请双击下面的英文字幕来播放视频。
翻译人员: Chunda Zeng
校对人员: Felix Chen
00:15
What is going on
0
15260
2000
这位宝宝
00:17
in this baby's mind?
1
17260
2000
在想什么?
00:19
If you'd asked people this 30 years ago,
2
19260
2000
如果你在30年前问这个问题,
00:21
most people, including psychologists,
3
21260
2000
大多数人,包括心理学家,
00:23
would have said that this baby was irrational,
4
23260
3000
会告诉你这个小孩没有理性的,
00:26
illogical, egocentric --
5
26260
2000
没逻辑, 以自我为中心——
00:28
that he couldn't take the perspective of another person
6
28260
2000
他不会站在他人的角度思考
00:30
or understand cause and effect.
7
30260
2000
或者不明白因果关系。
00:32
In the last 20 years,
8
32260
2000
在过去的20年里,
00:34
developmental science has completely overturned that picture.
9
34260
3000
发育学彻底地颠覆了这个观念。
00:37
So in some ways,
10
37260
2000
从某些角度来看,
00:39
we think that this baby's thinking
11
39260
2000
这个宝宝的思维
00:41
is like the thinking of the most brilliant scientists.
12
41260
4000
和大多数聪明的科学家的思维相同。
00:45
Let me give you just one example of this.
13
45260
2000
我可以举个这样的例子。
00:47
One thing that this baby could be thinking about,
14
47260
3000
这位宝宝可能在思考某件事,
00:50
that could be going on in his mind,
15
50260
2000
在他的脑袋瓜中,
00:52
is trying to figure out
16
52260
2000
他想要弄清楚
00:54
what's going on in the mind of that other baby.
17
54260
3000
其他婴儿在想些什么。
00:57
After all, one of the things that's hardest for all of us to do
18
57260
3000
毕竟,我们最难办到的一件事
01:00
is to figure out what other people are thinking and feeling.
19
60260
3000
是理解他人的想法和感觉。
01:03
And maybe the hardest thing of all
20
63260
2000
而最难办到的事
01:05
is to figure out that what other people think and feel
21
65260
3000
是理解他人的想法和感觉
01:08
isn't actually exactly like what we think and feel.
22
68260
2000
和我们自己的不完全一致。
01:10
Anyone who's followed politics can testify
23
70260
2000
任何追寻过政治的都可以证明
01:12
to how hard that is for some people to get.
24
72260
3000
了解他人的想法是多么困难。
01:15
We wanted to know
25
75260
2000
我们想要知道
01:17
if babies and young children
26
77260
2000
宝宝和小孩子
01:19
could understand this really profound thing about other people.
27
79260
3000
能否理解其他人的奥秘。
01:22
Now the question is: How could we ask them?
28
82260
2000
目前的问题是: 我们如何与宝宝们沟通呢?
01:24
Babies, after all, can't talk,
29
84260
2000
他们还不会说话,
01:26
and if you ask a three year-old
30
86260
2000
当你问一个三岁的小孩
01:28
to tell you what he thinks,
31
88260
2000
他在想什么时,
01:30
what you'll get is a beautiful stream of consciousness monologue
32
90260
3000
他的回答将会是一串精彩的意识流独白
01:33
about ponies and birthdays and things like that.
33
93260
3000
关于小型木马,生日,或是类似的答案。
01:36
So how do we actually ask them the question?
34
96260
3000
那我们应该如何向他们提问呢?
01:39
Well it turns out that the secret was broccoli.
35
99260
3000
秘密居然是花椰菜。
01:42
What we did -- Betty Rapacholi, who was one of my students, and I --
36
102260
4000
我们用的方法是——我的一个学生,贝蒂拉帕求利和我
01:46
was actually to give the babies two bowls of food:
37
106260
3000
给了这些宝宝们两碗食物:
01:49
one bowl of raw broccoli
38
109260
2000
一碗生的花椰菜
01:51
and one bowl of delicious goldfish crackers.
39
111260
3000
一碗是好吃的金鱼饼干。
01:54
Now all of the babies, even in Berkley,
40
114260
3000
所有的宝宝,包括在柏克莱的那些,
01:57
like the crackers and don't like the raw broccoli.
41
117260
3000
选择了饼干而不是生的花椰菜。
02:00
(Laughter)
42
120260
2000
(笑声)
02:02
But then what Betty did
43
122260
2000
但是贝蒂随后
02:04
was to take a little taste of food from each bowl.
44
124260
3000
品尝了这两种食物。
02:07
And she would act as if she liked it or she didn't.
45
127260
2000
然后作出了喜欢或不喜欢的表情。
02:09
So half the time, she acted
46
129260
2000
有一半的情况,
02:11
as if she liked the crackers and didn't like the broccoli --
47
131260
2000
她的反应和宝宝还有正常人一样——
02:13
just like a baby and any other sane person.
48
133260
3000
喜欢饼干而不喜欢花椰菜的表情。
02:16
But half the time,
49
136260
2000
但另一半情况,
02:18
what she would do is take a little bit of the broccoli
50
138260
2000
她是吃一点花椰菜
02:20
and go, "Mmmmm, broccoli.
51
140260
3000
然后说:"Mmmmm,花椰菜。
02:23
I tasted the broccoli. Mmmmm."
52
143260
3000
我吃了花椰菜。"
02:26
And then she would take a little bit of the crackers,
53
146260
2000
然后当她吃到饼干的时候,
02:28
and she'd go, "Eww, yuck, crackers.
54
148260
4000
她说:"饼干真难吃。
02:32
I tasted the crackers. Eww, yuck."
55
152260
3000
我居然吃了饼干。真恶心。"
02:35
So she'd act as if what she wanted
56
155260
2000
所以她假装自己喜欢吃的
02:37
was just the opposite of what the babies wanted.
57
157260
3000
和宝宝们喜欢的恰恰相反。
02:40
We did this with 15 and 18 month-old babies.
58
160260
2000
我们对15个月和18个月大的宝宝们做了这个实验。
02:42
And then she would simply put her hand out and say,
59
162260
3000
贝蒂将自己的手伸出说:
02:45
"Can you give me some?"
60
165260
2000
“能给我点吗?"
02:47
So the question is: What would the baby give her,
61
167260
2000
但大家都想知道:宝宝会给她什么,
02:49
what they liked or what she liked?
62
169260
2000
是贝蒂喜欢的还是自己喜欢的?
02:51
And the remarkable thing was that 18 month-old babies,
63
171260
3000
让人惊讶的是18岁大的宝宝,
02:54
just barely walking and talking,
64
174260
2000
虽然还没有开始走路和说话,
02:56
would give her the crackers if she liked the crackers,
65
176260
3000
给了贝蒂饼干如果她喜欢饼干,
02:59
but they would give her the broccoli if she liked the broccoli.
66
179260
3000
但给了她花椰菜如果她喜欢的是花椰菜。
03:02
On the other hand,
67
182260
2000
另一方面,
03:04
15 month-olds would stare at her for a long time
68
184260
2000
15岁大的宝宝会望着贝蒂
03:06
if she acted as if she liked the broccoli,
69
186260
2000
如果她说自己喜欢花椰菜,
03:08
like they couldn't figure this out.
70
188260
3000
宝宝们还是不知道。
03:11
But then after they stared for a long time,
71
191260
2000
但在观察了一段时间之后,
03:13
they would just give her the crackers,
72
193260
2000
他们给了贝蒂饼干,
03:15
what they thought everybody must like.
73
195260
2000
因为觉得所有人都会喜欢,
03:17
So there are two really remarkable things about this.
74
197260
3000
所以这项实验有两个值得关注的发现。
03:20
The first one is that these little 18 month-old babies
75
200260
3000
首先是这些18个月大的孩子
03:23
have already discovered
76
203260
2000
已经开始注意
03:25
this really profound fact about human nature,
77
205260
2000
一个人性的奥秘,
03:27
that we don't always want the same thing.
78
207260
2000
那就是我们想要的东西不同。
03:29
And what's more, they felt that they should actually do things
79
209260
2000
还有, 他们意识到自己应该做点
03:31
to help other people get what they wanted.
80
211260
3000
帮助他人达成愿望的事。
03:34
Even more remarkably though,
81
214260
2000
但更让人值得关注的是,
03:36
the fact that 15 month-olds didn't do this
82
216260
3000
15个月大的宝宝们没有这种意识
03:39
suggests that these 18 month-olds had learned
83
219260
3000
说明18月大的懂得了
03:42
this deep, profound fact about human nature
84
222260
3000
一个人性的奥秘
03:45
in the three months from when they were 15 months old.
85
225260
3000
而当他们3个月前还没有意识到。
03:48
So children both know more and learn more
86
228260
2000
所以宝宝们知道的和学到的
03:50
than we ever would have thought.
87
230260
2000
比我们想象中要多得多。
03:52
And this is just one of hundreds and hundreds of studies over the last 20 years
88
232260
4000
而只是在过去20年里的上百项调查的其中之一
03:56
that's actually demonstrated it.
89
236260
2000
证明了这个观点。
03:58
The question you might ask though is:
90
238260
2000
但是你也许想要问:
04:00
Why do children learn so much?
91
240260
3000
小孩子为什么学到这么多呢?
04:03
And how is it possible for them to learn so much
92
243260
2000
在这么短的时间里
04:05
in such a short time?
93
245260
2000
他们怎么能办得到呢?
04:07
I mean, after all, if you look at babies superficially,
94
247260
2000
我是说, 如果你只从表面来观察这些宝宝,
04:09
they seem pretty useless.
95
249260
2000
他们似乎没什么用。
04:11
And actually in many ways, they're worse than useless,
96
251260
3000
事实上在很多方面,他们比没用还没用。
04:14
because we have to put so much time and energy
97
254260
2000
因为我们需要花如此多的时间和经历
04:16
into just keeping them alive.
98
256260
2000
才能让他们生存。
04:18
But if we turn to evolution
99
258260
2000
如果我们从进化的角度
04:20
for an answer to this puzzle
100
260260
2000
来寻找
04:22
of why we spend so much time
101
262260
2000
我们为什么要花这么多时间
04:24
taking care of useless babies,
102
264260
3000
来照料这些没用的宝宝们的答案时,
04:27
it turns out that there's actually an answer.
103
267260
3000
我们找到了一个答案。
04:30
If we look across many, many different species of animals,
104
270260
3000
如果我们观察各种不同种类的动物,
04:33
not just us primates,
105
273260
2000
不光是灵长类,
04:35
but also including other mammals, birds,
106
275260
2000
包括其它哺乳动物和鸟类,
04:37
even marsupials
107
277260
2000
还有有袋目哺乳动物
04:39
like kangaroos and wombats,
108
279260
2000
比如像袋鼠和袋熊,
04:41
it turns out that there's a relationship
109
281260
2000
结果是
04:43
between how long a childhood a species has
110
283260
4000
动物的孩童时期长度
04:47
and how big their brains are compared to their bodies
111
287260
4000
和它们的脑部大小与身体的比例
04:51
and how smart and flexible they are.
112
291260
2000
还有它们的智慧和灵敏是存在关系的。
04:53
And sort of the posterbirds for this idea are the birds up there.
113
293260
3000
图片上的鸟可以证明这个观点。
04:56
On one side
114
296260
2000
左边是一只
04:58
is a New Caledonian crow.
115
298260
2000
新喀里多尼亚岛的乌鸦。
05:00
And crows and other corvidae, ravens, rooks and so forth,
116
300260
3000
像乌鸦, 其它雅科, 渡鸦, 和秃鼻乌鸦那类的鸟,
05:03
are incredibly smart birds.
117
303260
2000
都非常的聪明。
05:05
They're as smart as chimpanzees in some respects.
118
305260
3000
它们在一些方面就像猩猩一样聪明。
05:08
And this is a bird on the cover of science
119
308260
2000
这只鸟是科学杂志的封面
05:10
who's learned how to use a tool to get food.
120
310260
3000
它学会了如何用工具来取得食物。
05:13
On the other hand,
121
313260
2000
另一张图片上的鸟,
05:15
we have our friend the domestic chicken.
122
315260
2000
是我们的朋友家养鸡。
05:17
And chickens and ducks and geese and turkeys
123
317260
3000
鸡,鸭,鹅,火鸡
05:20
are basically as dumb as dumps.
124
320260
2000
基本上可以说是笨得不能再笨。
05:22
So they're very, very good at pecking for grain,
125
322260
3000
它们虽然很擅长啄食,
05:25
and they're not much good at doing anything else.
126
325260
3000
但其它方面就不行了。
05:28
Well it turns out that the babies,
127
328260
2000
可这些幼鸟,
05:30
the New Caledonian crow babies, are fledglings.
128
330260
2000
我是说新喀里多尼亚岛的幼年乌鸦,它们刚长羽毛。
05:32
They depend on their moms
129
332260
2000
在长达两年的时间里
05:34
to drop worms in their little open mouths
130
334260
3000
它们完全依赖妈妈来喂它们虫子
05:37
for as long as two years,
131
337260
2000
来喂它们虫子,
05:39
which is a really long time in the life of a bird.
132
339260
2000
而两年对于一只鸟的生命来说是非常长的一段时间。
05:41
Whereas the chickens are actually mature
133
341260
2000
鸡相对来说要成长的较快
05:43
within a couple of months.
134
343260
2000
只需要两个月的时间。
05:45
So childhood is the reason
135
345260
3000
乌鸦成为科学杂志封面的原因
05:48
why the crows end up on the cover of Science
136
348260
2000
是因为它们的童年
05:50
and the chickens end up in the soup pot.
137
350260
2000
而鸡的下场是变成锅里的汤。
05:52
There's something about that long childhood
138
352260
3000
在它们两年的童年里
05:55
that seems to be connected
139
355260
2000
有某些因素
05:57
to knowledge and learning.
140
357260
2000
似乎和知识与学习有关系。
05:59
Well what kind of explanation could we have for this?
141
359260
3000
原因究竟是什么呢?
06:02
Well some animals, like the chicken,
142
362260
3000
像鸡这类的动物,
06:05
seem to be beautifully suited
143
365260
2000
好像只擅长
06:07
to doing just one thing very well.
144
367260
2000
把某一件事做好。
06:09
So they seem to be beautifully suited
145
369260
3000
那件事
06:12
to pecking grain in one environment.
146
372260
2000
就是在一个环境中啄食。
06:14
Other creatures, like the crows,
147
374260
2000
像乌鸦这种动物,
06:16
aren't very good at doing anything in particular,
148
376260
2000
不擅长做好某件事,
06:18
but they're extremely good
149
378260
2000
但在适应不同的环境方面
06:20
at learning about laws of different environments.
150
380260
2000
它们非常擅长。
06:22
And of course, we human beings
151
382260
2000
当然,我们人类在到了像乌鸦那种穷途末路时,
06:24
are way out on the end of the distribution like the crows.
152
384260
3000
我们比它们更能想到解决的办法。
06:27
We have bigger brains relative to our bodies
153
387260
2000
我们的大脑和四肢的比例
06:29
by far than any other animal.
154
389260
2000
目前还没有任何动物能超过。
06:31
We're smarter, we're more flexible,
155
391260
2000
我们有更多的智慧和更强的适应性,
06:33
we can learn more,
156
393260
2000
可以学到更多知识,
06:35
we survive in more different environments,
157
395260
2000
还能在更多不同的环境下生存,
06:37
we migrated to cover the world and even go to outer space.
158
397260
3000
人类在地球各处居住,甚至上了外太空。
06:40
And our babies and children are dependent on us
159
400260
3000
我们的孩子对我们的依赖的时间
06:43
for much longer than the babies of any other species.
160
403260
3000
超过任何动物对父母的依赖,
06:46
My son is 23.
161
406260
2000
我儿子现年23岁。
06:48
(Laughter)
162
408260
2000
(笑声)
06:50
And at least until they're 23,
163
410260
2000
在他们23岁之前,
06:52
we're still popping those worms
164
412260
2000
我们还会把食物
06:54
into those little open mouths.
165
414260
3000
送到他们的嘴里。
06:57
All right, why would we see this correlation?
166
417260
3000
我们为什么看到这样的一个关联?
07:00
Well an idea is that that strategy, that learning strategy,
167
420260
4000
答案是学习的技巧,
07:04
is an extremely powerful, great strategy for getting on in the world,
168
424260
3000
它非常有用,对成功也很有帮助,
07:07
but it has one big disadvantage.
169
427260
2000
但也有它的不利。
07:09
And that one big disadvantage
170
429260
2000
这个不利便是
07:11
is that, until you actually do all that learning,
171
431260
3000
在你学会之前,
07:14
you're going to be helpless.
172
434260
2000
你将无法提供任何帮助。
07:16
So you don't want to have the mastodon charging at you
173
436260
3000
当一只乳齿象向你冲来的时候
07:19
and be saying to yourself,
174
439260
2000
你不会去想
07:21
"A slingshot or maybe a spear might work. Which would actually be better?"
175
441260
4000
“我到底应该用矛来刺还是用弹弓来射?”
07:25
You want to know all that
176
445260
2000
你在乳齿象出现之前
07:27
before the mastodons actually show up.
177
447260
2000
就需要知道应该怎么做。
07:29
And the way the evolutions seems to have solved that problem
178
449260
3000
而进化论似乎已经解决了这个问题
07:32
is with a kind of division of labor.
179
452260
2000
通过劳动分工。
07:34
So the idea is that we have this early period when we're completely protected.
180
454260
3000
所以普遍看法是早期的时候我们是被保护着的。
07:37
We don't have to do anything. All we have to do is learn.
181
457260
3000
我们不需要做任何事。只学就够了。
07:40
And then as adults,
182
460260
2000
但当我们成年后,
07:42
we can take all those things that we learned when we were babies and children
183
462260
3000
可以把幼年和童年时学到的东西加以运用
07:45
and actually put them to work to do things out there in the world.
184
465260
3000
并让这些知识在社会中起到作用。
07:48
So one way of thinking about it
185
468260
2000
第一种解释是
07:50
is that babies and young children
186
470260
2000
婴儿和小孩子
07:52
are like the research and development division of the human species.
187
472260
3000
就好比研究和开发人类的部门一样。
07:55
So they're the protected blue sky guys
188
475260
3000
他们在受保护的人群。
07:58
who just have to go out and learn and have good ideas,
189
478260
2000
只需要寻找和学习新的知识,
08:00
and we're production and marketing.
190
480260
2000
而我们成年人扮演的是制作和营销的角色。
08:02
We have to take all those ideas
191
482260
2000
我们需要把所有
08:04
that we learned when we were children
192
484260
2000
从孩子那里学到的知识
08:06
and actually put them to use.
193
486260
2000
应用到现实生活里。
08:08
Another way of thinking about it
194
488260
2000
另一种解释
08:10
is instead of thinking of babies and children
195
490260
2000
反对把婴儿和小孩子
08:12
as being like defective grownups,
196
492260
2000
当作是有缺陷的成人
08:14
we should think about them
197
494260
2000
而是把他们当作是
08:16
as being a different developmental stage of the same species --
198
496260
2000
处于不同的发展时段但是归类于同一种类
08:18
kind of like caterpillars and butterflies --
199
498260
3000
就像虫蛹和蝴蝶那样
08:21
except that they're actually the brilliant butterflies
200
501260
2000
不过他们是比蝴蝶要智慧得多
08:23
who are flitting around the garden and exploring,
201
503260
3000
因为孩子们可以在花园中游走与探索
08:26
and we're the caterpillars
202
506260
2000
而我们大人就是虫蛹
08:28
who are inching along our narrow, grownup, adult path.
203
508260
3000
在我们狭窄的道路上慢慢地爬行。
08:31
If this is true, if these babies are designed to learn --
204
511260
3000
如果第二种解释是真的。那这些小宝宝天生就是学习的料
08:34
and this evolutionary story would say children are for learning,
205
514260
3000
从进化论来看,他们天生就在学习,
08:37
that's what they're for --
206
517260
2000
学习就是他们的本性——
08:39
we might expect
207
519260
2000
我们可以想象
08:41
that they would have really powerful learning mechanisms.
208
521260
2000
他们可能有非常巧妙的学习技巧
08:43
And in fact, the baby's brain
209
523260
3000
事实上,小孩子的大脑
08:46
seems to be the most powerful learning computer
210
526260
2000
仿佛是整个星球上
08:48
on the planet.
211
528260
2000
最强的计算机.
08:50
But real computers are actually getting to be a lot better.
212
530260
3000
但真正的计算机其实暂时已经无法超越了。
08:53
And there's been a revolution
213
533260
2000
最近,在我们对机器学习的理解上
08:55
in our understanding of machine learning recently.
214
535260
2000
发生了一场革命。
08:57
And it all depends on the ideas of this guy,
215
537260
3000
这场革命完全是靠这个人的想法,
09:00
the Reverend Thomas Bayes,
216
540260
2000
他就是神父托马斯贝斯,
09:02
who was a statistician and mathematician in the 18th century.
217
542260
3000
18世纪时的一个统计学家和数学家。
09:05
And essentially what Bayes did
218
545260
3000
他最大的贡献
09:08
was to provide a mathematical way
219
548260
2000
是通过数学
09:10
using probability theory
220
550260
2000
使用机率定理
09:12
to characterize, describe,
221
552260
2000
描述了科学家探索世界的方式,
09:14
the way that scientists find out about the world.
222
554260
2000
并将其个性化。
09:16
So what scientists do
223
556260
2000
科学家们的方法
09:18
is they have a hypothesis that they think might be likely to start with.
224
558260
3000
是先准备一个假设
09:21
They go out and test it against the evidence.
225
561260
2000
然后为该假设找根据
09:23
The evidence makes them change that hypothesis.
226
563260
2000
根据会使他们改变假设
09:25
Then they test that new hypothesis
227
565260
2000
然后他们就开始新的假设
09:27
and so on and so forth.
228
567260
2000
过程就是这样。
09:29
And what Bayes showed was a mathematical way that you could do that.
229
569260
3000
贝斯将该过程转换为一个数学公式。
09:32
And that mathematics is at the core
230
572260
2000
数学在目前最好的机器学习项目开发中
09:34
of the best machine learning programs that we have now.
231
574260
2000
起了重要作用。
09:36
And some 10 years ago,
232
576260
2000
大约10年前,
09:38
I suggested that babies might be doing the same thing.
233
578260
4000
我提出过小孩的思考过程和科学家相同。
09:42
So if you want to know what's going on
234
582260
2000
所以你想知道在他们漂亮的棕色眼睛下面
09:44
underneath those beautiful brown eyes,
235
584260
2000
是什么样的一个世界,
09:46
I think it actually looks something like this.
236
586260
2000
我有自己的看法。
09:48
This is Reverend Bayes's notebook.
237
588260
2000
这是贝斯神父的笔记。
09:50
So I think those babies are actually making complicated calculations
238
590260
3000
我认为这些小孩子在做复杂的计算
09:53
with conditional probabilities that they're revising
239
593260
3000
通过自定的条件机率
09:56
to figure out how the world works.
240
596260
2000
来理解世间万物。
09:58
All right, now that might seem like an even taller order to actually demonstrate.
241
598260
4000
当然,这个要实际说明很困难。
10:02
Because after all, if you ask even grownups about statistics,
242
602260
2000
因为就算你问大人统计问题,
10:04
they look extremely stupid.
243
604260
2000
他们也会一问三不知。
10:06
How could it be that children are doing statistics?
244
606260
3000
那孩子们怎么可能会做统计呢?
10:09
So to test this we used a machine that we have
245
609260
2000
为了证明这个观点
10:11
called the Blicket Detector.
246
611260
2000
我们用了一个叫做玩具侦探的仪器
10:13
This is a box that lights up and plays music
247
613260
2000
如果你在这个箱子上放一些东西,其它的上面不放
10:15
when you put some things on it and not others.
248
615260
3000
那它可以发光还伴有音乐。
10:18
And using this very simple machine,
249
618260
2000
用这个简单的仪器,
10:20
my lab and others have done dozens of studies
250
620260
2000
我的实验和其它实验做了几十项研究
10:22
showing just how good babies are
251
622260
2000
证明了小孩子们在理解世间万物上
10:24
at learning about the world.
252
624260
2000
是多么得聪明。
10:26
Let me mention just one
253
626260
2000
我举一个例子
10:28
that we did with Tumar Kushner, my student.
254
628260
2000
一个和我学生图玛库什纳做的实验。
10:30
If I showed you this detector,
255
630260
2000
单看这个仪器,
10:32
you would be likely to think to begin with
256
632260
2000
你也许觉得
10:34
that the way to make the detector go
257
634260
2000
让它开始运作的方式是
10:36
would be to put a block on top of the detector.
258
636260
3000
将一块积木摆在上面
10:39
But actually, this detector
259
639260
2000
但这个仪器其实
10:41
works in a bit of a strange way.
260
641260
2000
有点奇怪
10:43
Because if you wave a block over the top of the detector,
261
643260
3000
因为你如果在仪器的上方摇摆一块积木三次,
10:46
something you wouldn't ever think of to begin with,
262
646260
3000
很多人一开始都不会这样做,
10:49
the detector will actually activate two out of three times.
263
649260
3000
那这个仪器会被启动两次。
10:52
Whereas, if you do the likely thing, put the block on the detector,
264
652260
3000
然而,如果你把积木摆在仪器的上面六次,
10:55
it will only activate two out of six times.
265
655260
4000
那只有两次会启动。
10:59
So the unlikely hypothesis
266
659260
2000
所以说看似不大可能发生的假设
11:01
actually has stronger evidence.
267
661260
2000
其实有更有力的证据。
11:03
It looks as if the waving
268
663260
2000
摇摆看起来
11:05
is a more effective strategy than the other strategy.
269
665260
2000
比其它方法更有效
11:07
So we did just this; we gave four year-olds this pattern of evidence,
270
667260
3000
我们做了这样的实验;给了4岁的孩子这个线索
11:10
and we just asked them to make it go.
271
670260
2000
然后问他们怎么才能启动仪器。
11:12
And sure enough, the four year-olds used the evidence
272
672260
3000
这些孩子当然选择用我们提供的线索
11:15
to wave the object on top of the detector.
273
675260
3000
将手中的东西对着仪器摇。
11:18
Now there are two things that are really interesting about this.
274
678260
3000
实验过程中有两个有趣的发现。
11:21
The first one is, again, remember, these are four year-olds.
275
681260
3000
首先,记住这些孩子只有四岁。
11:24
They're just learning how to count.
276
684260
2000
他们才刚刚学会数数。
11:26
But unconsciously,
277
686260
2000
但是在没有意识的情况下,
11:28
they're doing these quite complicated calculations
278
688260
2000
他们会用复杂的计算
11:30
that will give them a conditional probability measure.
279
690260
3000
来算出条件机率。
11:33
And the other interesting thing
280
693260
2000
第二个有趣的发现
11:35
is that they're using that evidence
281
695260
2000
是他们会用提供的线索
11:37
to get to an idea, get to a hypothesis about the world,
282
697260
3000
来寻找一个观点,对世界定一个假设,
11:40
that seems very unlikely to begin with.
283
700260
3000
一个不太能站得住脚的假设。
11:43
And in studies we've just been doing in my lab, similar studies,
284
703260
3000
在我实验室里的类似研究,
11:46
we've show that four year-olds are actually better
285
706260
2000
我们发现4岁的小孩
11:48
at finding out an unlikely hypothesis
286
708260
3000
在相同的任务下,比大人更擅长
11:51
than adults are when we give them exactly the same task.
287
711260
3000
找那个不大可能发生的假设。
11:54
So in these circumstances,
288
714260
2000
在这些情况下,
11:56
the children are using statistics to find out about the world,
289
716260
3000
小孩子用统计来了解世界,
11:59
but after all, scientists also do experiments,
290
719260
3000
但科学家会做实验。
12:02
and we wanted to see if children are doing experiments.
291
722260
3000
所以我们想知道小孩会不会也在做实验。
12:05
When children do experiments we call it "getting into everything"
292
725260
3000
小孩做的实验我们称它为“尝试每一种可能”
12:08
or else "playing."
293
728260
2000
或者是“玩一玩。”
12:10
And there's been a bunch of interesting studies recently
294
730260
3000
最近有很多有意思的研究显示了
12:13
that have shown this playing around
295
733260
3000
孩子的随意尝试
12:16
is really a kind of experimental research program.
296
736260
2000
的确可以作为一个研究项目。
12:18
Here's one from Cristine Legare's lab.
297
738260
3000
这是克里斯汀·勒加雷的一项实验。
12:21
What Cristine did was use our Blicket Detectors.
298
741260
3000
克里斯汀使用了了我们的玩具侦探仪器。
12:24
And what she did was show children
299
744260
2000
她向孩子展示
12:26
that yellow ones made it go and red ones didn't,
300
746260
2000
黄色才能启动仪器,红色不行,
12:28
and then she showed them an anomaly.
301
748260
3000
然后又向孩子们展示了一个奇怪现象。
12:31
And what you'll see
302
751260
2000
你等一下就可以看到
12:33
is that this little boy will go through five hypotheses
303
753260
3000
这个小男孩会在两分钟内
12:36
in the space of two minutes.
304
756260
3000
测试五个假设。
12:39
(Video) Boy: How about this?
305
759260
3000
(视频) 这个怎么样?
12:43
Same as the other side.
306
763260
3000
这边也一样。
12:46
Alison Gopnik: Okay, so his first hypothesis has just been falsified.
307
766260
4000
所以他的第一个假设已经被否认了。
12:55
(Laughter)
308
775260
2000
(笑声)
12:57
Boy: This one lighted up, and this one nothing.
309
777260
3000
这个亮了,这个没有。
13:00
AG: Okay, he's got his experimental notebook out.
310
780260
3000
看到没有,他开始记笔记了。
13:06
Boy: What's making this light up.
311
786260
4000
这盏灯为什么亮呢。
13:11
(Laughter)
312
791260
9000
(笑声)
13:20
I don't know.
313
800260
2000
我不知道。
13:22
AG: Every scientist will recognize that expression of despair.
314
802260
4000
科学家们都见过这种绝望的表情。
13:26
(Laughter)
315
806260
3000
(笑声)
13:29
Boy: Oh, it's because this needs to be like this,
316
809260
6000
我知道了。这个要这样,
13:35
and this needs to be like this.
317
815260
2000
然后这个是这样。
13:37
AG: Okay, hypothesis two.
318
817260
3000
第二个假设。
13:40
Boy: That's why.
319
820260
2000
我知道了。
13:42
Oh.
320
822260
2000
哦。
13:44
(Laughter)
321
824260
5000
(笑声)
13:49
AG: Now this is his next idea.
322
829260
2000
他有了第三个想法。
13:51
He told the experimenter to do this,
323
831260
2000
他告诉实验者这样做,
13:53
to try putting it out onto the other location.
324
833260
4000
试着把它放在一边。
13:57
Not working either.
325
837260
2000
还是不行
14:02
Boy: Oh, because the light goes only to here,
326
842260
4000
男孩:啊,因为只有这里会亮,
14:06
not here.
327
846260
3000
这里不会
14:09
Oh, the bottom of this box
328
849260
3000
盒子下面呢
14:12
has electricity in here,
329
852260
2000
这里有电,
14:14
but this doesn't have electricity.
330
854260
2000
但这边没电。
14:16
AG: Okay, that's a fourth hypothesis.
331
856260
2000
他的第四个假设。
14:18
Boy: It's lighting up.
332
858260
2000
男孩:亮了。
14:20
So when you put four.
333
860260
5000
你要在上面放四个。
14:26
So you put four on this one to make it light up
334
866260
3000
你在这上面摆四个
14:29
and two on this one to make it light up.
335
869260
2000
这上面摆两个。
14:31
AG: Okay,there's his fifth hypothesis.
336
871260
2000
测试他的第五个假设。
14:33
Now that is a particularly --
337
873260
3000
这个小男孩——
14:36
that is a particularly adorable and articulate little boy,
338
876260
3000
特别可爱,说话也很清楚,
14:39
but what Cristine discovered is this is actually quite typical.
339
879260
3000
但是克里斯汀的发现其实很正常。
14:42
If you look at the way children play, when you ask them to explain something,
340
882260
3000
如果你在小孩玩的时候观察他们,或是要他们回答某个问题,
14:45
what they really do is do a series of experiments.
341
885260
3000
他们会做一系列的尝试。
14:48
This is actually pretty typical of four year-olds.
342
888260
3000
这对于四岁的儿童来说很普遍。
14:51
Well, what's it like to be this kind of creature?
343
891260
3000
当小孩子是什么样一种经历呢?
14:54
What's it like to be one of these brilliant butterflies
344
894260
3000
像那些聪明的蝴蝶一样
14:57
who can test five hypotheses in two minutes?
345
897260
3000
在两分钟内测试五个假设?
15:00
Well, if you go back to those psychologists and philosophers,
346
900260
3000
如果你问心理学家和哲学家,
15:03
a lot of them have said
347
903260
2000
他们大部分说了
15:05
that babies and young children were barely conscious
348
905260
2000
婴儿和小孩子几乎在他们的意识
15:07
if they were conscious at all.
349
907260
2000
方面没有任何意识。
15:09
And I think just the opposite is true.
350
909260
2000
而我的看法确恰恰相反。
15:11
I think babies and children are actually more conscious than we are as adults.
351
911260
3000
我认为小孩子的意识事实上比我们大人的要强得多。
15:14
Now here's what we know about how adult consciousness works.
352
914260
3000
我们知道的一些关于大人的意识的事情。
15:17
And adults' attention and consciousness
353
917260
2000
大人的注意力和意识
15:19
look kind of like a spotlight.
354
919260
2000
就像一盏聚光灯。
15:21
So what happens for adults
355
921260
2000
但是大人
15:23
is we decide that something's relevant or important,
356
923260
2000
会自己决定哪些事有关,哪些事重要,
15:25
we should pay attention to it.
357
925260
2000
哪些事值得我们注意。
15:27
Our consciousness of that thing that we're attending to
358
927260
2000
我们对所关注事情的意识
15:29
becomes extremely bright and vivid,
359
929260
3000
变得非常明亮,非常清晰,
15:32
and everything else sort of goes dark.
360
932260
2000
其它事就反而比较暗淡。
15:34
And we even know something about the way the brain does this.
361
934260
3000
我们甚至大概知道我们的大脑为什么指挥我们这样做。
15:37
So what happens when we pay attention
362
937260
2000
那当我们集中精力时
15:39
is that the prefrontal cortex, the sort of executive part of our brains,
363
939260
3000
前额的皮层,在我们大脑中起着执行的作用,
15:42
sends a signal
364
942260
2000
发出一个信号
15:44
that makes a little part of our brain much more flexible,
365
944260
2000
让我们脑部的一小部分变得更灵活,
15:46
more plastic, better at learning,
366
946260
2000
更柔软,更会学习,
15:48
and shuts down activity
367
948260
2000
让脑部的其它部分
15:50
in all the rest of our brains.
368
950260
2000
全部休息。
15:52
So we have a very focused, purpose-driven kind of attention.
369
952260
4000
我们的注意力非常集中,有目的。
15:56
If we look at babies and young children,
370
956260
2000
如果对婴儿和小孩注意力的进行观察,
15:58
we see something very different.
371
958260
2000
我们会发现他们完全和我们不一样。
16:00
I think babies and young children
372
960260
2000
我觉得婴儿和小孩
16:02
seem to have more of a lantern of consciousness
373
962260
2000
他们意识更像一盏灯笼
16:04
than a spotlight of consciousness.
374
964260
2000
而不像聚光灯。
16:06
So babies and young children are very bad
375
966260
3000
所以他们不擅长
16:09
at narrowing down to just one thing.
376
969260
3000
将问题简化。
16:12
But they're very good at taking in lots of information
377
972260
3000
但他们非常在行在同一时间里
16:15
from lots of different sources at once.
378
975260
2000
吸收不同来源提供的信息。
16:17
And if you actually look in their brains,
379
977260
2000
如果你研究他们的大脑,
16:19
you see that they're flooded with these neurotransmitters
380
979260
3000
你就会看到里面有大量的神经传递素
16:22
that are really good at inducing learning and plasticity,
381
982260
2000
这些传递素对学习和柔软性方面都有很大帮助,
16:24
and the inhibitory parts haven't come on yet.
382
984260
3000
而且我们尚未发现任何带阻止性的元素。
16:27
So when we say that babies and young children
383
987260
2000
当我们说这些孩子
16:29
are bad at paying attention,
384
989260
2000
注意力不够集中时,
16:31
what we really mean is that they're bad at not paying attention.
385
991260
4000
其实是说他们在分散注意力方面不擅长。
16:35
So they're bad at getting rid
386
995260
2000
那就意味着他们很难
16:37
of all the interesting things that could tell them something
387
997260
2000
将注意力只集中在重要问题上
16:39
and just looking at the thing that's important.
388
999260
2000
而遗漏那些为他们提供线索的事情。
16:41
That's the kind of attention, the kind of consciousness,
389
1001260
3000
这是一种注意力,一种知觉,
16:44
that we might expect
390
1004260
2000
我们从那些生来就会学习的蝴蝶身上
16:46
from those butterflies who are designed to learn.
391
1006260
2000
见过的知觉。
16:48
Well if we want to think about a way
392
1008260
2000
如果我们大人
16:50
of getting a taste of that kind of baby consciousness as adults,
393
1010260
4000
也想体验一下小孩的那种知觉,
16:54
I think the best thing is think about cases
394
1014260
2000
我认为我们可以想象一下
16:56
where we're put in a new situation that we've never been in before --
395
1016260
3000
给自己一个从未遇到过的状况——
16:59
when we fall in love with someone new,
396
1019260
2000
比如说当我们有了新的恋人,
17:01
or when we're in a new city for the first time.
397
1021260
3000
或是来到一个新城市。
17:04
And what happens then is not that our consciousness contracts,
398
1024260
2000
结果不是我们的知觉收缩,
17:06
it expands,
399
1026260
2000
它反而扩大,
17:08
so that those three days in Paris
400
1028260
2000
在巴黎的三天
17:10
seem to be more full of consciousness and experience
401
1030260
2000
充满了更多的感觉和经历
17:12
than all the months of being
402
1032260
2000
而整个月的走路,谈话,同事开会,
17:14
a walking, talking, faculty meeting-attending zombie back home.
403
1034260
4000
还有僵尸般的回家路相对变得模糊。
17:18
And by the way, that coffee,
404
1038260
2000
另外,咖啡,
17:20
that wonderful coffee you've been drinking downstairs,
405
1040260
2000
你常在楼下喝的咖啡,
17:22
actually mimics the effect
406
1042260
2000
其实有类似
17:24
of those baby neurotransmitters.
407
1044260
2000
婴儿神经传递素的效应。
17:26
So what's it like to be a baby?
408
1046260
2000
当小孩到底是什么感觉?
17:28
It's like being in love
409
1048260
2000
它就像在第一次来到巴黎
17:30
in Paris for the first time
410
1050260
2000
在你喝了三杯双份浓缩咖啡之后
17:32
after you've had three double-espressos.
411
1052260
2000
恋爱了。
17:34
(Laughter)
412
1054260
3000
(笑声)
17:37
That's a fantastic way to be,
413
1057260
2000
这种幻觉很棒,
17:39
but it does tend to leave you waking up crying at three o'clock in the morning.
414
1059260
4000
但它会在凌晨三点中把你叫醒,哭泣。
17:43
(Laughter)
415
1063260
3000
(笑声)
17:46
Now it's good to be a grownup.
416
1066260
2000
当大人也很好。
17:48
I don't want to say too much about how wonderful babies are.
417
1068260
2000
小孩子有多好我也不多说了。
17:50
It's good to be a grownup.
418
1070260
2000
总之当大人很好。
17:52
We can do things like tie our shoelaces and cross the street by ourselves.
419
1072260
3000
我们可以绑自己的鞋带还能自己过马路。
17:55
And it makes sense that we put a lot of effort
420
1075260
2000
可以理解为什么我们花这么多时间
17:57
into making babies think like adults do.
421
1077260
4000
让小孩以大人的方式思考。
18:01
But if what we want is to be like those butterflies,
422
1081260
3000
但我们需要像这些小蝴蝶学习。
18:04
to have open-mindedness, open learning,
423
1084260
3000
才能思想开放,灵活学习,
18:07
imagination, creativity, innovation,
424
1087260
2000
加强想象力,创造力,还有创新,
18:09
maybe at least some of the time
425
1089260
2000
至少在某些时候
18:11
we should be getting the adults
426
1091260
2000
我们需要让大人
18:13
to start thinking more like children.
427
1093260
2000
开始学习小孩的思考方式。
18:15
(Applause)
428
1095260
8000
(掌声)
New videos
关于本网站
这个网站将向你介绍对学习英语有用的YouTube视频。你将看到来自世界各地的一流教师教授的英语课程。双击每个视频页面上显示的英文字幕,即可从那里播放视频。字幕会随着视频的播放而同步滚动。如果你有任何意见或要求,请使用此联系表与我们联系。