Choice, happiness and spaghetti sauce | Malcolm Gladwell

翻译人员: Haohao Chen 校对人员: Zachary Lin Zhao

I think I was supposed to talk about my new book,

我想我本该谈谈我的新书，

which is called "Blink,"

书名叫做《倾覆》，讲的是瞬间决定和第一印象。

and it's about snap judgments and first impressions.

And it comes out in January, and I hope you all buy it in triplicate.

书在一月上市，我希望你们每人都买个两三本。

(Laughter)

不过当我想到这里时，

But I was thinking about this,

and I realized that although my new book makes me happy,

我发现我的新书虽然使我很开心，

我觉得也使我妈妈很开心，

and I think would make my mother happy,

it's not really about happiness.

但是书本身谈的并不是快乐。

So I decided instead, I would talk about someone

因此我决定，我要谈一个人

who I think has done as much to make Americans happy

我认为在过去的二十年里，他为了让美国人快乐

as perhaps anyone over the last 20 years,

付出了比任何人都多的努力。

a man who is a great personal hero of mine:

他是我个人崇敬的一个伟大英雄。

someone by the name of Howard Moskowitz,

他的名字是霍华德·莫斯科维茨，

who is most famous for reinventing spaghetti sauce.

一个以重新发明了意粉酱而闻名的人。

Howard's about this high, and he's round,

霍华德大概有这么高，圆圆的，

and he's in his 60s, and he has big huge glasses

他六十多岁，戴着大大的眼镜，

头发稀疏灰白，不过他很有精神活力。

and thinning gray hair,

and he has a kind of wonderful exuberance and vitality,

and he has a parrot, and he loves the opera,

他养有一只鹦鹉，他喜欢歌剧，

and he's a great aficionado of medieval history.

他还是一个中世纪历史的狂热爱好者。

And by profession, he's a psychophysicist.

他的职业，是精神物理学家。

Now, I should tell you that I have no idea what psychophysics is,

老实说，我根本不知道精神物理学是干什么的，

although at some point in my life,

虽然我早年曾与一个女孩交往过两年，

I dated a girl for two years

who was getting her doctorate in psychophysics.

她当时读的就是精神物理学博士。

Which should tell you something about that relationship.

你也知道这段交往大概是怎么样的了。

(Laughter)

As far as I know, psychophysics is about measuring things.

据我所知，精神物理学讲的是测量事物。

And Howard is very interested in measuring things.

霍华德很热衷于测量事物。

And he graduated with his doctorate from Harvard,

他还是哈佛博士毕业的，

他在纽约州白原市设立了一个小顾问公司。

and he set up a little consulting shop in White Plains, New York.

他的第一个客户是… 这是很多年前的事了，在七十年代初

And one of his first clients was Pepsi.

This is many years ago, back in the early 70s.

他最早的客户之一是百事公司。

And Pepsi came to Howard and they said,

百事的人找到霍华德，说：

"You know, there's this new thing called aspartame,

“你看，有一样新东西叫做阿斯巴甜，

and we would like to make Diet Pepsi.

我们想要用来生产百事轻怡。

We'd like you to figure out

我们想要你找出在每一罐百事轻怡里

how much aspartame we should put in each can of Diet Pepsi

放多少的阿斯巴甜，才能做出一种完美的饮料。” 对吧？

in order to have the perfect drink."

Now that sounds like an incredibly straightforward question to answer,

这个问题听上去非常地容易回答，

and that's what Howard thought.

霍华德也是这么想的。因为百事公司告诉他：

Because Pepsi told him,

"We're working with a band between eight and 12 percent.

“你看，我们测试的是从 8% 到 12% 之间的范围。

Anything below eight percent sweetness is not sweet enough;

8% 以下的甜度不够甜，

anything above 12 percent sweetness is too sweet.

12% 以上的甜度太甜了。

We want to know: what's the sweet spot between 8 and 12?"

我们想要知道，8% 到 12% 之间最完美的甜度是什么？”

Now, if I gave you this problem to do, you would all say, it's very simple.

如果我现在把这个问题交给你，你会说：这个还不简单？

What we do is you make up a big experimental batch of Pepsi,

我们只要做出一系列不同甜度的百事，

at every degree of sweetness -- eight percent, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3,

8%，8.1%，8.2,%，8.3%，

all the way up to 12 --

一直到 12% 为止。然后我们让几千人来品尝，

and we try this out with thousands of people,

and we plot the results on a curve,

将结果画成一个曲线图，

and we take the most popular concentration, right?

最后取最多人喜欢的甜度。对吧？简单得很。

Really simple.

Howard does the experiment, and he gets the data back,

霍华德做了这个实验，他拿到数据，然后画成一个曲线图，

and he plots it on a curve,

and all of a sudden he realizes it's not a nice bell curve.

然后他突然发现：这并不是一个漂亮的钟形曲线。

In fact, the data doesn't make any sense.

事实上，这些数据根本毫无逻辑。

It's a mess. It's all over the place.

根本就是一团糟。

Now, most people in that business, in the world of testing food and such,

那个行业里的大多数人，做食品测试之类的，

are not dismayed when the data comes back a mess.

对于一团糟的数据并不会很在意。

They think, "Well, you know,

figuring out what people think about cola's not that easy."

他们想：你看，弄明白人们对可乐的看法不是那么简单的。

"You know, maybe we made an error somewhere along the way."

你看，说不定我们中途犯了一个错误。

"You know, let's just make an educated guess,"

我们合理猜想一下就算了，

and they simply point and they go for 10 percent,

于是他们就随便地选定 10%，正正中央。

right in the middle.

Howard is not so easily placated.

霍华德可不那么容易妥协。

Howard is a man of a certain degree of intellectual standards.

霍华德是一个有着相当程度学术标准的人。

And this was not good enough for him,

他对此并不满意，

and this question bedeviled him for years.

于是这个问题困扰了他很多年。

And he would think it through and say, "What was wrong?

他总会沉思良久，然后问：哪出错了呢？

Why could we not make sense of this experiment with Diet Pepsi?"

为什么我们弄不明白百事轻怡的这个实验呢？

And one day, he was sitting in a diner in White Plains,

有一天，他坐在白原市的一家小餐馆里，

about to go trying to dream up some work for Nescafé.

正准备要帮雀巢公司做一些工作。

And suddenly, like a bolt of lightning, the answer came to him.

突然间，灵光一现，他找到了答案。

And that is, that when they analyzed the Diet Pepsi data,

那就是：他们在分析百事轻怡的数据时，

they were asking the wrong question.

问的是一个错误的问题。

They were looking for the perfect Pepsi,

他们想要寻找一种最完美的百事，

and they should have been looking for the perfect Pepsis.

但他们要找的应当是多种完美的百事。相信我。

Trust me.

This was an enormous revelation.

这是一个巨大的启示。

This was one of the most brilliant breakthroughs in all of food science.

这是食品科学中最了不起的突破之一。

Howard immediately went on the road,

于是霍华德马上踏上了旅程，

and he would go to conferences around the country,

他参加了全国各地的研讨会，

and he would stand up and say,

站出来说：

"You had been looking for the perfect Pepsi.

你们之前找的是一种最完美的百事。你们错了。

You're wrong.

You should be looking for the perfect Pepsis."

你们要找的应当是多种完美的百事。”

And people would look at him blankly and say,

人们面无表情地看着他，然后说：

"What are you talking about? Craziness."

“你在胡说什么啊？神经病。”

And they would say, "Move! Next!"

然后他们叫道：“让开！下一个！”

Tried to get business, nobody would hire him --

他四处找生意，没有人肯雇佣他… 不过他依旧痴迷于他的想法，

he was obsessed, though,

and he talked about it and talked about it.

他不断地谈论谈论再谈论它。

Howard loves the Yiddish expression

霍华德很喜欢一句犹太谚语：

"To a worm in horseradish, the world is horseradish."

“对于一条活在辣根菜里的虫子来说，世界就是辣根菜。”

This was his horseradish.

这就是他的辣根菜。他着迷了！

(Laughter)

He was obsessed with it!

And finally, he had a breakthrough.

终于，他有了一个突破。Vlasic Pickles 公司的人找到他，

Vlasic Pickles came to him,

and they said, "Doctor Moskowitz, we want to make the perfect pickle."

他们说：“莫斯科维茨先生… 莫斯科维茨博士，

我们想要研制一种完美的酱菜。” 而他说：

And he said,

"There is no perfect pickle; there are only perfect pickles."

“世上没有一种最完美的酱菜，只有许多种完美的酱菜。”

And he came back to them and he said,

他做完研究之后对他们说：“你们不单要改进你们的普通口味酱菜，

"You don't just need to improve your regular;

you need to create zesty."

你们还要推出柑皮口味。”

And that's where we got zesty pickles.

柑皮口味酱菜就是这么来的。

Then the next person came to him: Campbell's Soup.

下一个闻名而来的客户，是金宝汤公司。

And this was even more important.

这一次更了不起。事实上，

In fact, Campbell's Soup is where Howard made his reputation.

霍华德就是靠金宝汤而扬名的。

Campbell's made Prego,

and Prego, in the early 80s, was struggling next to Ragù,

金宝汤生产 Prego 牌意粉酱，在八十年代初期，Prego 和 Ragu 竞争得不相上下。

which was the dominant spaghetti sauce of the 70s and 80s.

Ragu 牌意粉酱在七八十年代占据了市场主导地位。

In the industry -- I don't know whether you care about this,

现在这行业里… 我不知道你是不是知道这个，

or how much time I have to go into this.

或者说我要多花些时间讲详细些。

不过，技术上来说，顺带一提，

But it was, technically speaking -- this is an aside --

Prego 意粉酱比 Ragu 要好。

Prego is a better tomato sauce than Ragù.

The quality of the tomato paste is much better;

番茄酱质量更好，调味料也好多了，

the spice mix is far superior;

it adheres to the pasta in a much more pleasing way.

拌意粉吃起来更可口。事实上，

In fact, they would do the famous bowl test

他们在七十年代用 Ragu 和 Prego 做过著名的面盘试验。

back in the 70s with Ragù and Prego.

You'd have a plate of spaghetti, and you would pour it on, right?

你拿一盘意粉，然后淋上意粉酱。

And the Ragù would all go to the bottom, and the Prego would sit on top.

Ragu 会一直渗到盘底，而 Prego 会留在上面。

That's called "adherence."

这叫做“粘稠”。

And, anyway, despite the fact that they were far superior in adherence,

言归正传，尽管他们的意粉酱更粘稠，

and the quality of their tomato paste,

番茄酱的质量更好，Prego 却在挣扎求存。

Prego was struggling.

So they came to Howard, and they said, fix us.

于是他们找到霍华德，说：帮我们。

And Howard looked at their product line, and he said,

霍华德看了他们的产品线，说：

what you have is a dead tomato society.

“你们这是个半死不活的番茄帝国。”

So he said, this is what I want to do.

于是他说：“我打算这么干。”

And he got together with the Campbell's soup kitchen,

他和金宝汤公司一起，

and he made 45 varieties of spaghetti sauce.

做出了45种不同口味的意粉酱。他用了

And he varied them according to every conceivable way

一切想象得出的变量区分出这些口味。

that you can vary tomato sauce:

by sweetness, by level of garlic,

甜度，大蒜多少，辣度，酸度，番茄多少

by tomatoey-ness, by tartness, by sourness,

还有可见固体——番茄酱行业中我最喜欢的词汇。

by visible solids --

my favorite term in the spaghetti sauce business.

(Laughter)

Every conceivable way you can vary spaghetti sauce,

一切你想象得出的区分意粉酱的方法，他都用尽了。

he varied spaghetti sauce.

And then he took this whole raft of 45 spaghetti sauces,

然后他带上这一系列45种口味的意粉酱，踏上了旅程。

and he went on the road.

He went to New York, to Chicago,

他去了纽约，他去了芝加哥，他去了杰克逊维尔，

he went to Jacksonville, to Los Angeles.

他去了洛杉矶。他将一车又一车的人带进大厅里，

And he brought in people by the truckload into big halls.

And he sat them down for two hours,

让他们坐上两个小时，在这两个小时里，

and over the course of that two hours, he gave them ten bowls.

他给每人十个盘子。

Ten small bowls of pasta,

十小盘意粉，每盘一种不同的意粉酱。

with a different spaghetti sauce on each one.

And after they ate each bowl, they had to rate, from 0 to 100,

他们每吃完一盘，就打分，0 到 100，

how good they thought the spaghetti sauce was.

评他们认为这意粉酱有多好。

At the end of that process, after doing it for months and months,

最后，在经过成年累月的工作之后，

he had a mountain of data

他有了堆积如山的数据

about how the American people feel about spaghetti sauce.

关于美国人对意粉酱的看法。

And then he analyzed the data.

然后他分析这些数据。

Did he look for the most popular variety of spaghetti sauce?

他找的是一种最受欢迎的意粉酱口味吗？不是！

No! Howard doesn't believe that there is such a thing.

霍华德不相信这东西的存在。

Instead, he looked at the data, and he said,

相反，他看着这些数据，说：

let's see if we can group all these different data points into clusters.

“看看我们能不能将这些不同的数据点归类到不同的群集里。

Let's see if they congregate around certain ideas.

看看这些群集能不能给我们一些启发。

And sure enough, if you sit down,

当然，如果你坐下仔细分析这些意粉酱的数据，

and you analyze all this data on spaghetti sauce,

you realize that all Americans fall into one of three groups.

你就会发现全美国人可分为三组。

There are people who like their spaghetti sauce plain;

其中有喜欢一般意粉酱的人，

there are people who like their spaghetti sauce spicy;

有喜欢辣味意粉酱的人，

and there are people who like it extra chunky.

还有喜欢带有额外颗粒的意粉酱的人。

And of those three facts, the third one was the most significant,

在这三者中，第三个发现最有价值。

because at the time, in the early 1980s,

因为当时，在八十年代早期，

if you went to a supermarket,

如果你走进一家超市，

you would not find extra-chunky spaghetti sauce.

你找不到带有额外颗粒的意粉酱。

And Prego turned to Howard, and they said,

于是 Prego 公司问霍华德：

"You're telling me that one third of Americans

“你是说三分之一的美国人渴望吃上带有额外颗粒的意粉酱

crave extra-chunky spaghetti sauce

and yet no one is servicing their needs?"

但没有人满足他们的需要？” 他说是！

And he said "Yes!"

(Laughter)

And Prego then went back,

于是 Prego 的人回到公司，

and completely reformulated their spaghetti sauce,

全面重新调配了他们的意粉酱，

and came out with a line of extra chunky that immediately and completely

推出了一系列带有额外颗粒的意粉酱，

took over the spaghetti sauce business in this country.

迅速地全面占领了这个国家的意粉酱市场。

And over the next 10 years, they made 600 million dollars

在接下来的十年中，他们的额外颗粒系列意粉酱

off their line of extra-chunky sauces.

带来了六亿美元的生意。

Everyone else in the industry looked at what Howard had done, and they said,

这行业里其他所有人看到霍华德的成就，都说：

"Oh my god! We've been thinking all wrong!"

“天哪！我们一直都想错了！”

And that's when you started to get seven different kinds of vinegar,

从那时起，我们就有了7种不同的醋，

and 14 different kinds of mustard, and 71 different kinds of olive oil.

14种不同的芥末酱，和71种不同的橄榄油 ─

And then eventually even Ragù hired Howard,

最后连 Ragu 也雇佣了霍华德，

and Howard did the exact same thing for Ragù that he did for Prego.

然后霍华德帮 Ragu 做了他帮 Prego 做的一样的工作。

And today, if you go to a really good supermarket,

今天，如果你走进超市，一家特别好的，

你会看到 Ragu 有多少种意粉酱…

do you know how many Ragùs there are?

36!

你知道有多少种吗？36！

In six varieties:

六大不同的风味：奶酪，轻怡，留香，

Cheese, Light,

Robusto, Rich & Hearty,

浓郁，传统，额外颗粒。

Old World Traditional --

Extra-Chunky Garden.

(Laughter)

That's Howard's doing.

那就是霍华德的成就。那就是霍华德给全美国人民的礼物。

That is Howard's gift to the American people.

Now why is that important?

为什么说这很重要呢？

(Laughter)

It is, in fact, enormously important.

这的确至关重要。我会告诉你原因。

I'll explain to you why.

What Howard did is he fundamentally changed the way the food industry thinks

霍华德所做的事从根本上改变了食品行业里

about making you happy.

关于如何取悦你的思维方式

Assumption number one in the food industry used to be

食品行业曾遵循的头号信条就是：

that the way to find out what people want to eat,

找出人们想要吃什么的方法，

what will make people happy, is to ask them.

找出什么能取悦人们的方法，就是问他们。

And for years and years and years,

年复一年，年复一年地，Ragu 和 Prego 组织小组座谈会，

Ragù and Prego would have focus groups,

他们邀请人们参加，然后问：

and they would sit you down, and they would say,

"What do you want in a spaghetti sauce?

“你想要什么样的意粉酱？告诉我们你想要什么样的意粉酱。”

Tell us what you want in a spaghetti sauce."

And for all those years -- 20, 30 years --

在那么多年里，二三十年里

through all those focus group sessions,

所有那些小组座谈会里，

no one ever said they wanted extra-chunky.

从来没有人说过他们想要额外颗粒的意粉酱。

Even though at least a third of them, deep in their hearts, actually did.

即使是他们中至少有三分之一，在他们的内心深处，

(Laughter)

确实想要额外颗粒。

People don't know what they want!

人们不知道他们想要什么！对吧？

As Howard loves to say,

如同霍华德常说的：“脑袋不知道舌头想要的是什么。”

"The mind knows not what the tongue wants."

It's a mystery!

这是一个迷！

(Laughter)

And a critically important step

而明白我们自己的欲望和品味的关键一步

in understanding our own desires and tastes

is to realize that we cannot always explain what we want, deep down.

是明白我们并不能总说出我们心底想要的是什么。

If I asked all of you, for example, in this room, what you want in a coffee,

比如说，如果我问你们在场的所有人，你们想要怎样的咖啡，

you know what you'd say?

你知道你们会怎么回答吗？你们所有人都会说：“我想要醇厚、浓郁的黑咖啡。”

Every one of you would say, "I want a dark, rich, hearty roast."

It's what people always say when you ask them.

当你问人们他们想要怎样的咖啡时，他们总是会这么回答。

"What do you like?" "Dark, rich, hearty roast!"

你喜欢什么？醇厚、浓郁的黑咖啡！

What percentage of you actually like a dark, rich, hearty roast?

你们中有多少人真的喜欢醇厚、浓郁的黑咖啡？

According to Howard, somewhere between 25 and 27 percent of you.

按照霍华德的数据，只有 25% 到 27% 的人。

Most of you like milky, weak coffee.

你们中大多数人喜欢奶味的淡咖啡。

(Laughter)

But you will never, ever say to someone who asks you what you want

但是别人问你喜欢什么时，你绝不会承认

that "I want a milky, weak coffee."

“我想要奶味的淡咖啡。”

So that's number one thing that Howard did.

这就是霍华德的第一个成就。

Number two thing that Howard did is he made us realize --

霍华德的第二个成就，就是让我们认识到，

it's another very critical point --

这一点也非常重要，

he made us realize the importance

他让我们认识到他所谓的“横向分类”的重要。

of what he likes to call "horizontal segmentation."

Why is this critical?

这为什么重要？因为

Because this is the way the food industry thought before Howard.

在霍华德之前，食品行业是这么想的：

What were they obsessed with in the early 80s?

他们在八十年代早期热衷于什么？他们热衷于芥末酱。

They were obsessed with mustard.

In particular, they were obsessed with the story of Grey Poupon.

具体来说，他们热衷于 Grey Poupon 公司的故事。对吧？

Used to be, there were two mustards: French's and Gulden's.

曾经，只有两种芥末酱。French's 牌和 Gulden's 牌。

What were they? Yellow mustard.

它们是怎样的？黄色芥末酱。黄色芥末酱里面有什么？

What's in it?

Yellow mustard seeds, turmeric, and paprika.

黄芥末籽，姜黄，和辣椒粉。这就是芥末酱。

That was mustard.

Grey Poupon came along, with a Dijon.

Grey Poupon 来了，推出了狄戎芥末酱。对吧？

Right?

Much more volatile brown mustard seed, some white wine, a nose hit,

更浓郁的褐色芥末籽，少许冲鼻的白葡萄酒

much more delicate aromatics.

更精致的香料。然后他们怎么做？

And what do they do?

They put it in a little tiny glass jar, with a wonderful enameled label on it,

他们把它用一个小玻璃罐子装起来，贴上一个精美的彩饰标签。

made it look French,

弄得看上去很法式，尽管它是在加州的奥克斯纳德市生产的。

even though it's made in Oxnard, California.

(Laughter)

And instead of charging a dollar fifty for the eight-ounce bottle,

然后他们决定把八盎司装的卖到四美元一瓶，

the way that French's and Gulden's did,

而不是像 French's 和 Gulden's 一样卖一美元五十分。

they decided to charge four dollars.

And they had those ads.

他们打出广告。广告上的人坐在劳斯莱斯里，

With the guy in the Rolls Royce, eating the Grey Poupon.

他吃着 Grey Poupon 芥末酱，另外一辆劳斯莱斯靠了上来，

Another pulls up, and says, "Do you have any Grey Poupon?"

车主问：“你还有 Grey Poupon 吗？”

And the whole thing, after they did that, Grey Poupon takes off!

他们做了这一切之后，Grey Poupon 一跃而起！

Takes over the mustard business!

占领了芥末酱市场！

And everyone's take-home lesson from that

所有人从中学到的就是：

was that the way to make people happy

取悦人们的方法

is to give them something that is more expensive,

就是提供给他们更贵的，更令人向往的产品。对吧？

something to aspire to.

It's to make them turn their back on what they think they like now,

让他们抛弃他们现在认为自己喜欢的东西，

and reach out for something higher up the mustard hierarchy.

去追求更高级别的芥末酱。

(Laughter)

A better mustard! A more expensive mustard!

更好的芥末酱！更贵的芥末酱！

A mustard of more sophistication and culture and meaning.

更有深度，更有文化，更有内涵的芥末酱。

And Howard looked to that and said, "That's wrong!"

霍华德看到这些，说：“这不对！

Mustard does not exist on a hierarchy.

芥末酱没有高低之分。

Mustard exists, just like tomato sauce, on a horizontal plane.

芥末酱，和意粉酱一样，是在同一个平面上的。

There is no good mustard or bad mustard.

不存在好的芥末酱，或者不好的芥末酱。

There is no perfect mustard or imperfect mustard.

不存在完美的芥末酱，或者不完美的芥末酱。

There are only different kinds of mustards that suit different kinds of people.

只有不同种类，适合不同人群口味的芥末酱。”

He fundamentally democratized the way we think about taste.

他从根本上将我们对品味的看法民主化了。

And for that, as well, we owe Howard Moskowitz a huge vote of thanks.

因此，我们该对霍华德·莫斯科维茨再一次表示深深的谢意。

Third thing that Howard did, and perhaps the most important,

霍华德的第三个成就，也许也是最重要的一个，

is Howard confronted the notion of the Platonic dish.

就是他挑战了“理想菜肴”的概念。

(Laughter)

What do I mean by that?

此话怎讲呢？

(Laughter)

For the longest time in the food industry,

很长一段时间里，食品行业认为

there was a sense that there was one way,

每一道菜肴，都有一种完美的烹饪方法。

a perfect way, to make a dish.

You go to Chez Panisse,

你去 Chez Panisse 餐馆，他们给你红尾鱼刺身

they give you the red-tail sashimi with roasted pumpkin seeds

配上一个有烤瓜子和其它一些什么东西的味碟。

in a something something reduction.

They don't give you five options on the reduction.

他们不会让你从五种味碟中选一种，对吧？

They don't say, "Do you want the extra-chunky reduction, or ...?"

他们不会问：“您是想要有额外颗粒的味碟呢，还是想要…不会！

No!

You just get the reduction. Why?

你只能配一种味碟。为什么呢？因为 Chez Panisse 的大厨

Because the chef at Chez Panisse

has a Platonic notion about red-tail sashimi.

有一套做红尾鱼刺身的完美方法。

"This is the way it ought to be."

这道菜就该这么做。

And she serves it that way time and time again,

她总是用同样的方法做这道菜。

and if you quarrel with her, she will say,

如果你和她争论，她会说：

"You know what? You're wrong!

“你懂什么？你错了！我们餐馆的做法是这道菜的最好做法。”

This is the best way it ought to be in this restaurant."

Now that same idea fueled the commercial food industry as well.

同样的观念也曾影响了整个食品行业。

They had a Platonic notion of what tomato sauce was.

他们有一套做番茄酱的完美方法。

And where did that come from? It came from Italy.

从哪来的？从意大利来的。

Italian tomato sauce is what?

意大利番茄酱是怎么样的？是混合的，稀稠的。

It's blended; it's thin.

The culture of tomato sauce was thin.

番茄酱的传统是稀稠的。

When we talked about "authentic tomato sauce" in the 1970s,

我们在七十年代谈到正宗的番茄酱时，

we talked about Italian tomato sauce,

我们谈的是意大利番茄酱。我们谈的是最早的 Ragu 番茄酱。

we talked about the earliest Ragùs,

which had no visible solids, right?

没有任何可见的固体成分，对吧。

Which were thin, you just put a little bit

酱是稀稠的，你只要在意粉上浇上一点

and it sunk down to the bottom of the pasta.

它就会渗到意粉底部。

That's what it was.

它曾经是这样的。那我们为什么执着于那样的番茄酱呢？

And why were we attached to that?

因为我们认为要让人们快乐

Because we thought that what it took to make people happy

was to provide them with the most culturally authentic tomato sauce, A.

就要给他们最正宗的番茄酱，这是其一。

And B, we thought that if we gave them the culturally authentic tomato sauce,

其二，我们认为只要我们给他们正宗的番茄酱，

then they would embrace it.

人们就会高兴地接受它。

And that's what would please the maximum number of people.

那就是取悦最大多数人的方法。

In other words,

我们那么想的原因，也就是说，

people in the cooking world were looking for cooking universals.

烹饪界里人们追寻的是大众口味。

They were looking for one way to treat all of us.

他们寻找的是一种取悦我们所有人的方法。

And it's good reason for them to be obsessed

他们沉迷于共性是有原因的，

with the idea of universals,

because all of science,

因为所有科学领域，在整个19世纪和20世纪的绝大部分里，

through the 19th century and much of the 20th,

was obsessed with universals.

都沉迷于共性。

Psychologists, medical scientists, economists

心理学家、医学家、经济学家全都热衷于寻找

were all interested in finding out the rules

that govern the way all of us behave.

支配我们行为的共通法则。

But that changed, right?

但那已经变了，不是吗？

What is the great revolution in science of the last 10, 15 years?

过去 10, 15 年里科学界最大的革新是什么？

It is the movement from the search for universals

是由寻找共性到了解多样性的转变。

to the understanding of variability.

Now in medical science, we don't want to know, necessarily,

现在在医学界里，我们不一定想知道

just how cancer works,

癌症的原理，我们想要知道的是你们的癌症和我的癌症有何不同。

we want to know how your cancer is different from my cancer.

I guess my cancer different from your cancer.

我想是我的癌症是和你们的癌症不同。

Genetics has opened the door to the study of human variability.

基因学打开了研究人类多样性的大门。

What Howard Moskowitz was doing was saying,

霍华德所做的，是在呼吁番茄酱领域

"This same revolution needs to happen in the world of tomato sauce."

也需要同样的革新。

And for that, we owe him a great vote of thanks.

为此，我们要向他再一次表示感谢。

I'll give you one last illustration of variability,

我给你们最后一个多样性的例子，那就是… 哦，不好意思。

and that is -- oh, I'm sorry.

Howard not only believed that, but he took it a second step,

霍华德并不只相信多样性，他还更进一步地

which was to say that when we pursue universal principles in food,

指出当我们追寻食品的共通法则时，

we aren't just making an error;

我们不光在犯一个错误，我们还是在给自己帮倒忙。

we are actually doing ourselves a massive disservice.

And the example he used was coffee.

他举的例子是咖啡。

And coffee is something he did a lot of work with, with Nescafé.

他曾为咖啡做了许多工作，为雀巢咖啡。

If I were to ask all of you to try and come up with a brand of coffee --

如果我让你们试着弄出一个牌子的咖啡，

a type of coffee, a brew -- that made all of you happy,

一种咖啡，一种让你们所有人满意的配方，

and then I asked you to rate that coffee,

然后我让你们给那种咖啡打分，

the average score in this room for coffee would be about 60 on a scale of 0 to 100.

你们给的平均分，以百分制算，会在 60 分左右。

If, however, you allowed me to break you into coffee clusters,

不过如果，你们让我将你们分为不同的咖啡口味组，

maybe three or four coffee clusters,

也许分成三四组，

and I could make coffee just for each of those individual clusters,

然后我就能为你们每一组做出一种咖啡，

your scores would go from 60 to 75 or 78.

让你们的打分从 60 提高到 75 或 78。

The difference between coffee at 60 and coffee at 78

这 60 分的咖啡和 78 分的咖啡之间的差别

is a difference between coffee that makes you wince,

就是让你望而却步的咖啡

and coffee that makes you deliriously happy.

和让你喜形于色的咖啡之间的差别。

That is the final, and I think most beautiful lesson,

这就是我认为霍华德·莫斯科维茨给我们的最后的，也是最美的启示。

of Howard Moskowitz:

that in embracing the diversity of human beings,

那就是接受人类的多样性，

we will find a surer way to true happiness.

我们就能找到一条确实通往真正快乐的途径。

Thank you.

(Applause)

谢谢。