื ืžืชื•ื—ื›ืžื•ืช.
02:51
In everything from job applications to court testimonies,
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ื‘ื”ื›ืœ, ืžืงื‘ืœื” ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืœืขื“ื•ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ืžืฉืคื˜,
02:54
standard languages act as gatekeepers around the world.
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ืฉืคื•ืช ืกื˜ื ื“ืจื˜ื™ื•ืช ืžืฉืžืฉื•ืช ื›ืฉื•ืžืจื•ืช ื”ืฉืขืจ ืžืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืœืขื•ืœื.
02:58
For instance, one 1999 study showed that landlords responded to apartment inquiries
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ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”, ืžื—ืงืจ ืื—ื“ ืž 1999 ื”ืจืื” ืฉื‘ืขืœื™ ื‘ืชื™ื ืขื•ื ื™ื ืœืฉืืœื•ืช ืขืœ ื“ื™ืจื•ืช
03:05
based on what form of speech their prospective tenants used.
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ื‘ื”ืชื‘ืกืก ืขืœ ืฆื•ืจืช ื”ื“ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ืฉืœ ื”ื“ื™ื™ืจื™ื ื”ืขืชื™ื“ื™ื™ื ืฉืœื”ื.
03:09
When callers spoke African-American Vernacular English, or AAVE,
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ื›ืฉืžืชืงืฉืจื™ื ื“ื™ื‘ืจื• ื‘ื ื™ื‘ ืืคืจื•-ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ ืฉืœ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืื• AAVE,
03:14
landlords were more likely to reject their inquiries.
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ื‘ืขืœื™ ื‘ืชื™ื ื”ื™ื• ื‘ืกื™ื›ื•ื™ ื’ื‘ื•ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœื“ื—ื•ืช ืืช ื”ืคื ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื.
03:18
When they spoke so-called Standard American English,
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ื›ืฉื”ื ื“ื™ื‘ืจื• ืžื” ืฉื ืงืจื ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืกื˜ื ื“ืจื˜ื™ืช,
03:21
which is often associated with whiteness,
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ืฉื”ืจื‘ื” ืคืขืžื™ื ืžื–ื•ื”ื” ืขื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืœื‘ืŸ,
03:23
landlords responded more positively.
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ื‘ืขืœื™ ื‘ืชื™ื ืขื ื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ื—ื™ื•ื‘.
03:26
Both of these forms of speech are considered English dialects.
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ืฉืชื™ ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ื”ื“ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืืœื• ื ื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช ืœื ื™ื‘ื™ื ืฉืœ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช.
03:29
In the United States, some people have cast AAVE
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ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช, ื›ืžื” ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ื’ื“ื™ืจื• ืืช AAVE
03:33
as an incorrect or simplified version of mainstream US English.
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ื›ื’ืจืกื” ืœื ื ื›ื•ื ื” ืื• ืžื•ืคืฉื˜ืช ืฉืœ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ืช ืžื”ื–ืจื ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™.
03:38
But AAVE follows consistent grammatical rules
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ืื‘ืœ AAVE ืขื•ืงื‘ืช ืื—ืจื™ ื—ื•ืงื™ื ืชื—ื‘ื™ืจื™ื™ื ืขืงื‘ื™ื™ื
03:42
every bit as sophisticated as other forms of English.
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ืžืชื•ื—ื›ืžื™ื ื‘ืื•ืชื” ืžื™ื“ื” ื›ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช.
03:45
Linguists tend to avoid the term dialect altogether.
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ืœืฉื•ื ืื™ื ื ื•ื˜ื™ื ืœื”ืžื ืข ืžื”ืžื•ื ื— ื ื™ื‘ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื›ื•ืœืœ.
03:49
Instead, many opt to call different forms of speech โ€œvarieties.โ€
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ื‘ืžืงื•ื, ื”ืจื‘ื” ื ื•ื˜ื™ื ืœืงืจื•ื ืœืฆื•ืจื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื“ื™ื‘ื•ืจ โ€œืžื’ื•ื•ื ื™ืโ€
03:53
This way, languages are seen as groups of varieties.
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ื‘ื“ืจืš ื–ื•, ืฉืคื•ืช ื ืจืื•ืช ื›ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžื’ื•ื•ื ื™ื.
03:57
So the English language is made up of varieties
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ืื– ื”ืฉืคื” ื”ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืขืฉื•ื™ื” ืžืžื’ื•ื•ื ื™ื
03:59
including Standard British and American English, AAVE,
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ื›ื•ืœืœ ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ืช ืกื˜ื ื“ืจื˜ื™ืช ื•ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ืช, AAVE,
04:03
Nigerian English, Malaysian English, and many others.
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ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื ื™ื’ืจื™ืช, ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืžืœื–ื™ืช, ื•ื”ืจื‘ื” ืื—ืจื•ืช.
04:06
Each has its own unique history and characteristic pronunciation,
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ืœื›ืœ ืื—ืช ื™ืฉ ื”ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ืช ื•ื”ื’ื™ื™ื” ืžืืคื™ื™ื ืช,
04:10
vocabulary, and grammatical structures.
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ืื•ืฆืจ ืžื™ืœื™ื, ื•ืžื‘ื ื” ืชื—ื‘ื™ืจื™.
04:13
But the dividing line between varieties is murky.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืงื• ื”ืžืคืจื™ื“ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืžื’ื•ื•ื ื™ื ื”ื•ื ืžื˜ื•ืฉื˜ืฉ.
04:16
Human language, in all its cross-pollinating, ever-evolving glory,
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ื”ืฉืคื” ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช, ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ื”ืคืจื™ื” ื”ืจื•ื—ื‘ื™ืช, ื•ื”ืชื”ื™ืœื” ื”ืžืชืคืชื—ืช ืชืžื™ื“,
04:20
naturally resists the impulse to sort it into neat buckets.
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ืžืชื ื’ื“ืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื˜ื‘ืขื™ ืœื“ื—ืฃ ืœืžื™ื™ืŸ ืื•ืชื” ืœืชืื™ื ืžืกื•ื“ืจื™ื.
04:25
Oftentimes, forms of speech exist on a kind of linguistic continuum
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ืคืขืžื™ื, ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ื“ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ืงื™ื™ืžื•ืช ืขืœ ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ืจืฆืฃ ืœืฉื•ื ื™
04:29
where they overlap with others,
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ื‘ื• ื”ืŸ ื—ื•ืคืคื•ืช ืื—ืช ืืช ื”ืฉื ื™ื”,
04:31
and the differences between them are gradualโ€”
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ื•ื”ื”ื‘ื“ืœื™ื ื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ืŸ ื”ื ื”ื“ืจื’ืชื™ื™ื --
04:34
not clear cut.
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ื•ืœื ื‘ืจื•ืจื™ื ืœื’ืžืจื™.
04:35
And thatโ€™s the confounding beauty of the dynamic, diverse,
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ื•ื–ื” ื”ื™ื•ืคื™ ื”ืžื“ื”ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ื“ื™ื ืžื™, ื”ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ
04:39
and dazzling universe of human communication.
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ื•ื”ืžืกื—ืจืจ ืฉืœ ื”ืชืงืฉื•ืจืช ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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