3 clues to understanding your brain | VS Ramachandran

Prevodilac: Mihailo Tešić Lektor: Ilija Bilic

Well, as Chris pointed out, I study the human brain,

Kao što je Kris napomenuo, ja proučavam ljudski mozak -

the functions and structure of the human brain.

funkcije i strukturu ljudskog mozga.

And I just want you to think for a minute about what this entails.

I želeo bih da malo razmislite o svemu što to povlači za sobom.

Here is this mass of jelly, three-pound mass of jelly

Ta želatinasta masa - teška oko kilogram i po -

you can hold in the palm of your hand,

može da vam stane na dlan

and it can contemplate the vastness of interstellar space.

a sposobna je da promišlja neizmerna međuzvezdana prostranstva.

It can contemplate the meaning of infinity

Sposobna je da promišlja značenje beskonačnosti

and it can contemplate itself contemplating on the meaning of infinity.

a i samu sebe kako promišlja značenje beskonačnosti.

And this peculiar recursive quality that we call self-awareness,

Tu čudnovatu rekurzivnost koju nazivamo samosvešću

which I think is the holy grail of neuroscience, of neurology,

lično smatram Svetim Graalom neurologije

and hopefully, someday, we'll understand how that happens.

i nadam se da ćemo jednog dana razumeti kako ona nastaje.

OK, so how do you study this mysterious organ?

Dobro, dakle, kako proučavati taj misteriozni organ?

I mean, you have 100 billion nerve cells,

Mislim, tu je 100 milijardi nervnih ćelija,

little wisps of protoplasm, interacting with each other,

malih svežnjeva protoplazme koji međusobno intereaguju

and from this activity emerges the whole spectrum of abilities

i iz te aktivnosti izranja čitav spektar sposobnosti

that we call human nature and human consciousness.

koje nazivamo ljudskom prirodom i ljudskom svešću.

How does this happen?

Kako do toga dolazi?

Well, there are many ways of approaching the functions of the human brain.

Pa, postoji mnogo načina da se pristupi funkcijama ljudskog mozga.

One approach, the one we use mainly,

Jedan pristup, koji uglavnom koristimo,

is to look at patients with sustained damage to a small region of the brain,

jeste proučavanje pacijenata sa trajnim oštećenjem neke male regije mozga,

where there's been a genetic change in a small region of the brain.

kod kojih je došlo do genetske promene u nekoj maloj regiji mozga.

What then happens is not an across-the-board reduction

U tim slučajevima ne dolazi do sveobuhvatnog umanjenja

in all your mental capacities,

svih vaših mentalnih kapaciteta,

a sort of blunting of your cognitive ability.

niti do nekakvog otupljenja vaše kognitivne sposobnosti.

What you get is a highly selective loss of one function,

U stvari, dobijamo visoko selektivan gubitak jedne funkcije

with other functions being preserved intact,

dok druge funkcije ostaju netaknute,

and this gives you some confidence in asserting

na osnovu čega možemo prilično pouzdano da pretpostavimo

that that part of the brain is somehow involved in mediating that function.

da je taj deo mozga na neki način umešan u medijaciju te funkcije.

So you can then map function onto structure,

Tako možete da mapirate funkciju u okviru strukture

and then find out what the circuitry's doing

i da tako otkrijete šta tačno rade moždana kola

to generate that particular function.

da bi generisala tu konkretnu funkciju.

So that's what we're trying to do.

I to je ono što pokušavamo da uradimo.

So let me give you a few striking examples of this.

Daću vam nekoliko iznenađujućih primera.

In fact, I'm giving you three examples, six minutes each, during this talk.

U stvari, daću vam tri primera, svaki u trajanju od šest minuta, tokom ovog govora.

The first example is an extraordinary syndrome called Capgras syndrome.

Prvi primer je jedan neobičan sindrom po imenu Kapgrasov sindrom.

If you look at the first slide there,

Ako pogledate prvi slajd,

that's the temporal lobes, frontal lobes, parietal lobes, OK --

to su temporalni režnjevi, čeoni režnjevi, parietalni režnjevi, OK -

the lobes that constitute the brain.

režnjevi koji sačinjavaju mozak.

And if you look, tucked away inside the inner surface of the temporal lobes --

A ako pogledate, zaturena unutar unutrašnje površine temporalnih režnjeva -

you can't see it there --

ovde ne možete da je vidite -

is a little structure called the fusiform gyrus.

nalazi se mala struktura nazvana fusiform gyrus.

And that's been called the face area in the brain,

Nju nazivaju licem mozga,

because when it's damaged, you can no longer recognize people's faces.

pošto, kada je ona oštećena, više ne možete da prepoznajete ljudska lica.

You can still recognize them from their voice

Još uvek možete da ih prepoznate po glasu

and say, "Oh yeah, that's Joe,"

i da kažete - pa da, to je Džo -

but you can't look at their face and know who it is, right?

ali ne možete da ih pogledate u lice i da znate ko je to.

You can't even recognize yourself in the mirror.

Čak ni sebe ne možete da prepoznate u ogledalu.

I mean, you know it's you because you wink and it winks,

Mislim, znate da ste to vi, jer kada namignete i odraz namigne,

and you know it's a mirror,

i znate da je to ogledalo,

but you don't really recognize yourself as yourself.

ali ne prepoznajete zaiste sebe kao sebe.

OK. Now that syndrome is well known as caused by damage to the fusiform gyrus.

OK. Dakle, taj sindrom je dobro poznat i izaziva ga oštećenje fusiform gyrusa.

But there's another rare syndrome, so rare, in fact,

Ali postoji još jedan redak sindrom, zapravo toliko redak,

that very few physicians have heard about it, not even neurologists.

da je vrlo malo doktora uopšte čulo za njega, čak i među neurolozima.

This is called the Capgras delusion,

To se zove Kapgrasova samoobmana,

and that is a patient, who's otherwise completely normal,

a to vam je pacijent koji je inače sasvim normalan

has had a head injury, comes out of coma,

koji je pretrpeo povredu glave, izašao iz kome,

otherwise completely normal, he looks at his mother

inače potpuno normalan, pogleda svoju majku

and says, "This looks exactly like my mother, this woman,

i kaže, "Ovo izgleda baš kao moja majka, ova žena,

but she's an impostor.

ali ona je uljez -

She's some other woman pretending to be my mother."

to je neka druga žena koja se pretvara da je moja majka."

Now, why does this happen?

E sad, zašto se to događa?

Why would somebody -- and this person is perfectly lucid and intelligent

Zašto bi bilo ko - a radi se o osobi koja je inače potpuno lucidna i inteligentna

in all other respects, but when he sees his mother,

po svakom pitanju, ali kada pogleda svoju majku,

his delusion kicks in and says, it's not mother.

uključuje se ta obmana, i on kaže da to nije njegova majka.

Now, the most common interpretation of this,

Sad, najčešća interpretacija,

which you find in all the psychiatry textbooks,

koju ćete naći u svim psihijatrijskim udžbenicima,

is a Freudian view, and that is that this chap --

jeste frojdovska, i glasi da je taj momak -

and the same argument applies to women, by the way,

i isti argument se da primeniti i na žene, da znate -

but I'll just talk about guys.

ali ja ću da pričam samo o momcima -

When you're a little baby, a young baby,

kada ste mala beba, mlada beba,

you had a strong sexual attraction to your mother.

osećate snažnu seksualnu privlačnost prema svojoj majci.

This is the so-called Oedipus complex of Freud.

To je takozvani Edipov kompleks.

I'm not saying I believe this,

Ne kažem vam da verujem u to,

but this is the standard Freudian view.

ali to je standardno frojdovsko gledište.

And then, as you grow up, the cortex develops,

I tako, kako rastete, korteks se razvija,

and inhibits these latent sexual urges towards your mother.

i inhibira te latentne seksualne porive prema vašoj majci.

Thank God, or you would all be sexually aroused when you saw your mother.

Hvala Bogu, jer biste inače svi bili seksualno uzbuđeni kada vidite svoju majku.

And then what happens is,

A onda se dogodi

there's a blow to your head, damaging the cortex,

da vas nešto zvekne u glavu, ošteti vam korteks

allowing these latent sexual urges to emerge,

i omogući da svi ti latentni seksualni porivi izrone,

flaming to the surface, and suddenly and inexplicably

buknu na površinu i iznenadno i neobjašnjivo

you find yourself being sexually aroused by your mother.

zateknete sebe kako ste seksualno uzbuđeni svojom majkom.

And you say, "My God, if this is my mom,

Pa kažete sebi, "Bože moj, ako je to moja mama,

how come I'm being sexually turned on?

kako to da se seksualno palim?

She's some other woman. She's an impostor."

To mora da je neka druga žena. Neki uljez."

It's the only interpretation that makes sense to your damaged brain.

To je jedina interpretacija koja vašem oštećenom mozgu ima smisla.

This has never made much sense to me, this argument.

Meni to objašnjenje baš nikada nije imalo smisla.

It's very ingenious, as all Freudian arguments are --

Jeste vrlo ingeniozan, kao i svi frojdovski argumenti -

(Laughter)

(Smeh)

-- but didn't make much sense because I have seen the same delusion,

- ali meni nije imao mnogo smisla, jer sam video tu istu samoobmanu,

a patient having the same delusion, about his pet poodle.

pacijenta koji ima istu samoobmanu prema svojoj pudlici.

(Laughter)

(Smeh)

He'll say, "Doctor, this is not Fifi. It looks exactly like Fifi,

Rekao bi, "Doktore, ovo nije Fifi, izgleda baš kao Fifi,

but it's some other dog." Right?

ali to je neki drugi pas." Je l' da?

Now, you try using the Freudian explanation there.

E sad, pokušajte tu da primenite frojdovsko objašnjenje.

(Laughter)

(Smeh)

You'll start talking about the latent bestiality in all humans,

Počećete da govorite o latentnoj bestijalnosti u svim ljudima,

or some such thing, which is quite absurd, of course.

ili nečem sličnom, što je naravno, poprilično apsurdno.

Now, what's really going on?

E sad, šta se tu stvarno događa?

So, to explain this curious disorder,

Da bismo objasnili taj čudnovati poremećaj,

we look at the structure and functions of the normal visual pathways in the brain.

proučavamo strukturu i funkcije normalnih vizuelnih tokova u mozgu.

Normally, visual signals come in, into the eyeballs,

Normalno, vizuelni signali dolaze u očne jabučice,

go to the visual areas in the brain.

pa idu u vizuelne oblasti mozga.

There are, in fact, 30 areas in the back of your brain concerned with just vision,

Postoji u stvari 30 oblasti u zadnjem delu mozga koje se tiču samo vida,

and after processing all that, the message goes to a small structure

a pošto se sve to obradi, poruka odlazi u malu strukturu

called the fusiform gyrus, where you perceive faces.

po imenu fusiform gyrus, gde opažate lica.

There are neurons there that are sensitive to faces.

Postoje neuroni koji su osetljivi na lica.

You can call it the face area of the brain, right?

Možete ih zvati licem mozga, je l' da?

I talked about that earlier.

O tome sam govorio ranije.

Now, when that area's damaged, you lose the ability to see faces, right?

E sad, kada je ta oblast oštećena, gubite sposobnost da vidite lica, je l' tako?

But from that area, the message cascades

Ali iz te oblasti, poruka se preliva

into a structure called the amygdala in the limbic system,

u strukturu nazvanu amigdala, u limbičkom sistemu,

the emotional core of the brain,

emotivnoj srži mozga,

and that structure, called the amygdala,

a ta struktura, po imenu amigdala,

gauges the emotional significance of what you're looking at.

procenjuje emotivni značaj onoga u šta gledate.

Is it prey? Is it predator? Is it mate?

Da li je to lovina? Da li je predator? Da li je partner/ka?

Or is it something absolutely trivial, like a piece of lint,

Ili je nešto potpuno trivijalno, kao komadić tkanine

or a piece of chalk, or a -- I don't want to point to that, but --

ili parče krede ili - ne bih baš da upirem prstom u to ali -

or a shoe, or something like that? OK?

ili cipela ili nešto takvo? OK?

Which you can completely ignore.

Nešto što možete potpuno da ignorišete.

So if the amygdala is excited, and this is something important,

Tako da, ako je amigdala uzbuđena, i radi se o nečemu važnom,

the messages then cascade into the autonomic nervous system.

poruka se preliva u autonomni nervni sistem.

Your heart starts beating faster.

Srce počinje da vam brže tuče,

You start sweating to dissipate the heat that you're going to

počinjete da se znojite da biste oslobodili toplotu koju ćete stvoriti -

create from muscular exertion.

radom mišića.

And that's fortunate, because we can put two electrodes on your palm

I sva sreća da je tako, jer možemo da vam stavimo dve elektrode na dlan

and measure the change in skin resistance produced by sweating.

i izmerimo promenu u otporu kože koju stvara znojenje.

So I can determine, when you're looking at something,

Tako mogu da odredim, kada gledate u nešto,

whether you're excited or whether you're aroused, or not, OK?

da li ste uzbuđenji ili uspaljeni ili ne, OK?

And I'll get to that in a minute.

Vratiću se na to za minut.

So my idea was, when this chap looks at an object, when he looks at his --

Dakle, moje ideja je bila, kada taj momak pogleda u objekat, kada pogleda u svoju -

any object for that matter, it goes to the visual areas and,

u bilo koji objekat, u stvari, to ide u vizuelne oblasti i -

however, and it's processed in the fusiform gyrus,

obrađuje se u fusiform gyrusu,

and you recognize it as a pea plant, or a table,

i prepoznajete ga kao stabljiku graška ili sto

or your mother, for that matter, OK?

ili čak svoju majku, OK?

And then the message cascades into the amygdala,

A onda se poruka prelije u amigdalu

and then goes down the autonomic nervous system.

i odlazi niz centralni nervni sistem.

But maybe, in this chap, that wire that goes from the amygdala to the limbic system,

Ali možda je kod tog momka žica koja ide iz amigdale do limbičnog sistema -

the emotional core of the brain, is cut by the accident.

emotivne srži mozga - presečena nekom nesrećom.

So because the fusiform is intact,

A pošto je fusiform netaknut,

the chap can still recognize his mother,

momak još uvek može da prepozna svoju majku,

and says, "Oh yeah, this looks like my mother."

i kaže, "O da, ovo izgleda kao moja majka."

But because the wire is cut to the emotional centers,

Ali pošto je žica do emotivnih centara presečena,

he says, "But how come, if it's my mother, I don't experience a warmth?"

on kaže, "Ali kako to da, ako je to moja majka, ne osećam nikakvu toplinu?"

Or terror, as the case may be? Right?

Ili užas, kao što može da bude slučaj, zar ne?

(Laughter)

(Smeh)

And therefore, he says, "How do I account for this inexplicable lack of emotions?

I zato, on kaže, "Kako da opravdam ovaj neobjašnjivi nedostatak emocija?

This can't be my mother.

Ovo ne može biti moja majka.

It's some strange woman pretending to be my mother."

To je neka čudna žena koja se pretvara da je moja majka."

How do you test this?

Kako to testirati?

Well, what you do is, if you take any one of you here, and put you in front of a screen,

Pa, prvo što uradite, kada biste uzeli bilo koga od ovde prisutnih i postavili ih ispred ekrana,

and measure your galvanic skin response,

i merili galvansku reakciju kože,

and show pictures on the screen,

i prikazivali slike na ekranu,

I can measure how you sweat when you see an object,

mogao bih da izmerim kako se znojite kada vidite neki objekat,

like a table or an umbrella. Of course, you don't sweat.

kao što je sto ili kišobran - naravno, ne znojite se.

If I show you a picture of a lion, or a tiger, or a pinup, you start sweating, right?

A ako vam pokažem sliku lava, tigra, ili erotski poster, počnete da se znojite, je l' da?

And, believe it or not, if I show you a picture of your mother --

I, verovali ili ne, ako vam pokažem sliku vaše majke -

I'm talking about normal people -- you start sweating.

govorim o normalnim ljudima - počnete da se znojite.

You don't even have to be Jewish.

Čak ne morate ni da budete Jevrejin.

(Laughter)

(Smeh)

Now, what happens if you show this patient?

E sad, šta se događa - šta se događa ako to pokazujete ovom pacijentu?

You take the patient and show him pictures on the screen

Uzmete pacijenta i pokazujete mu slike na ekranu

and measure his galvanic skin response.

i merite mu galvansku reakciju kože.

Tables and chairs and lint, nothing happens, as in normal people,

Stolovi i stolice i tkanina, ništa se ne događa, kao kod normalnih ljudi,

but when you show him a picture of his mother,

ali onda mu pokažete sliku njegove majke,

the galvanic skin response is flat.

i galvanska reakcija izostaje.

There's no emotional reaction to his mother,

Nema emotivne reakcije na njegovu majku

because that wire going from the visual areas to the emotional centers is cut.

zato što je žica koja vodi od vizuelnih oblasti do emotivnih centara presečena.

So his vision is normal because the visual areas are normal,

Dakle, njegov vid je normalan pošto su mu vizuelne oblasti u redu,

his emotions are normal -- he'll laugh, he'll cry, so on and so forth --

njegove emocije su normalne - smejaće se, plakati, i tako dalje i tako bliže -

but the wire from vision to emotions is cut

ali žica od vida do emocija je presečena

and therefore he has this delusion that his mother is an impostor.

i to dovodi do samoobmane da je njegova majka uljez.

It's a lovely example of the sort of thing we do:

To je divan primer onoga što radimo,

take a bizarre, seemingly incomprehensible, neural psychiatric syndrome

uzmemo neki bizaran, naizgled neshvatljiv neurološko-psihijatrijski sindrom

and say that the standard Freudian view is wrong,

i kažemo da je standardno frojdovsko gledište pogrešno,

that, in fact, you can come up with a precise explanation

da je u stvari moguće doći do tačnog objašnjenja

in terms of the known neural anatomy of the brain.

u okviru poznate neuroanatomije mozga.

By the way, if this patient then goes,

Usput, ako pacijent potom ode

and mother phones from an adjacent room -- phones him --

i majka ga pozove telefonom iz sobe pored - pozove njega -

and he picks up the phone, and he says, "Wow, mom, how are you? Where are you?"

i on podigne slušalicu i kaže, "Ej, mama, kako si? Gde si?"

There's no delusion through the phone.

Nema samoobmane preko telefona.

Then, she approaches him after an hour, he says, "Who are you?

A onda mu ona priđe posle sat vremena, a on kaže, "Ko si ti?

You look just like my mother." OK?

Izgledaš skroz kao moja majka."

The reason is there's a separate pathway

Razlog je u tome što postoji zasebna putanja

going from the hearing centers in the brain to the emotional centers,

iz centara sluha u mozgu do emotivnih centara

and that's not been cut by the accident.

i ona nije presečena u nesreći.

So this explains why through the phone he recognizes his mother, no problem.

Dakle, to objašnjava zašto prepoznaje majku preko telefona, i nema problema.

When he sees her in person, he says it's an impostor.

Kada je vidi uživo, kaže da je to uljez.

OK, how is all this complex circuitry set up in the brain?

OK, kako su sva ta kompleksna kola neurona postavljena u mozgu?

Is it nature, genes, or is it nurture?

Da li je to prirodno, genetski ili zavisi od odgoja?

And we approach this problem

A tom problemu pristupamo

by considering another curious syndrome called phantom limb.

razmatranjem još jednog čudnovatog sindroma poznatog kao fantomski ud.

And you all know what a phantom limb is.

A svi znate šta su fantomski udovi.

When an arm is amputated, or a leg is amputated, for gangrene,

Kada nekome amputiraju ruku ili nogu, zbog gangrene,

or you lose it in war -- for example, in the Iraq war,

ili ako je izgubite u ratu, na primer, u Iraku -

it's now a serious problem --

to je sada ozbiljan problem -

you continue to vividly feel the presence of that missing arm,

nastavljate da imate vrlo živ osećaj prisustva te nestale ruke,

and that's called a phantom arm or a phantom leg.

i to se zove fantomska ruka ili fantomska noga.

In fact, you can get a phantom with almost any part of the body.

U stvari, možete dobiti fantoma skoro bilo kog dela tela.

Believe it or not, even with internal viscera.

Verovali ili ne, čak i unutrašnjih organa.

I've had patients with the uterus removed -- hysterectomy --

Imao sam pacijente kojima je uklonjena materica - histerektomija -

who have a phantom uterus, including phantom menstrual cramps

koji su imali fantomsku matericu, uključujući i fantomske menstrualne tegobe

at the appropriate time of the month.

u odgovarajuće doba meseca.

And in fact, one student asked me the other day,

I u stvari, jedan student me je pre neki dan pitao,

"Do they get phantom PMS?"

da li imaju fantomski PMS?

(Laughter)

(Smeh)

A subject ripe for scientific enquiry, but we haven't pursued that.

Tema zrela za naučno ispitivanje, ali nismo još uvek krenuli tim putem.

OK, now the next question is,

OK, znači sledeće pitanje je,

what can you learn about phantom limbs by doing experiments?

šta je moguće saznati o fantomskim udovima pomoću eksperimenata?

One of the things we've found was,

Jedna od stvari koje smo otkrili je

about half the patients with phantom limbs

da oko polovine pacijenata sa fantomskim udovima

claim that they can move the phantom.

tvrde da mogu da pomere fantoma.

It'll pat his brother on the shoulder,

Potapšaće njime brata po ramenu,

it'll answer the phone when it rings, it'll wave goodbye.

njime će odgovoriti na telefon, mahnuti u odlasku.

These are very compelling, vivid sensations.

To su vrlo snažni, upečatljivi osećaji.

The patient's not delusional.

Pacijent nema samoobmanu.

He knows that the arm is not there,

Zna da ruka nije tu

but, nevertheless, it's a compelling sensory experience for the patient.

ali je to ipak snažno čulno iskustvo za pacijenta.

But however, about half the patients, this doesn't happen.

Ali ipak se to polovini pacijenata ne događa.

The phantom limb -- they'll say, "But doctor, the phantom limb is paralyzed.

Fantomski ud - reći će: "Ali doktore, fantomski ud je paralizovan.

It's fixed in a clenched spasm and it's excruciatingly painful.

Fiksiran je, stisnut u grču i grozno boli.

If only I could move it, maybe the pain will be relieved."

Kada bih samo mogao da ga pomerim, možda bi bol uminuo.

Now, why would a phantom limb be paralyzed?

E sad, zašto bi fantomski ud bio paralizovan?

It sounds like an oxymoron.

Zvuči kao oksimoron.

But when we were looking at the case sheets, what we found was,

Ali kada smo pregledali dokumentaciju slučajeva,

these people with the paralyzed phantom limbs,

otkrili smo da je kod ljudi sa paralizovanim fantomskim udovima

the original arm was paralyzed because of the peripheral nerve injury.

prava ruka bila paralizovana zbog povrede perifernih nerava,

The actual nerve supplying the arm was severed,

nerv koji je išao u ruku je presečen,

was cut, by say, a motorcycle accident.

isečen, recimo, u nesreći s motociklom.

So the patient had an actual arm, which is painful,

Tako da je pacijent imao pravu ruku, koja boli,

in a sling for a few months or a year, and then,

u povezu, nekoliko meseci, ili godinu, a onda je

in a misguided attempt to get rid of the pain in the arm,

zaveden željom da ukloni bol u ruci,

the surgeon amputates the arm,

hirurg amputirao ruku,

and then you get a phantom arm with the same pains, right?

i onda dobijete fantomsku ruku sa istim bolovima, je l' tako?

And this is a serious clinical problem.

I to je ozbiljan klinički problem.

Patients become depressed.

Pacijenti postanu depresivni.

Some of them are driven to suicide, OK?

Neki čak do i samoubistva.

So, how do you treat this syndrome?

Pa kako se taj sindrom može lečiti?

Now, why do you get a paralyzed phantom limb?

Zašto se pojavljuje paralizovan fantomski ud?

When I looked at the case sheet, I found that they had an actual arm,

Kada sam pregledao dokumentaciju slučajeva, otkrio sam da su imali pravu ruku

and the nerves supplying the arm had been cut,

i da su nervi u ruci bili presečeni

and the actual arm had been paralyzed,

i da je prava ruka bila paralizovana

and lying in a sling for several months before the amputation,

i u povezu nekoliko meseci pre amputacije

and this pain then gets carried over into the phantom itself.

i da se taj bol potom preneo na samog fantoma.

Why does this happen?

Zašto se to događa?

When the arm was intact, but paralyzed,

Kada je ruka netaknuta, ali paralizovana,

the brain sends commands to the arm, the front of the brain, saying, "Move,"

mozak šalje komande ruci, prednji deo mozga joj govori "Pokreni se",

but it's getting visual feedback saying, "No."

ali vizuelni odgovor koji dobija kaže "Ne".

Move. No. Move. No. Move. No.

Pokreni se. Neću. Pokreni se. Neću. Pokreni se. Neću.

And this gets wired into the circuitry of the brain,

I to se upiše u moždana kola

and we call this learned paralysis, OK?

i to nazivamo naučenom paralizom, OK?

The brain learns, because of this Hebbian, associative link,

Mozak uči, zbog Hebove asocijativne veze,

that the mere command to move the arm

da sama komanda da se ruka pokrene

creates a sensation of a paralyzed arm.

stvara osećaj paralizovane ruke,

And then, when you've amputated the arm,

a onda, kada amputirate ruku,

this learned paralysis carries over into your body image

ova naučena paraliza se prenosi u - u sliku vašeg tela

and into your phantom, OK?

i u vašeg fantoma, OK?

Now, how do you help these patients?

E sad, kako pomoći ovim pacijentima?

How do you unlearn the learned paralysis,

Kako da "odučite" naučenu paralizu

so you can relieve him of this excruciating, clenching spasm

da biste ga rešili tog iscrpljujućeg, stisnutog grča

of the phantom arm?

fantomske ruke?

Well, we said, what if you now send the command to the phantom,

Pa, rekli smo, šta ako sad pošaljete komandu fantomu,

but give him visual feedback that it's obeying his command, right?

ali mu date vizuelni odgovor da je komanda poslušana?

Maybe you can relieve the phantom pain, the phantom cramp.

Možda biste mogli da ga rešite fantomskog bola, fantomskog grča.

How do you do that? Well, virtual reality.

Kako to postići? Pa, virtuelnom realnošću.

But that costs millions of dollars.

Ali to košta milione dolara.

So, I hit on a way of doing this for three dollars,

Iznašao sam način da to uradim za tri dolara,

but don't tell my funding agencies.

ali nemojte da kažete mojim finansijerima.

(Laughter)

(Smeh)

OK? What you do is you create what I call a mirror box.

OK? Potrebno je napraviti, kako sam je nazvao, kutiju ogledala.

You have a cardboard box with a mirror in the middle,

Uzmete kartonsku kutiju sa ogledalom u sredini

and then you put the phantom -- so my first patient, Derek, came in.

i onda tu stavite fantoma - tako je došao moj prvi pacijent, Derek.

He had his arm amputated 10 years ago.

Ruka mu je bila amputirana pre 10 godina.

He had a brachial avulsion, so the nerves were cut

Imao je brahijalnu avulziju, tako da su nervi bili presečeni

and the arm was paralyzed, lying in a sling for a year, and then the arm was amputated.

a ruka paralizovana, u zavoju godinu dana, a onda je ta ruka odsečena.

He had a phantom arm, excruciatingly painful, and he couldn't move it.

Imao je fantomsku ruku, iscrpljujuće bolnu i nije mogao da je pomeri.

It was a paralyzed phantom arm.

Paralizovana fantomska ruka.

So he came there, and I gave him a mirror like that, in a box,

I tako je došao i ja sam mu dao ogledalo, tako, u kutiji,

which I call a mirror box, right?

koju zovem kutijom ogledala.

And the patient puts his phantom left arm,

I pacijent stavi svoju fantomsku levu ruku,

which is clenched and in spasm, on the left side of the mirror,

koja je stisnuta i u grču, na levu stranu ogledala

and the normal hand on the right side of the mirror,

i normalnu ruku na desnu stranu ogledala

and makes the same posture, the clenched posture,

i zauzme isti položaj, zgrčen,

and looks inside the mirror. And what does he experience?

i pogleda u ogledalo - i šta iskusi?

He looks at the phantom being resurrected,

Vidi kako je fantom "vaskrsao",

because he's looking at the reflection of the normal arm in the mirror,

jer gleda u odraz svoje normalne ruke u ogledalu

and it looks like this phantom has been resurrected.

i izgleda kao da je fantom vaskrsao.

"Now," I said, "now, look, wiggle your phantom --

"E sad", rekao sam, "sad gledaj, mrdaj fantoma -

your real fingers, or move your real fingers while looking in the mirror."

svoje prave prste ili pomeraj svoje prave prste dok gledaš u ogledalo."

He's going to get the visual impression that the phantom is moving, right?

Dobiće vizuelni utisak da se fantom pomera, je l' tako?

That's obvious, but the astonishing thing is,

To je očigledno, ali zapanjujuća stvar je

the patient then says, "Oh my God, my phantom is moving again,

da pacijent tada kaže, "O Bože, moj fantom se ponovo pomera,

and the pain, the clenching spasm, is relieved."

a bol, stisnuti grč, nestaje."

And remember, my first patient who came in --

I ne zaboravite, moj prvi pacijent koji je došao -

(Applause)

(Aplauz)

-- thank you. (Applause)

- hvala vam (Aplauz)

My first patient came in, and he looked in the mirror,

Moj prvi pacijent je došao i pogledao u ogledalo

and I said, "Look at your reflection of your phantom."

i ja sam mu rekao, "Pogledaj u odraz svog fantoma."

And he started giggling, he says, "I can see my phantom."

I on je počeo da se kikoće, kaže "Vidim svog fantoma".

But he's not stupid. He knows it's not real.

Ali nije on glup. Zna da to nije stvarno.

He knows it's a mirror reflection,

Zna da je to odraz u ogledalu,

but it's a vivid sensory experience.

ali je to živopisno čulno iskustvo.

Now, I said, "Move your normal hand and phantom."

E sad, rekao sam mu, "Pomeraj svoju normalnu ruku i fantoma".

He said, "Oh, I can't move my phantom. You know that. It's painful."

On kaže, "O, mogu da pomeram fantoma. Znate šta. Boli".

I said, "Move your normal hand."

Ja kažem, "Pomeraj svoju normalnu ruku".

And he says, "Oh my God, my phantom is moving again. I don't believe this!

A on kaže, "O Bože, moj fantom se ponovo pomera, ne mogu da verujem!

And my pain is being relieved." OK?

A bol nestaje". OK?

And then I said, "Close your eyes."

A ja sam onda rekao, "Zatvori oči".

He closes his eyes.

I on zatvori oči.

"And move your normal hand."

"I pomeraj svoju normalnu ruku".

"Oh, nothing. It's clenched again."

"O, ništa - opet je zgrčena".

"OK, open your eyes."

"OK, otvori oči".

"Oh my God, oh my God, it's moving again!"

"O Bože, O Bože, opet se pomera!"

So, he was like a kid in a candy store.

Bio je kao dete u poslastičarnici.

So, I said, OK, this proves my theory about learned paralysis

I dobro, ja sam na to rekao, ovo dokazuje moju teoriju o naučenoj paralizi

and the critical role of visual input,

i kritičnoj ulozi vizuelnih ulaznih podataka,

but I'm not going to get a Nobel Prize

ali neću baš da dobijem Nobelovu nagradu

for getting somebody to move his phantom limb.

zato što sam naterao nekoga da pomera svoj fantomski ud.

(Laughter)

(Smeh)

(Applause)

(Aplauz)

It's a completely useless ability, if you think about it.

To je potpuno beskorisna sposobnost, ako malo bolje razmislite.

(Laughter)

(Smeh)

But then I started realizing, maybe other kinds of paralysis

Ali onda sam počeo da shvatam, možda i druge vrste paralize

that you see in neurology, like stroke, focal dystonias --

koje susrećete u neurologiji, kao šlog, fokalne distonije -

there may be a learned component to this,

možda imaju naučenu komponentu

which you can overcome with the simple device of using a mirror.

koju možete da prevaziđete pomoću jednostavnog ogledala.

So, I said, "Look, Derek" --

Pa sam mu rekao, "Vidi, Derek" -

well, first of all, the guy can't just go around carrying a mirror to alleviate his pain --

pre svega, čovek ne može da ide okolo sa ogledalom da bi umanjio bol -

I said, "Look, Derek, take it home and practice with it for a week or two.

rekao sam mu, "Vidi, Derek, odnesi ga kući i vežbaj s njim nedelju ili dve.

Maybe, after a period of practice,

Možda ćeš, posle određenog perioda vežbanja,

you can dispense with the mirror, unlearn the paralysis,

moći da završiš s ogledalom, da "odučiš" paralizu

and start moving your paralyzed arm,

i počneš da pokrećeš svoju paralizovanu ruku

and then, relieve yourself of pain."

i da se rešiš bola."

So he said OK, and he took it home.

Rekao je OK i odneo ga kući.

I said, "Look, it's, after all, two dollars. Take it home."

Ja sam rekao, "Vidi, na kraju krajeva, to je dva dolara. Nosi ga kući."

So, he took it home, and after two weeks, he phones me,

I on ga je odneo kući i zove me posle dve nedelje

and he said, "Doctor, you're not going to believe this."

i kaže, "Doktore, nećete verovati".

I said, "What?"

Ja kažem, "Šta?"

He said, "It's gone."

A on će, "Nestao je".

I said, "What's gone?"

Ja kažem, "Šta je nestalo?"

I thought maybe the mirror box was gone.

Pomislio sam da je možda kutija ogledalo nestala.

(Laughter)

(Smeh)

He said, "No, no, no, you know this phantom I've had for the last 10 years?

On kaže, "Ne, ne, ne, znate onog fantoma koga sam imao poslednjih 10 godina?

It's disappeared."

Nestao je".

And I said -- I got worried, I said, my God,

I ja sam rekao - zabrinuo sam se, rekao sam, Bože,

I mean I've changed this guy's body image,

mislim, promenio sam ovom čoveku njegovu sliku o telu

what about human subjects, ethics and all of that?

a šta sa eksperimentisanjem na ljudima, etikom i svim tim?

And I said, "Derek, does this bother you?"

I rekao sam mu, "Derek, da li ti to smeta?"

He said, "No, last three days, I've not had a phantom arm

A on će, "Ne, poslednja tri dana nemam fantomsku ruku

and therefore no phantom elbow pain, no clenching,

pa tako ni fantomski bol u laktu, ni stiskanje,

no phantom forearm pain, all those pains are gone away.

ni fantomski bol u podlaktici, svi bolovi su nestali.

But the problem is I still have my phantom fingers dangling from the shoulder,

Ali problem je što mi fantomski prsti i dalje vise sa ramena,

and your box doesn't reach."

a vaša kutija ne doseže dotle".

(Laughter)

(Smeh)

"So, can you change the design and put it on my forehead,

"Pa ako biste mogli da promenite dizajn i stavite mi je na čelo,

so I can, you know, do this and eliminate my phantom fingers?"

znate, da bih mogao i to da izvedem i da uklonim i fantomske prste?"

He thought I was some kind of magician.

Mislio je da sam nekakav mađioničar.

Now, why does this happen?

E sad, zašto se to događa?

It's because the brain is faced with tremendous sensory conflict.

Zato što je mozak suočen sa ogromnim konfliktom čula.

It's getting messages from vision saying the phantom is back.

On dobija poruke vidom koje kažu da se fantom vratio.

On the other hand, there's no proprioception,

Sa druge strane, nema odgovarajuće recepcije,

muscle signals saying that there is no arm, right?

mišićni signali kažu da nema ruke, je l' tako?

And your motor command saying there is an arm,

A sistem motoričkih komandi kaže da je ruka tu

and, because of this conflict, the brain says, to hell with it,

i zbog tog konflikta, vaš mozak kaže, ma sve to dođavola,

there is no phantom, there is no arm, right?

nema fantoma, nema ruke, jasno?

It goes into a sort of denial -- it gates the signals.

Povuče se u neku vrstu poricanja i negira signale.

And when the arm disappears, the bonus is, the pain disappears

A kada ruka nestane, bonus je da nestaje i bol

because you can't have disembodied pain floating out there, in space.

zato što ne možete da imate bol bez tela koji tako pluta, u prostoru.

So, that's the bonus.

Tako da je to bonus.

Now, this technique has been tried on dozens of patients

E sad, ta tehnika je isprobana na desetinama pacijenata

by other groups in Helsinki,

od strane drugih grupa u Helsinkiju,

so it may prove to be valuable as a treatment for phantom pain,

tako da bi mogla da se pokaže kao vredna za lečenje fantomskih bolova

and indeed, people have tried it for stroke rehabilitation.

i ljudi su je čak isprobali prilikom rehabilitacije od šloga.

Stroke you normally think of as damage to the fibers,

Šlog se inače smatra za oštećenje nerava,

nothing you can do about it.

i da ništa ne možete da uradite po tom pitanju.

But, it turns out some component of stroke paralysis is also learned paralysis,

Ali, ispada da je određena komponenta paralize izazvane šlogom takođe naučena,

and maybe that component can be overcome using mirrors.

i da se ona možda može prevazići pomoću ogledala.

This has also gone through clinical trials,

To je testirano i u kliničkim uslovima

helping lots and lots of patients.

i pomoglo je mnogim, mnogim pacijentima.

OK, let me switch gears now to the third part of my talk,

OK, sada ću malo da promenim brzinu za treći deo mog govora,

which is about another curious phenomenon called synesthesia.

koji se tiče čudnovatog fenomena zvanog sinestezija.

This was discovered by Francis Galton in the nineteenth century.

Nju je otkrio Frensis Galton u XIX veku.

He was a cousin of Charles Darwin.

Inače, bio je rođak Čarlsa Darvina.

He pointed out that certain people in the population,

On je skrenuo pažnju na to da određeni ljudi u populaciji,

who are otherwise completely normal, had the following peculiarity:

koji su inače potpuno normalni, imaju sledeću posebnost -

every time they see a number, it's colored.

svaki put kada vide broj, vide ga u boji.

Five is blue, seven is yellow, eight is chartreuse,

Petica je plava, sedmica žuta, osmica je boje kruške,

nine is indigo, OK?

devetka indigo, OK?

Bear in mind, these people are completely normal in other respects.

Pazite, ovi ljudi su inače potpuno normalni u svemu drugome.

Or C sharp -- sometimes, tones evoke color.

Ili čisto C. Nekada tonovi evociraju boje.

C sharp is blue, F sharp is green,

C je plavo, F zeleno,

another tone might be yellow, right?

neki drugi ton može biti žut, je l' da?

Why does this happen?

Zašto se ovo događa?

This is called synesthesia. Galton called it synesthesia,

To se zove sinestezija - Galton je to nazvao sinestezijom,

a mingling of the senses.

mešanjem čula.

In us, all the senses are distinct.

Sva naša čula su zasebna.

These people muddle up their senses.

Ovim ljudima su čula izmuljana.

Why does this happen?

Zašto se to događa?

One of the two aspects of this problem are very intriguing.

Jedan od dva aspekta ovog problema je izuzetno intrigantan.

Synesthesia runs in families,

Sinestezija se prenosi u porodicama,

so Galton said this is a hereditary basis, a genetic basis.

tako da je Galton rekao da je ona zasnovana na nasleđu, na genetici.

Secondly, synesthesia is about -- and this is what gets me to my point

Drugo, sinestezija se tiče - i to me dovodi do poente -

about the main theme of this lecture, which is about creativity --

a tiče se glavne teme ovog predavanja, koje je o kreativnosti -

synesthesia is eight times more common among artists, poets, novelists

sinestezija je osam puta češća među slikarima, pesnicima, romanopiscima

and other creative people than in the general population.

i drugim kreativnim ljudima u opštoj populaciji.

Why would that be?

Zašto je to tako?

I'm going to answer that question.

Odgovoriću vam na ovo pitanje.

It's never been answered before.

Na njega nikada do sada nije dat odgovor.

OK, what is synesthesia? What causes it?

Ok, šta je sinestezija? Šta je izaziva?

Well, there are many theories.

Pa, postoje mnoge teorije.

One theory is they're just crazy.

Jedna teorija je da su prosto ludi.

Now, that's not really a scientific theory, so we can forget about it.

To baš nije naučna teorija, pa možemo da je zaboravimo.

Another theory is they are acid junkies and potheads, right?

Još jedna teorija glasi da su navučeni na kiselinu ili travu, je l' tako?

Now, there may be some truth to this,

E sad, tu bi moglo da bude neke istine

because it's much more common here in the Bay Area than in San Diego.

pošto je toliko češća u San Francisku nego u San Diegu.

(Laughter)

(Smeh)

OK. Now, the third theory is that --

OK. Sad, treća teorija kaže -

well, let's ask ourselves what's really going on in synesthesia. All right?

pa, hajde da se zapitamo šta se zaista događa u sinesteziji? U redu?

So, we found that the color area and the number area

Tako da smo našli da su oblast zadužena za boje i ona zadužena za brojeve

are right next to each other in the brain, in the fusiform gyrus.

jedna pored druge, u fusiform gyrusu.

So we said, there's some accidental cross wiring

Tako da smo rekli da je došlo do određenog prespajanja

between color and numbers in the brain.

između boja i brojeva u mozgu.

So, every time you see a number, you see a corresponding color,

Tako da svaki put kada vidite broj, vidite odgovarajuću boju,

and that's why you get synesthesia.

i zato dobijete sinesteziju.

Now remember -- why does this happen?

Sad se prisetite - zašto se to događa?

Why would there be crossed wires in some people?

Zašto bi kod nekih ljudi došlo do prespajanja žica?

Remember I said it runs in families?

Sećate se da sam rekao da se nasleđuje u porodici?

That gives you the clue.

To vam je nagoveštaj.

And that is, there is an abnormal gene,

A to je da postoji abnormalan gen,

a mutation in the gene that causes this abnormal cross wiring.

mutacija gena koja izaziva abnormalno prespajanje.

In all of us, it turns out

U svima nama, kako se ispostavilo,

we are born with everything wired to everything else.

svi smo rođeni sa svime povezanim sa svime ostalim.

So, every brain region is wired to every other region,

Svaka regija mozga je povezana sa svakom drugom

and these are trimmed down to create

i one su doterane tako da stvaraju

the characteristic modular architecture of the adult brain.

tu karakterističnu modularnu arhitekturu odraslog mozga.

So, if there's a gene causing this trimming

Tako da, ako postoji gen koji izaziva to doterivanje,

and if that gene mutates,

i ako taj gen mutira,

then you get deficient trimming between adjacent brain areas.

onda imate manjak doteranosti između susednih oblasti mozga,

And if it's between number and color, you get number-color synesthesia.

a ako je to između brojeva i boje, dobijete broj-boja sinesteziju.

If it's between tone and color, you get tone-color synesthesia.

Ako je između tona i boja, dobijate ton-boja sinesteziju.

So far, so good.

Za sada je sve jasno.

Now, what if this gene is expressed everywhere in the brain,

Ali, šta ako se taj gen eksprimira svuda u mozgu,

so everything is cross-connected?

tako da je sve međusobno povezano?

Well, think about what artists, novelists and poets have in common,

Pa, razmislite o tome šta umetnici, pisci i pesnici imaju zajedničko,

the ability to engage in metaphorical thinking,

sposobnost da se upuste u metaforično mišljenje,

linking seemingly unrelated ideas,

povezujući naizgled nepovezane ideje,

such as, "It is the east, and Juliet is the Sun."

kao što su, "to je Istok, i Džuliet je Sunce."

Well, you don't say, Juliet is the sun,

E, ne kaže se da je Džuliet sunce -

does that mean she's a glowing ball of fire?

je l' to znači da je ona sjajna kugla vatre?

I mean, schizophrenics do that, but it's a different story, right?

Mislim, šizofreničari to rade, ali to je druga priča, je l' tako?

Normal people say, she's warm like the sun,

Normalni ljudi kažu da je topla poput sunca,

she's radiant like the sun, she's nurturing like the sun.

da je sjajna kao sunce, da je blagorodna kao sunce.

Instantly, you've found the links.

Odmah ste našli veze.

Now, if you assume that this greater cross wiring

Sad, ako pretpostavite da je ovo veće prespajanje

and concepts are also in different parts of the brain,

zajedno s konceptima takođe u različitim delovima mozga,

then it's going to create a greater propensity

onda će to stvoriti veću naklonjenost

towards metaphorical thinking and creativity

ka metaforičkom razmišljanju i kreativnosti

in people with synesthesia.

u ljudima koji imaju sinesteziju.

And, hence, the eight times more common incidence of synesthesia

I odatle osam puta češće pojavljivanje sinestezije

among poets, artists and novelists.

među pesnicima, umetnicima i piscima.

OK, it's a very phrenological view of synesthesia.

OK - to je izuzetno frenološki pogled na sinesteziju.

The last demonstration -- can I take one minute?

Poslednja demonstracija - mogu li da dobijem minut?

(Applause)

(Aplauz)

OK. I'm going to show you that you're all synesthetes, but you're in denial about it.

OK. Pokazaću vam da ste svi sinestete, ali da to poričete.

Here's what I call Martian alphabet. Just like your alphabet,

Evo nečega što ja zovem marsovska abeceda, baš kao vaša abeceda,

A is A, B is B, C is C.

A je A, B je B, C je C,

Different shapes for different phonemes, right?

različiti oblici, različite foneme, je l' tako?

Here, you've got Martian alphabet.

Evo marsovske abecede.

One of them is Kiki, one of them is Bouba.

Jedno je Kiki, drugo je Buba.

Which one is Kiki and which one is Bouba?

Koje je Kiki a koje Buba?

How many of you think that's Kiki and that's Bouba? Raise your hands.

Koliko vas misli da je ovo Kiki a ovo Buba? Podignite ruke.

Well, it's one or two mutants.

Pa, jedan ili dvoje mutanata.

(Laughter)

(Smeh)

How many of you think that's Bouba, that's Kiki? Raise your hands.

Koliko vas misli da je ovo Buba, a ovo Kiki? Podignite ruke.

Ninety-nine percent of you.

99 posto.

Now, none of you is a Martian. How did you do that?

E sad, niko od vas nije Marsovac, kako ste to uradili?

It's because you're all doing a cross-model synesthetic abstraction,

Zato što ste svi izveli poprečno modeliranje - sinestezijsko apstrahovanje -

meaning you're saying that that sharp inflection -- ki-ki,

što znači da mislite da je ova oštra infleksija, Kiki,

in your auditory cortex, the hair cells being excited -- Kiki,

u vašem zvučnom korteksu, trepljaste ćelije vam se ježe, Kiki,

mimics the visual inflection, sudden inflection of that jagged shape.

podražavajući vizuelnu infleksiju - iznenadnu infleksiju - tog iskrzanog oblika.

Now, this is very important, because what it's telling you

E, ovo je vrlo važno, jer to vam govori

is your brain is engaging in a primitive --

da se vaš mozak prepustio primitivnoj -

it's just -- it looks like a silly illusion,

to je prosto - izgleda kao blesava iluzija,

but these photons in your eye are doing this shape,

ali ti fotoni u vašim očima obrađuju taj oblik

and hair cells in your ear are exciting the auditory pattern,

i trepljaste ćelije u ušima aktiviraju zvučni obrazac

but the brain is able to extract the common denominator.

ali mozak je u stanju da izvuče zajedničkog sadržaoca.

It's a primitive form of abstraction,

To je primitivan oblik apstrahovanja,

and we now know this happens in the fusiform gyrus of the brain,

i sada znamo da se on odvija u fusiform gyrusu u mozgu

because when that's damaged,

zato što, kada je on oštećen,

these people lose the ability to engage in Bouba Kiki,

ovi ljudi gube sposobnost da izvedu Buba Kiki,

but they also lose the ability to engage in metaphor.

ali takođe gube sposobnost za metaforu.

If you ask this guy, what -- "all that glitters is not gold,"

Ako upitate tog čoveka, šta znači "Nije zlato sve što sija,

what does that mean?"

šta to znači?"

The patient says, "Well, if it's metallic and shiny, it doesn't mean it's gold.

Pacijent na to kaže, "Pa, ako je metalno i svetlucavo, ne znači da je zlato.

You have to measure its specific gravity, OK?"

Morate da mu izmerite specifičnu težinu, OK?"

So, they completely miss the metaphorical meaning.

Tako da im metaforičko značenje potpuno izmiče.

So, this area is about eight times the size in higher --

Ta oblast je oko osam puta veća kod viših -

especially in humans -- as in lower primates.

naročito kod ljudi, nego kod nižih primata.

Something very interesting is going on here in the angular gyrus,

Nešto veoma interesantno se događa ovde u angularnom gyrusu

because it's the crossroads between hearing, vision and touch,

pošto se tu nalazi raskršće između sluha, vida i dodira,

and it became enormous in humans. And something very interesting is going on.

i on je postao ogroman kod ljudi - i nešto vrlo interesantno se događa.

And I think it's a basis of many uniquely human abilities

I ja mislim da je to osnova mnogih jedinstveno ljudskih sposobnosti

like abstraction, metaphor and creativity.

kao što su apstrakcija, metafora i kreativnost.

All of these questions that philosophers have been studying for millennia,

Sva ova pitanja koja su filozofi proučavali milenijumima,

we scientists can begin to explore by doing brain imaging,

mi naučnici možemo da započnemo da istražujemo slikanjem mozga

and by studying patients and asking the right questions.

i kroz proučavanje pacijenata i postavljanje pravih pitanja.

Thank you.

Hvala vam.

(Applause)

(Aplauz)

Sorry about that.

Izvinite.

(Laughter)

(Smeh)