Rajesh Rao: Computing a Rosetta Stone for the Indus script

1,213,084 views ใƒป 2011-06-28

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืžืชืจื’ื: Yubal Masalker ืžื‘ืงืจ: Oren Szekatch
00:15
I'd like to begin with a thought experiment.
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ืืชื—ื™ืœ ืขื ืชืจื’ื™ืœ ืžื—ืฉื‘ืชื™.
00:19
Imagine that it's 4,000 years into the future.
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ื“ืžื™ื™ื ื• ืฉืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืื ื• 4,000 ืฉื ื” ื‘ืขืชื™ื“.
00:22
Civilization as we know it
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ื”ืฆื™ื•ื•ื™ืœื™ื–ืฆื™ื” ื›ืคื™ ืฉืื ื• ืžื›ื™ืจื™ื ืื•ืชื”
00:24
has ceased to exist --
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ื—ื“ืœื” ืœื”ืชืงื™ื™ื --
00:26
no books,
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ืื™ืŸ ืกืคืจื™ื,
00:28
no electronic devices,
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ืื™ืŸ ืžื›ืฉื™ืจื™ื ื—ืฉืžืœื™ื™ื,
00:31
no Facebook or Twitter.
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ืื™ืŸ ืคื™ื™ืกื‘ื•ืง ืื• ื˜ื•ื•ื™ื˜ืจ.
00:34
All knowledge of the English language and the English alphabet
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ื›ืœ ื”ื™ื“ืข ืขืœ ื”ืฉืคื” ื”ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื•ื”ื›ืชื‘ ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช
00:37
has been lost.
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ื”ืœืš ืœืื™ื‘ื•ื“.
00:39
Now imagine archeologists
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ื›ืขืช ื ื“ืžื™ื™ืŸ ืฉืืจื›ื™ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื
00:41
digging through the rubble of one of our cities.
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ื—ื•ืคืจื™ื ื‘ื”ืจื™ืกื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื—ืช ื”ืขืจื™ื ืฉืœื ื•.
00:43
What might they find?
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ืžื” ื”ื ื™ืžืฆืื•?
00:45
Well perhaps some rectangular pieces of plastic
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ืื•ืœื™ ื›ืžื” ื—ืชื™ื›ื•ืช ืžืœื‘ื ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืคืœืกื˜ื™ืง
00:48
with strange symbols on them.
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ืขื ืกื™ืžื ื™ื ืžื•ื–ืจื™ื ืขืœื™ื”ืŸ.
00:51
Perhaps some circular pieces of metal.
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ืื•ืœื™ ื›ืžื” ื—ืชื™ื›ื•ืช ืขื’ื•ืœื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžืชื›ืช.
00:54
Maybe some cylindrical containers
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ืื•ืœื™ ื›ืžื” ืžื™ื›ืœื™ื ื’ืœื™ืœื™ื™ื
00:56
with some symbols on them.
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ืขื ื›ืžื” ืกื™ืžื ื™ื ืขืœื™ื”ื.
00:58
And perhaps one archeologist becomes an instant celebrity
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ื•ืื•ืœื™ ืืจื›ื™ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช ืื—ืช ื”ื•ืคื›ืช ืคืชืื•ื ืœืžืคื•ืจืกืžืช
01:01
when she discovers --
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ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ื™ื ืžื’ืœื” --
01:03
buried in the hills somewhere in North America --
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ืงื‘ื•ืจื™ื ืžืชื—ืช ืœื’ื‘ืขื•ืช ืื™-ืฉื ื‘ืฆืคื•ืŸ ืืžืจื™ืงื” --
01:05
massive versions of these same symbols.
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ื›ืžื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืฉืœ ืื•ืชื ื”ืกื™ืžื ื™ื.
01:10
Now let's ask ourselves,
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ื›ืขืช ื”ื‘ื” ื ืฉืืœ ืืช ืขืฆืžื ื•,
01:12
what could such artifacts say about us
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ืžื” ืžืžืฆืื™ื ื›ืืœื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืขื™ื“ ืขืœื™ื ื•
01:15
to people 4,000 years into the future?
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ืœืื ืฉื™ื ื‘ืขื•ื“ 4,000 ืฉื ื”?
01:18
This is no hypothetical question.
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ื–ื• ืื™ื ื” ืฉืืœื” ื”ื™ืคื•ืชื˜ื™ืช.
01:20
In fact, this is exactly the kind of question we're faced with
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื–ื” ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืกื•ื’ ื”ืฉืืœื” ืฉืื ื• ืžืชืžื•ื“ื“ื™ื ืื™ืชื”
01:23
when we try to understand the Indus Valley civilization,
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ื›ืืฉืจ ืื ื• ืžื ืกื™ื ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืช ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ืขืžืง ื”ืื™ื ื“ื•ืก,
01:26
which existed 4,000 years ago.
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ืฉื”ืชืงื™ื™ืžื” ืœืคื ื™ 4,000 ืฉื ื”.
01:28
The Indus civilization was roughly contemporaneous
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ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื”ืื™ื ื“ื•ืก ื”ื™ื ื‘ืขืจืš ืžืื•ืชื” ืชืงื•ืคื”
01:31
with the much better known Egyptian and the Mesopotamian civilizations,
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ืฉืœ ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ื™ื•ืชืจ ื™ื“ื•ืขื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžืฆืจื™ื ื•ืฉืœ ืืจื-ื ื”ืจื™ื™ื,
01:34
but it was actually much larger than either of these two civilizations.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื™ื ื”ื™ืชื” ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืžื›ืœ ืื—ืช ืžืฉืชื™ ืืœื•.
01:37
It occupied the area
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ื”ื™ื ื”ืฉืชืจืขื” ืขืœ ืฉื˜ื—
01:39
of approximately one million square kilometers,
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ืฉืœ ื›ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืงืž"ืจ,
01:41
covering what is now Pakistan,
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ื”ืžื›ืกื” ืืช ืคืงื™ืกื˜ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื•ื,
01:43
Northwestern India
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ืฆืคื•ืŸ-ืžืขืจื‘ ื”ื•ื“ื•
01:45
and parts of Afghanistan and Iran.
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ื•ื—ืœืงื™ื ืžืืคื’ื ื™ืกื˜ืŸ ื•ืื™ืจืŸ.
01:47
Given that it was such a vast civilization,
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ื‘ื”ื ื—ื” ืฉื–ื• ืื›ืŸ ื”ื™ืชื” ืฆื™ื•ื•ื™ืœื™ื–ืฆื™ื” ืขื ืงื™ืช,
01:49
you might expect to find really powerful rulers, kings,
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ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืžืฆืคื™ื ืœืžืฆื•ื ืฉืœื™ื˜ื™ื ื•ืžืœื›ื™ื ื—ื–ืงื™ื
01:53
and huge monuments glorifying these powerful kings.
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ื•ืื ื“ืจื˜ืื•ืช ืขื ืงื™ื•ืช ื”ืžืคืืจื•ืช ืืช ื”ืžืœื›ื™ื.
01:56
In fact,
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ืœืžืขืฉื”,
01:58
what archeologists have found is none of that.
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ืžื” ืฉื”ืืจื›ื™ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื ืžืฆืื• ื”ื•ื ื›ืœื•ื ืžื–ื”.
02:00
They've found small objects such as these.
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ื”ื ืžืฆืื• ืคืจื™ื˜ื™ื ืงื˜ื ื™ื ื›ืžื• ืืœื”.
02:03
Here's an example of one of these objects.
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ื”ื ื” ื“ื•ื’ืžื ืžืื—ื“ ืžื”ืคืจื™ื˜ื™ื ื”ืืœื”.
02:06
Well obviously this is a replica.
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ื‘ืจื•ืจ ืฉื–ื” ื”ืขืชืง.
02:08
But who is this person?
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ืื‘ืœ ืžื™ ื–ื” ื‘ื“ืžื•ืช?
02:11
A king? A god?
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ืžืœืš? ืืœ?
02:13
A priest?
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ื›ื•ื”ืŸ ื“ืช?
02:15
Or perhaps an ordinary person
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ืื• ืื•ืœื™ ืื“ื ืคืฉื•ื˜
02:17
like you or me?
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ื›ืžื•ื ื™ ื•ื›ืžื•ื›ื?
02:19
We don't know.
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ืื ื• ืœื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื.
02:21
But the Indus people also left behind artifacts with writing on them.
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ื ื™ ื”ืื™ื ื“ื•ืก ื”ืฉืื™ืจื• ืžืื—ื•ืจ ื’ื ืคืจื™ื˜ื™ื ื•ืขืœื™ื”ื ื›ืชื‘.
02:24
Well no, not pieces of plastic,
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ืœื ื—ืœืงื™ ืคืœืกื˜ื™ืง,
02:26
but stone seals, copper tablets,
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ืืœื ื—ื•ืชืžื•ืช ืื‘ื ื™ื, ื˜ื‘ืœื™ื•ืช ื ื—ื•ืฉืช,
02:29
pottery and, surprisingly,
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ื›ืœื™-ื—ืจืก, ื•ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžืคืชื™ืข,
02:31
one large sign board,
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ืฉืœื˜ ืื—ื“ ื’ื“ื•ืœ,
02:33
which was found buried near the gate of a city.
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ืฉื ืžืฆื ืงื‘ื•ืจ ืœื™ื“ ืฉืขืจ ื”ืขื™ืจ.
02:35
Now we don't know if it says Hollywood,
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ืื ื• ืœื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืื ื›ืชื•ื‘ ืขืœื™ื• ื”ื•ืœื™ื•ื•ื“,
02:37
or even Bollywood for that matter.
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ืื• ืืคื™ืœื• ื‘ื•ืœื™ื•ื•ื“ ืœืฆื•ืจืš ื”ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ.
02:39
In fact, we don't even know
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ื‘ืขืฆื, ืื ื• ืืคื™ืœื• ืœื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื
02:41
what any of these objects say,
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ืžื” ื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ืžื”ืคืจื™ื˜ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ืื•ืžืจ.
02:43
and that's because the Indus script is undeciphered.
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ื•ื–ื” ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื›ืชื‘ ืฉืœ ืื™ื ื“ื•ืก ืื™ื ื• ืžืคื•ืขื ื—.
02:46
We don't know what any of these symbols mean.
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ืื ื• ืœื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืžื” ืคื™ืจื•ืฉ ื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ืžื”ืกื™ืžื ื™ื ื”ืœืœื•.
02:48
The symbols are most commonly found on seals.
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ื”ืกื™ืžื ื™ื ื ืžืฆืื™ื ื”ื›ื™ ื”ืจื‘ื” ืขืœ ื—ื•ืชืžื•ืช.
02:51
So you see up there one such object.
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ืฉื ืœืžืขืœื” ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืจืื•ืช ืคืจื™ื˜ ืื—ื“ ื›ื–ื”.
02:53
It's the square object with the unicorn-like animal on it.
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ื–ื”ื• ื”ืคืจื™ื˜ ื”ืจื™ื‘ื•ืขื™ ื•ืขืœื™ื• ื—ื™ื” ื“ืžื•ื™ื™ืช ื—ื“-ืงืจืŸ.
02:56
Now that's a magnificent piece of art.
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ื–ื•ื”ื™ ื—ืชื™ื›ืช ืื•ืžื ื•ืช ื ืคืœืื”.
02:58
So how big do you think that is?
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ืžื”ื• ืœื“ืขืชื›ื ื’ื•ื“ืœื”?
03:00
Perhaps that big?
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ืื•ืœื™ ื›ื–ื”?
03:02
Or maybe that big?
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ืื• ืื•ืœื™ ื›ื–ื”?
03:04
Well let me show you.
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ื”ื ื” ืืจืื” ืœื›ื.
03:07
Here's a replica of one such seal.
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ื”ื ื” ื”ืขืชืง ืฉืœ ื—ื•ืชื ื›ื–ื”.
03:10
It's only about one inch by one inch in size --
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ื’ื•ื“ืœื• ืจืง ืื™ื ื˜ืฉ ืขืœ ืื™ื ื˜ืฉ --
03:12
pretty tiny.
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ื“ื™ ืงื˜ืŸ.
03:14
So what were these used for?
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ืื– ืœืžื” ื”ื ืฉื™ืžืฉื•?
03:16
We know that these were used for stamping clay tags
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ืื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืฉื”ื ืฉื™ืžืฉื• ืœื”ื˜ื‘ืขืช ืชื•ื•ื™ื•ืช ื—ื™ืžืจ
03:19
that were attached to bundles of goods that were sent from one place to the other.
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ืฉื”ื•ื˜ื‘ืขื• ืขืœ ืฆืจื•ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžื•ืฆืจื™ื ืฉื ืฉืœื—ื• ืžืžืงื•ื ืœืžืงื•ื.
03:22
So you know those packing slips you get on your FedEx boxes?
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ืืชื ืžื›ื™ืจื™ื ืืช ืชื•ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืืจื™ื–ื” ืฉืจื•ืื™ื ืขืœ ืงื•ืคืกืื•ืช FedEx?
03:25
These were used to make those kinds of packing slips.
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ืื– ืืœื” ืฉื™ืžืฉื• ืœื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืชื•ื•ื™ื•ืช ืืจื™ื–ื” ืฉื›ืืœื”.
03:28
You might wonder what these objects contain
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ืืชื ืขืฉื•ื™ื™ื ืœืชื”ื•ืช ืžื” ื”ื›ื™ืœื• ื”ืคืจื™ื˜ื™ื ื”ืืœื”
03:31
in terms of their text.
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ืขืœ-ืคื™ ื”ื˜ืงืกื˜ ืฉืขืœื™ื”ื.
03:33
Perhaps they're the name of the sender
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ืื•ืœื™ ื–ื” ืฉื ื”ืฉื•ืœื—
03:35
or some information about the goods
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ืื• ืื™ื–ื” ืžื™ื“ืข ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ืžื•ืฆืจื™ื
03:37
that are being sent from one place to the other -- we don't know.
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ื”ื ืฉืœื—ื™ื ืžืžืงื•ื ืœืžืงื•ื - ืื™ื ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื.
03:40
We need to decipher the script to answer that question.
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ืขืœื™ื ื• ืœืคืขื ื— ืืช ื”ื›ืชื‘ ื›ื“ื™ ืœืขื ื•ืช ืขืœ ืฉืืœื” ื–ื•.
03:42
Deciphering the script
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ืคื™ืขื ื•ื— ื”ื›ืชื‘
03:44
is not just an intellectual puzzle;
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ืื™ื ื” ืจืง ื—ื™ื“ื” ืื™ื ื˜ืœืงื˜ื•ืืœื™ืช;
03:46
it's actually become a question
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ื”ื™ื ืœืžืขืฉื” ื”ื•ืคื›ืช ืœืฉืืœื”
03:48
that's become deeply intertwined
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ื”ืฉื–ื•ืจื” ืขืžื•ืง
03:50
with the politics and the cultural history of South Asia.
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ืขื ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืงื” ื•ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืชื™ืช ืฉืœ ื“ืจื•ื-ืืกื™ื”.
03:53
In fact, the script has become a battleground of sorts
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื”ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืคืš ืœืฉื“ื”-ืงืจื‘ ื‘ืจืžื” ื™ืจื•ื“ื”
03:56
between three different groups of people.
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ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉืœื•ืฉ ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื.
03:58
First, there's a group of people
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ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื”, ื™ืฉื ื” ืงื‘ื•ืฆืช ืื ืฉื™ื
04:00
who are very passionate in their belief
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ื”ืžืื•ื“ ืงื ืื™ื ื‘ืืžื•ื ืชื
04:02
that the Indus script
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ืฉืœืคื™ื” ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืื™ื ื“ื•ืก
04:04
does not represent a language at all.
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ืื™ื ื• ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ ื›ืœืœ ืฉืคื”.
04:06
These people believe that the symbols
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ื”ื ืžืืžื™ื ื™ื ืฉื”ืกื™ืžื ื™ื
04:08
are very similar to the kind of symbols you find on traffic signs
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ืžืื•ื“ ื“ื•ืžื™ื ืœืžื” ืฉืจื•ืื™ื ืขืœ ืชืžืจื•ืจื™ ื“ืจื›ื™ื
04:11
or the emblems you find on shields.
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ืื• ืœืกื™ืžื ื™ื ืฉืจื•ืื™ื ืขืœ ืžื’ื™ื ื™ื.
04:14
There's a second group of people
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ื™ืฉื ื” ืงื‘ื•ืฆื” ืฉื ื™ื” ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื
04:16
who believe that the Indus script represents an Indo-European language.
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ื”ืžืืžื™ื ื” ืฉื›ืชื‘ ื”ืื™ื ื“ื•ืก ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ ืฉืคื” ื”ื•ื“ื•-ืื™ืจื•ืคื™ืช.
04:19
If you look at a map of India today,
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ืื ื ืกืชื›ืœ ืขืœ ื”ืžืคื” ืฉืœ ื”ื•ื“ื• ื›ื™ื•ื,
04:21
you'll see that most of the languages spoken in North India
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ื ืจืื” ืฉืจื•ื‘ ื”ืฉืคื•ืช ื”ืžื“ื•ื‘ืจื•ืช ื‘ืฆืคื•ืŸ-ื”ื•ื“ื•
04:24
belong to the Indo-European language family.
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ืฉื™ื™ื›ื•ืช ืœืžืฉืคื—ืช ื”ืฉืคื” ื”ื”ื•ื“ื•-ืืจื•ืคื™ืช.
04:27
So some people believe that the Indus script
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ืœื›ืŸ ื™ืฉ ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืžืืžื™ื ื™ื ืฉื›ืชื‘ ื”ืื™ื ื“ื•ืก
04:29
represents an ancient Indo-European language such as Sanskrit.
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ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ ืฉืคื” ื”ื•ื“ื•-ืืจื•ืคื™ืช ืขืชื™ืงื” ื›ืžื• ืกื ืกืงืจื™ื˜.
04:32
There's a last group of people
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ื™ืฉื ื” ืงื‘ื•ืฆื” ืื—ืจื•ื ื” ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื
04:34
who believe that the Indus people
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ื”ืžืืžื™ื ื” ืฉืื ืฉื™ ื”ืื™ื ื“ื•ืก
04:37
were the ancestors of people living in South India today.
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ื”ื™ื• ืื‘ื•ืช-ืื‘ื•ืชื™ื”ื ืฉืœ ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ื™ื•ื ื‘ื“ืจื•ื-ื”ื•ื“ื•.
04:40
These people believe that the Indus script
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ืื ืฉื™ื ืืœื• ืžืืžื™ื ื™ื ืฉื›ืชื‘ ื”ืื™ื ื“ื•ืก
04:42
represents an ancient form
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ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ ืฆื•ืจื” ืขืชื™ืงื”
04:44
of the Dravidian language family,
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ืฉืœ ืฉืคื” ืžืžืฉืคื—ืช ื”ืฉืคื•ืช ื”ื“ืจืื•ื•ื™ื“ื™ืื ื™ื•ืช,
04:46
which is the language family spoken in much of South India today.
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ืฉื”ื™ื ื”ืžืฉืคื—ื” ื”ืžื“ื•ื‘ืจืช ื›ื™ื•ื ื‘ืจื•ื‘ ื“ืจื•ื-ื”ื•ื“ื•.
04:49
And the proponents of this theory
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ื•ืžืคื™ืฆื™ ื”ืชืื•ืจื™ื” ื”ื–ื•
04:51
point to that small pocket of Dravidian-speaking people in the North,
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ืžืฆื‘ื™ืขื™ื ืขืœ ื›ื™ืก ืงื˜ืŸ ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ื‘ืฆืคื•ืŸ ื”ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื“ืจืื•ื•ื™ื“ื™ืื ื™ืช,
04:54
actually near Afghanistan,
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ืœื™ื“ ืืคื’ื ื™ืกื˜ืŸ,
04:56
and they say that perhaps, sometime in the past,
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ื•ื”ื ื˜ื•ืขื ื™ื ืฉืื•ืœื™ , ืžืชื™ ืฉื”ื•ื ื‘ืขื‘ืจ,
04:59
Dravidian languages were spoken all over India
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ืฉืคื•ืช ื“ืจืื•ื•ื™ื“ื™ืื ื™ื•ืช ื”ื™ื• ืžื“ื•ื‘ืจื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ื•ื“ื•
05:02
and that this suggests
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ื•ื–ื” ืžืจืžื–
05:04
that the Indus civilization is perhaps also Dravidian.
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ืฉื’ื ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื”ืื™ื ื“ื•ืก ื”ื™ืชื” ืื•ืœื™ ื“ืจืื•ื•ื™ื“ื™ืื ื™ืช.
05:07
Which of these hypotheses can be true?
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ืื™ื–ื• ืžื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื”ืฉืขืจื•ืช ื ื›ื•ื ื”?
05:10
We don't know, but perhaps if you deciphered the script,
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ืื ื• ืœื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื, ืื‘ืœ ืื ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืžืคืขื ื—ื™ื ืืช ื”ื›ืชื‘,
05:12
you would be able to answer this question.
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ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืžืกื•ื’ืœื™ื ืœืขื ื•ืช ืขืœ ืฉืืœื” ื–ื•.
05:14
But deciphering the script is a very challenging task.
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ืื‘ืœ ืคื™ืขื ื•ื— ื”ื›ืชื‘ ื”ื™ื ืžืฉื™ืžื” ืžืืชื’ืจืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ.
05:16
First, there's no Rosetta Stone.
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ืงื•ื“ื ื›ืœ, ืื™ืŸ ืื‘ืŸ ืจื•ื–ื˜ื” (ืžืคืชื— ืœืคื™ืขื ื•ื—).
05:18
I don't mean the software;
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ืื ื™ ืœื ืžืชื›ื•ื•ืŸ ืœืชื•ื›ื ื”;
05:20
I mean an ancient artifact
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ืื ื™ ืžืชื›ื•ื•ืŸ ืœืคืจื™ื˜ ืขืชื™ืง
05:22
that contains in the same text
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ื”ืžื›ื™ืœ ื‘ืื•ืชื• ื˜ืงืกื˜
05:24
both a known text and an unknown text.
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ื”ืŸ ื˜ืงืกื˜ ืžื•ื›ืจ ื•ื”ืŸ ื˜ืงืกื˜ ืœื ืžื•ื›ืจ.
05:27
We don't have such an artifact for the Indus script.
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ืื™ืŸ ื‘ืจืฉื•ืชื ื• ืคืจื™ื˜ ื›ื–ื” ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ื›ืชื‘ ืžืื™ื ื“ื•ืก.
05:30
And furthermore, we don't even know what language they spoke.
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ื•ื‘ื ื•ืกืš ืœื›ืš, ืื ื• ืืคื™ืœื• ืœื ืžื›ื™ืจื™ื ืืช ื”ืฉืคื” ืฉื”ื ื“ื™ื‘ืจื•.
05:33
And to make matters even worse,
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ื•ืžื” ืฉืขื•ื“ ื™ื•ืชืจ ื’ืจื•ืข,
05:35
most of the text that we have are extremely short.
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ืจื•ื‘ ื”ื˜ืงืกื˜ ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื”ื•ื ืงืฆืจ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ.
05:37
So as I showed you, they're usually found on these seals
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ื›ืคื™ ืฉื”ืจืืชื™ ืœื›ื, ื”ื•ื ื ืžืฆื ืขืœ ื—ื•ืชืžื•ืช ื›ืืœื”
05:39
that are very, very tiny.
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ืฉื”ืŸ ืžืื•ื“,ืžืื•ื“ ืงื˜ื ื•ืช.
05:41
And so given these formidable obstacles,
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ื•ื›ืš ื‘ื”ื™ื ืชืŸ ืžื›ืฉื•ืœื™ื ืงืฉื™ื ืืœื”,
05:43
one might wonder and worry
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ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืชื”ื•ืช ื•ืœื“ืื•ื’
05:45
whether one will ever be able to decipher the Indus script.
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ืื ืืคืฉืจ ื™ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื›ืœืœ ืื™-ืคืขื ืœืคืขื ื— ืืช ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืื™ื ื“ื•ืก.
05:48
In the rest of my talk,
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ื‘ื—ืœืง ื”ื ื•ืชืจ ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืืชื™,
05:50
I'd like to tell you about how I learned to stop worrying
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ื‘ืจืฆื•ื ื™ ืœืกืคืจ ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื”ืคืกืงืชื™ ืœื“ืื•ื’
05:52
and love the challenge posed by the Indus script.
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ื•ื”ืชื—ืœืชื™ ืœืื”ื•ื‘ ืืช ื”ืืชื’ืจ ืฉื”ืฆื™ื‘ ื”ื›ืชื‘ ืžืื™ื ื“ื•ืก.
05:54
I've always been fascinated by the Indus script
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ืชืžื™ื“ ื”ืชืœื”ื‘ืชื™ ืžื”ื›ืชื‘ ืฉืœ ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื”ืื™ื ื“ื•ืก,
05:57
ever since I read about it in a middle school textbook.
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ืžืื– ืฉืงืจืืชื™ ืขืœื™ื• ื‘ืกืคืจ-ืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืฉืœ ื—ื˜ื™ื‘ืช-ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื.
05:59
And why was I fascinated?
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ื•ืžื“ื•ืข ื”ืชืœื”ื‘ืชื™?
06:01
Well it's the last major undeciphered script in the ancient world.
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉื–ื”ื• ื”ื›ืชื‘ ื”ื‘ื•ืœื˜ ื”ืื—ืจื•ืŸ ืžื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืขืชื™ืง ืฉืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื ืคื•ืขื ื—.
06:05
My career path led me to become a computational neuroscientist,
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ื”ืžืกืœื•ืœ ืฉืœ ื”ืงืจื™ื™ืจื” ื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืื•ืชื™ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื“ืขืŸ-ืขื™ืฆื‘ื™ ืฉืœ ืžื—ืฉื‘ื™ื,
06:08
so in my day job,
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ื›ืš ืฉื‘ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื”ื™ื•ืžื™ื•ืžื™ืช ืฉืœื™
06:10
I create computer models of the brain
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ืื ื™ ื™ื•ืฆืจ ืžื•ื“ืœื™ื ืžืžื•ื—ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ื—
06:12
to try to understand how the brain makes predictions,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื ืกื•ืช ื•ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื”ืžื•ื— ืขื•ืฉื” ืชื—ื–ื™ื•ืช,
06:15
how the brain makes decisions,
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ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื”ืžื•ื— ืžืงื‘ืœ ื”ื—ืœื˜ื•ืช,
06:17
how the brain learns and so on.
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ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื”ืžื•ื— ืœื•ืžื“ ื•ื›ืš ื”ืœืื”.
06:19
But in 2007, my path crossed again with the Indus script.
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘-2007, ืฉื•ื‘ ื ืชืงืœืชื™ ื‘ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืื™ื ื“ื•ืก.
06:22
That's when I was in India,
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ื–ื” ืงืจื” ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ื‘ื”ื•ื“ื•,
06:24
and I had the wonderful opportunity
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ื•ื”ื™ืชื” ืœื™ ื”ื–ื“ืžื ื•ืช ื ืคืœืื”
06:26
to meet with some Indian scientists
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ืœืคื’ื•ืฉ ื›ืžื” ืžื“ืขื ื™ื ื”ื•ื“ื™ื™ื
06:28
who were using computer models to try to analyze the script.
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ืฉื”ืฉืชืžืฉื• ื‘ืžื•ื“ืœื™ื ืžืžื•ื—ืฉื‘ื™ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœื ืกื•ืช ื•ืœื ืชื— ืืช ื”ื›ืชื‘.
06:31
And so it was then that I realized
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ื•ื›ืš, ื’ื™ืœื™ืชื™ ืื–
06:33
there was an opportunity for me to collaborate with these scientists,
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ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื™ ื”ื–ื“ืžื ื•ืช ืœืฉืชืฃ ืคืขื•ืœื” ืขื ืžื“ืขื ื™ื ืืœื”,
06:36
and so I jumped at that opportunity.
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ื•ืœื›ืŸ ืงืคืฆืชื™ ืขืœ ื”ื”ื–ื“ืžื ื•ืช.
06:38
And I'd like to describe some of the results that we have found.
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ื‘ืจืฆื•ื ื™ ืœืชืืจ ื›ืžื” ืžื”ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช ืฉื”ื’ืขื ื• ืืœื™ื”ืŸ.
06:40
Or better yet, let's all collectively decipher.
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ืื• ืื•ืœื™ ืขื“ื™ืฃ ืฉื›ื•ืœื ื• ื‘ื™ื—ื“ ื ืคืขื ื—.
06:43
Are you ready?
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ืืชื ืžื•ื›ื ื™ื?
06:45
The first thing that you need to do when you have an undeciphered script
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ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืฆืจื™ืš ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื›ืืฉืจ ื™ืฉ ื›ืชื‘ ื‘ืœืชื™ ืžืคื•ืขื ื—
06:48
is try to figure out the direction of writing.
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ื–ื” ืœื ืกื•ืช ื•ืœื’ืœื•ืช ืืช ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ื›ืชื™ื‘ื”.
06:50
Here are two texts that contain some symbols on them.
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ื”ื ื” ืฉื ื™ ื˜ืงืกื˜ื™ื ื”ืžื›ื™ืœื™ื ื›ืžื” ืกื™ืžื ื™ื.
06:53
Can you tell me
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ื”ืื ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœื•ืžืจ
06:55
if the direction of writing is right to left or left to right?
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ืื ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ื›ืชื™ื‘ื” ื”ื•ื ืžื™ืžื™ืŸ ืœืฉืžืืœ ืื• ืœื”ื™ืคืš?
06:58
I'll give you a couple of seconds.
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ืืชืŸ ืœื›ื ื›ืžื” ืฉื ื™ื•ืช.
07:01
Okay. Right to left, how many? Okay.
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ื›ืžื” ื‘ืขื“ ืžื™ืžื™ืŸ ืœืฉืžืืœ? ื˜ื•ื‘.
07:04
Okay. Left to right?
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ืžืฉืžืืœ ืœื™ืžื™ืŸ?
07:06
Oh, it's almost 50/50. Okay.
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ื–ื” ื›ืžืขื˜ 50/50.
07:08
The answer is:
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ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื”ื™ื:
07:10
if you look at the left-hand side of the two texts,
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ืื ืžืกืชื›ืœื™ื ื‘ืฆื“ ืฉืžืืœ ืฉืœ ืฉื ื™ ื”ื˜ืงืกื˜ื™ื,
07:12
you'll notice that there's a cramping of signs,
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ื ืจืื” ืฉื™ืฉื ื• ื›ื™ื•ื•ืฅ ืฉืœ ืกื™ืžื ื™ื,
07:15
and it seems like 4,000 years ago,
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ื•ื–ื” ื ืจืื” ื›ืื™ืœื• ืœืคื ื™ 4,000 ืฉื ื”,
07:17
when the scribe was writing from right to left,
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ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ื—ื•ืจื˜ ื—ืจื˜ ืžื™ืžื™ืŸ ืœืฉืžืืœ,
07:19
they ran out of space.
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ื ื’ืžืจ ืœื• ื”ืžืงื•ื.
07:21
And so they had to cram the sign.
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ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื”ื™ื” ืขืœื™ื• ืœื›ื•ื•ืฅ ืืช ื”ืกื™ืžื ื™ื.
07:23
One of the signs is also below the text on the top.
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ืื—ื“ ื”ืกื™ืžื ื™ื ื”ื•ื ื’ื ืžืชื—ืช ืœื˜ืงืกื˜ ืฉืœืžืขืœื”.
07:25
This suggests the direction of writing
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ื–ื” ืžืจืžื– ืฉื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ื›ืชื™ื‘ื”
07:27
was probably from right to left,
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ื”ื™ื” ื›ื ืจืื” ืžื™ืžื™ืŸ ืœืฉืžืืœ.
07:29
and so that's one of the first things we know,
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ื–ื” ืื—ื“ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉื›ื‘ืจ ืœืžื“ื ื•,
07:31
that directionality is a very key aspect of linguistic scripts.
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ืฉื”ื›ื™ื•ื•ื ื™ื•ืช ื”ื™ื ื” ื ืงื•ื“ืช ืžืคืชื— ื‘ื›ืชื‘ื™ ืฉืคื•ืช.
07:34
And the Indus script now has
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ื•ื›ืขืช ืœื›ืชื‘ ื”ืื™ื ื“ื•ืก ื™ืฉ
07:36
this particular property.
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ืืช ื”ืชื›ื•ื ื” ื”ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžืช ื”ื–ื•.
07:38
What other properties of language does the script show?
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ืืœื• ืชื›ื•ื ื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ืฉืคื” ื”ื›ืชื‘ ืžืคื’ื™ืŸ?
07:40
Languages contain patterns.
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ืฉืคื” ืžื›ื™ืœื” ืชื‘ื ื™ื•ืช.
07:42
If I give you the letter Q
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ืื ืืชืŸ ืœื›ื ืืช ื”ืื•ืช Q
07:44
and ask you to predict the next letter, what do you think that would be?
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ื•ืื‘ืงืฉื›ื ืœื—ื–ื•ืช ืืช ื”ืื•ืช ื”ื‘ืื”, ืžื” ืœื“ืขืชื›ื ื–ื• ืชื”ื™ื”?
07:47
Most of you said U, which is right.
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ืจื•ื‘ื›ื ืืžืจืชื U, ืฉื–ื” ื ื›ื•ืŸ.
07:49
Now if I asked you to predict one more letter,
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ื•ืื ืื‘ืงืฉ ืžื›ื ืœื—ื–ื•ืช ืื•ืช ื ื•ืกืคืช,
07:51
what do you think that would be?
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ืžื” ืœื“ืขืชื›ื ื–ื• ืชื”ื™ื”?
07:53
Now there's several thoughts. There's E. It could be I. It could be A,
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ื›ืขืช ื™ืฉ ื›ืžื” ื“ืขื•ืช. ื™ืฉ ืืช ื”-E. ืื•ืœื™ I. ืื• ืื•ืœื™ A,
07:56
but certainly not B, C or D, right?
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ื˜ื•ื— ืฉืœื C, B ืื• D, ื ื›ื•ืŸ?
07:59
The Indus script also exhibits similar kinds of patterns.
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ื’ื ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืื™ื ื“ื•ืก ืžืฆื™ื’ ืชื‘ื ื™ื•ืช ื“ื•ืžื•ืช.
08:02
There's a lot of text that start with this diamond-shaped symbol.
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ื™ืฉื ื ื”ืžื•ืŸ ื˜ืงืกื˜ื™ื ื”ืžืชื—ื™ืœื™ื ืขื ืกื™ืžืŸ ื–ื” ื“ืžื•ื™ ื™ื”ืœื•ื.
08:05
And this in turn tends to be followed
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ื•ืœืื—ืจื™ื• ื ื•ื˜ื” ืœื‘ื•ื
08:07
by this quotation marks-like symbol.
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ืกื™ืžืŸ ื“ืžื•ื™ ื’ืจืฉื™ื™ื.
08:09
And this is very similar to a Q and U example.
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ื•ื–ื” ืžืื•ื“ ื“ื•ืžื” ืœื“ื•ื’ืžืช Q ื•-U.
08:11
This symbol can in turn be followed
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ืื—ืจื™ ืกื™ืžืŸ ื–ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื‘ื•ื
08:13
by these fish-like symbols and some other signs,
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ืกื™ืžื ื™ื ืืœื” ื“ืžื•ื™ื™ ื“ื’ื™ื ื•ื›ืžื” ืกื™ืžื ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื,
08:16
but never by these other signs at the bottom.
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ืื‘ืœ ืืฃ ืคืขื ืœื ืกื™ืžื ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ืืœื” ืฉื‘ืชื—ืชื™ืช.
08:18
And furthermore, there's some signs
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ื•ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ, ื™ืฉื ื ื›ืžื” ืกื™ืžื ื™ื
08:20
that really prefer the end of texts,
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ื”ืžื•ืขื“ืคื™ื ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื”ื˜ืงืกื˜ื™ื,
08:22
such as this jar-shaped sign,
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ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ืกื™ืžืŸ ื–ื” ื“ืžื•ื™ ื›ื“.
08:24
and this sign, in fact, happens to be
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ื•ืกื™ืžืŸ ื–ื”, ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื”ื•ื ื‘ืžืงืจื”
08:26
the most frequently occurring sign in the script.
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ืžื•ืคื™ืข ื”ื›ื™ ื”ืจื‘ื” ื‘ื˜ืงืกื˜.
08:28
Given such patterns, here was our idea.
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ื‘ื”ื™ื ืชืŸ ืชื‘ื ื™ื•ืช ื›ืืœื•, ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœื ื• ื”ื™ื” ื›ื–ื”.
08:31
The idea was to use a computer
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ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื”ื™ื” ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืžื—ืฉื‘
08:33
to learn these patterns,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืœืžื•ื“ ืชื‘ื ื™ื•ืช ื”ืœืœื•,
08:35
and so we gave the computer the existing texts.
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ื•ื›ืš ื ืชื ื• ืœืžื—ืฉื‘ ืืช ื”ื˜ืงืกื˜ื™ื ื”ืงื™ื™ืžื™ื.
08:38
And the computer learned a statistical model
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ื•ื”ืžื—ืฉื‘ ืœืžื“ ืžื•ื“ืœ ืกื˜ื˜ื™ืกื˜ื™
08:40
of which symbols tend to occur together
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ืฉืœ ืื™ื–ื” ืกื™ืžื ื™ื ื ื•ื˜ื™ื ืœื‘ื•ื ื‘ื™ื—ื“
08:42
and which symbols tend to follow each other.
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ื•ืื™ื–ื” ืกื™ืžื ื™ื ื ื•ื˜ื™ื ืœื‘ื•ื ื–ื” ืื—ืจ ื–ื”.
08:44
Given the computer model,
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ื‘ื”ื™ื ืชืŸ ื”ืžื•ื“ืœ ื”ืžืžื•ื—ืฉื‘,
08:46
we can test the model by essentially quizzing it.
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ืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื‘ื—ื•ืŸ ืืช ื”ืžื•ื“ืœ ืžืžืฉ ืขืœ-ื™ื“ื™ ืœื—ื•ื“ ืœื• ื—ื™ื“ื•ืช.
08:49
So we could deliberately erase some symbols,
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ื›ืš ืฉืžื—ืงื ื• ื‘ืžืชื›ื•ื•ืŸ ื›ืžื” ืกื™ืžื ื™ื,
08:51
and we can ask it to predict the missing symbols.
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ื•ืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื‘ืงืฉ ืžืžื ื• ืœื ื—ืฉ ืืช ื”ืกื™ืžื ื™ื ื”ื—ืกืจื™ื.
08:54
Here are some examples.
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ื”ื ื” ืžืกืคืจ ื“ื•ื’ืžืื•ืช.
09:00
You may regard this
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ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืชื™ื—ืก ืœื–ื”
09:02
as perhaps the most ancient game
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ืื•ืœื™ ื›ืžืฉื—ืง ื”ืขืชื™ืง ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ
09:04
of Wheel of Fortune.
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ืฉืœ ื’ืœื’ืœ ื”ืžื–ืœ.
09:08
What we found
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ืžื” ืฉืžืฆืื ื•
09:10
was that the computer was successful in 75 percent of the cases
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ื”ื™ื” ืฉื”ืžื—ืฉื‘ ื”ืฆืœื™ื— ื‘-75 ืื—ื•ื– ืžื”ืžืงืจื™ื
09:12
in predicting the correct symbol.
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ื‘ื—ื™ื–ื•ื™ ื”ืกื™ืžืŸ ื”ื ื›ื•ืŸ.
09:14
In the rest of the cases,
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ื‘ืฉืืจ ื”ืžืงืจื™ื,
09:16
typically the second best guess or third best guess was the right answer.
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ื‘ื“ืจืš-ื›ืœืœ ื”ื ื™ื—ื•ืฉ ื”ืฉื ื™ ืื• ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™ ื”ื™ื• ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื”ื ื›ื•ื ื”.
09:19
There's also practical use
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ืงื™ื™ื ื’ื ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ืžืขืฉื™
09:21
for this particular procedure.
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ืœืชื”ืœื™ืš ื–ื”.
09:23
There's a lot of these texts that are damaged.
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžืŸ ื”ื˜ืงืกื˜ื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ื ื™ื–ื•ืงื•.
09:25
Here's an example of one such text.
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ื”ื ื” ื“ื•ื’ืžื ืœื˜ืงืกื˜ ื›ื–ื”.
09:27
And we can use the computer model now to try to complete this text
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ื•ื›ืขืช ืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืžื•ื“ืœ ื”ืžืžื•ื—ืฉื‘ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื ืกื•ืช ื•ืœื”ืฉืœื™ื ืืช ื”ื˜ืงืกื˜
09:30
and make a best guess prediction.
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ื•ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื ื™ื‘ื•ื™ ื”ืžื‘ื•ืกืก ืขืœ ื”ื ื™ื—ื•ืฉ ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ.
09:32
Here's an example of a symbol that was predicted.
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ื”ื ื” ื“ื•ื’ืžื ืœืกื™ืžืŸ ืฉื ื—ื–ื”.
09:35
And this could be really useful as we try to decipher the script
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ื•ื–ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืื•ื“ ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉื™ ืœืคื™ืขื ื•ื— ื”ื›ืชื‘
09:37
by generating more data that we can analyze.
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ืขืœ-ื™ื“ื™ ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ื ืชื•ื ื™ื ื ื•ืกืคื™ื ืฉืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื ืชื—.
09:40
Now here's one other thing you can do with the computer model.
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ื”ื ื” ื“ื‘ืจ ืื—ื“ ืฉื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืขื ื”ืžื•ื“ืœ ื”ืžืžื•ื—ืฉื‘.
09:43
So imagine a monkey
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ื“ืžื™ื™ื ื• ืฉืงื•ืฃ
09:45
sitting at a keyboard.
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ื™ื•ืฉื‘ ืœื™ื“ ื”ืžืงืœื“ืช.
09:47
I think you might get a random jumble of letters that looks like this.
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ื ืจืื” ืœื™ ืฉื ืงื‘ืœ ื‘ืœื™ืœ ืืงืจืื™ ืฉืœ ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช ื”ื ืจืื” ื›ืš.
09:50
Such a random jumble of letters
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ื‘ืœื™ืœ ื›ื–ื” ืฉืœ ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช
09:52
is said to have a very high entropy.
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ืืžื•ืจ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืขืœ ืื ื˜ืจื•ืคื™ื” ืžืื•ื“ ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื”.
09:54
This is a physics and information theory term.
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ื–ื”ื• ืžื•ื ื— ืžืคื™ื–ื™ืงื” ื•ืžืชืื•ืจื™ื™ืช ื”ืžื™ื“ืข.
09:56
But just imagine it's a really random jumble of letters.
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ืื‘ืœ ื ื“ืžื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื–ื” ื‘ืืžืช ื‘ืœื™ืœ ืืงืจืื™ ืฉืœ ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช.
09:59
How many of you have ever spilled coffee on a keyboard?
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ื›ืžื” ืžื›ื ืฉืคื›ื• ืคืขื ืงืคื” ืขืœ ืžืงืœื“ืช?
10:03
You might have encountered the stuck-key problem --
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ืื•ืœื™ ื ืชืงืœืชื ื‘ื‘ืขื™ื™ืช ื”ืžืงืœื“ืช ื”ืชืงื•ืขื” --
10:05
so basically the same symbol being repeated over and over again.
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ื›ืš ืฉืื•ืชื• ืกื™ืžืŸ ืžื•ืคื™ืข ืฉื•ื‘ ื•ืฉื•ื‘.
10:08
This kind of a sequence is said to have a very low entropy
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ืœืจืฆืฃ ื›ื–ื” ืืžื•ืจื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืื ื˜ืจื•ืคื™ื” ืžืื•ื“ ื ืžื•ื›ื”
10:11
because there's no variation at all.
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืื™ืŸ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื›ืœืœ.
10:13
Language, on the other hand, has an intermediate level of entropy;
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ืœืฉืคื” ื™ืฉ ืื ื˜ืจื•ืคื™ื” ื‘ื“ืจื’ื” ื‘ื™ื ื•ื ื™ืช;
10:16
it's neither too rigid,
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ื”ื™ื ืื™ื ื” ื—ื“-ื’ื•ื ื™ืช ืžื“ื™,
10:18
nor is it too random.
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ื•ื’ื ืœื ืืงืจืื™ืช ืžื“ื™.
10:20
What about the Indus script?
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ืžื” ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ื›ืชื‘ ืžืื™ื ื“ื•ืก?
10:22
Here's a graph that plots the entropies of a whole bunch of sequences.
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ื”ื ื” ื’ืจืฃ ื”ืžืฆื™ื’ ืื ื˜ืจื•ืคื™ื•ืช ื›ื ื’ื“ ืจืฆืคื™ื ืžืกื•ื’ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื.
10:26
At the very top you find the uniformly random sequence,
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ืžืžืฉ ืœืžืขืœื” ื ืžืฆื ืืช ื”ืจืฆืฃ ื”ืื—ื™ื“ ื”ืืงืจืื™,
10:28
which is a random jumble of letters --
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ืฉื–ื” ื‘ืœื™ืœ ืืงืจืื™ ืฉืœ ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช --
10:30
and interestingly, we also find
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ื•ืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืฉืื ื• ืžื•ืฆืื™ื ืฉื ื’ื
10:32
the DNA sequence from the human genome and instrumental music.
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ืืช ืจืฆืฃ ื”-DNA ืžื”ื’ื ื•ื ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ ื•ืจืฆืฃ ืฉืœ ืžื•ื–ื™ืงืช ื›ืœื™ื.
10:35
And both of these are very, very flexible,
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ื•ืฉื ื™ ืืœื” ื”ื ืžืื•ื“, ืžืื•ื“ ื’ืžื™ืฉื™ื,
10:37
which is why you find them in the very high range.
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ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื’ื ื”ื ื ืžืฆืื™ื ืžืื•ื“ ื’ื‘ื•ื”.
10:39
At the lower end of the scale,
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ื‘ืงืฆื” ื”ืชื—ืชื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ื’ืจืฃ,
10:41
you find a rigid sequence, a sequence of all A's,
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ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืžืฆื•ื ืจืฆืฃ ื—ื“-ื’ื•ื ื™, ืจืฆืฃ ืฉืœ ื”ื›ืœ A-ื™ื,
10:43
and you also find a computer program,
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ื•ื ื™ืชืŸ ื’ื ืœืžืฆื•ื ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืžื—ืฉื‘,
10:45
in this case in the language Fortran,
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ื‘ืžืงืจื” ื–ื” ืฉืคืช ืคื•ืจื˜ืจืŸ,
10:47
which obeys really strict rules.
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ื”ืžืฆื™ื™ืชืช ืœื›ืœืœื™ื ื‘ืืžืช ื ื•ืงืฉื™ื.
10:49
Linguistic scripts
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ื›ืชื‘ื™ ืฉืคื•ืช
10:51
occupy the middle range.
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ืžืื›ืœืกื™ื ืืช ื”ืชื—ื•ื ื”ืืžืฆืขื™.
10:53
Now what about the Indus script?
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ื•ืžื” ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ื›ืชื‘ ืžืื™ื ื“ื•ืก?
10:55
We found that the Indus script
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ืžืฆืื ื• ืฉื›ืชื‘ ื”ืื™ื ื“ื•ืก
10:57
actually falls within the range of the linguistic scripts.
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ื ื•ืคืœ ื‘ืขืฆื ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ืชื—ื•ื ืฉืœ ื›ืชื‘ื™ ื”ืฉืคื•ืช.
10:59
When this result was first published,
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ื›ืืฉืจ ืชื•ืฆืื” ื–ื• ืคื•ืจืกืžื” ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื”,
11:01
it was highly controversial.
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ื”ื™ื ื”ื™ืชื” ืžืื•ื“ ืฉื ื•ื™ื” ื‘ืžื—ืœื•ืงืช.
11:04
There were people who raised a hue and cry,
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ื”ื™ื• ื›ืืœื” ืฉื”ืจื™ืžื• ืฆืขืงื”,
11:07
and these people were the ones who believed
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ื•ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ืžืืœื” ืฉื”ืืžื™ื ื•
11:09
that the Indus script does not represent language.
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ืฉื›ืชื‘ ื”ืื™ื ื“ื•ืก ืื™ื ื• ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ ืฉืคื”.
11:12
I even started to get some hate mail.
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ื”ืชื—ืœืชื™ ืืคื™ืœื• ืœืงื‘ืœ ืžื›ืชื‘ื™ ืฉื™ื ืื”.
11:14
My students said
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ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื™ ืืžืจื•
11:16
that I should really seriously consider getting some protection.
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ืฉืื ื™ ืžืžืฉ ืฆืจื™ืš ืœืฉื™ื ืื‘ื˜ื—ื” ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื™.
11:19
Who'd have thought
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ืžื™ ื”ื™ื” ืขืฉื•ื™ ืœื”ืขืœื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœืœ ืขืœ ื”ื“ืขืช
11:21
that deciphering could be a dangerous profession?
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ืฉืคื™ืขื ื•ื— ืขืœื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืงืฆื•ืข ืžืกื•ื›ืŸ?
11:23
What does this result really show?
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ืขืœ ืžื” ืžืขื™ื“ื” ืชื•ืฆืื” ื–ื•?
11:25
It shows that the Indus script
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ื”ื™ื ืžืขื™ื“ื” ืขืœ ื›ืš ืฉื›ืชื‘ ื”ืื™ื ื“ื•ืก
11:27
shares an important property of language.
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ืžื›ื™ืœ ื‘ืชื•ื›ื• ืชื›ื•ื ื” ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื” ืฉืœ ืฉืคื”.
11:29
So, as the old saying goes,
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ืœื›ืŸ, ื›ืคื™ ืฉืื•ืžืจ ืคืชื’ื ื™ืฉืŸ,
11:31
if it looks like a linguistic script
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ืื ื–ื” ื ืจืื” ื›ืžื• ื›ืชื‘ ืœืฉื•ื ื™
11:33
and it acts like a linguistic script,
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืžืชื ื”ื’ ื›ืžื• ื›ืชื‘ ืœืฉื•ื ื™,
11:35
then perhaps we may have a linguistic script on our hands.
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ืื– ืื•ืœื™ ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื‘ื™ื“ื™ื™ื ื›ืชื‘ ืœืฉื•ื ื™.
11:38
What other evidence is there
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ืืœื• ืขื•ื“ ืขื“ื•ื™ื•ืช ืงื™ื™ืžื•ืช
11:40
that the script could actually encode language?
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ืขืœ ื›ืš ืฉื”ื›ืชื‘ ืขืฉื•ื™ ื‘ืืžืช ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืงื•ื“ื“ ืฉืคื”?
11:42
Well linguistic scripts can actually encode multiple languages.
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ื›ืชื‘ ืœืฉื•ื ื™ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ื‘ืขืฆื ืœื”ื›ื™ืœ ืžืกืคืจ ืฉืคื•ืช.
11:45
So for example, here's the same sentence written in English
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ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื, ื”ื ื” ืžืฉืคื˜ ื›ืชื•ื‘ ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช
11:48
and the same sentence written in Dutch
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ื•ืื•ืชื• ืžืฉืคื˜ ื›ืชื•ื‘ ื‘ื”ื•ืœื ื“ื™ืช
11:50
using the same letters of the alphabet.
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ื›ืืฉืจ ื ืขืฉื” ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืื•ืชืŸ ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช.
11:52
If you don't know Dutch and you only know English
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ืื ืœื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ื”ื•ืœื ื“ื™ืช ื•ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืจืง ืื ื’ืœื™ืช
11:55
and I give you some words in Dutch,
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ื•ืžืงื‘ืœื™ื ื›ืžื” ืžื™ืœื™ื ื‘ื”ื•ืœื ื“ื™ืช,
11:57
you'll tell me that these words contain
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ืืคืฉืจ ืœื•ืžืจ ืฉืžื™ืœื™ื ืืœื• ืžื›ื™ืœื•ืช
11:59
some very unusual patterns.
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ื›ืžื” ืชื‘ื ื™ื•ืช ื™ื•ืฆืื•ืช-ื“ื•ืคืŸ.
12:01
Some things are not right,
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ื›ืžื” ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืœื ืžืกืชื“ืจื™ื,
12:03
and you'll say these words are probably not English words.
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ื•ืืคืฉืจ ืœื•ืžืจ ืฉืžื™ืœื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ืื™ื ืŸ ื›ื ืจืื” ืžื™ืœื™ื ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช.
12:06
The same thing happens in the case of the Indus script.
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ืื•ืชื• ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ืžืชืจื—ืฉ ื‘ืžืงืจื” ืฉืœ ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืื™ื ื“ื•ืก.
12:08
The computer found several texts --
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ื”ืžื—ืฉื‘ ืžืฆื ืžืกืคืจ ื˜ืงืกื˜ื™ื --
12:10
two of them are shown here --
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ืฉื ื™ื™ื ืžื”ื ืจื•ืื™ื ื›ืืŸ --
12:12
that have very unusual patterns.
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ืฉื™ืฉ ื‘ื”ื ืชื‘ื ื™ื•ืช ืžืื•ื“ ื™ื•ืฆืื•ืช-ื“ื•ืคืŸ.
12:14
So for example the first text:
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ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื ื”ื˜ืงืกื˜ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ:
12:16
there's a doubling of this jar-shaped sign.
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ื™ืฉื ื” ื›ืคื™ืœื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืกื™ืžืŸ ื”ื–ื” ื‘ืฆื•ืจืช ื›ื“.
12:19
This sign is the most frequently-occurring sign
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ืกื™ืžืŸ ื–ื” ืžื•ืคื™ืข ื”ื›ื™ ื”ืจื‘ื”
12:21
in the Indus script,
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ื‘ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืื™ื ื“ื•ืก,
12:23
and it's only in this text
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ื•ืจืง ื‘ื˜ืงืกื˜ ื–ื”
12:25
that it occurs as a doubling pair.
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ื”ื•ื ืžื•ืคื™ืข ื‘ื›ืคื™ืœื•ืช ื–ื•ื’ื™ืช.
12:27
Why is that the case?
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ืžื“ื•ืข ื–ื” ื›ืš?
12:29
We went back and looked at where these particular texts were found,
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ื—ื–ืจื ื• ื•ื‘ื“ืงื ื• ื”ื™ื›ืŸ ื ืžืฆืื• ื˜ืงืกื˜ื™ื ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžื™ื ืืœื”,
12:32
and it turns out that they were found
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ื•ืžืชื‘ืจืจ ืฉื”ื ื ืžืฆืื•
12:34
very, very far away from the Indus Valley.
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ื‘ืžืจื—ืง ืžืื•ื“ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืžืขืžืง ื”ืื™ื ื“ื•ืก.
12:36
They were found in present day Iraq and Iran.
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ื”ื ื ืžืฆืื• ื‘ืขื™ืจืง ื•ืื™ืจืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื•ื.
12:39
And why were they found there?
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ื•ืžื“ื•ืข ื”ื ื ืžืฆืื• ืฉื?
12:41
What I haven't told you is that
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ืœื ืกื™ืคืจืชื™ ืœื›ื
12:43
the Indus people were very, very enterprising.
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ืฉืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ ืื™ื ื“ื•ืก ื”ื™ื• ื‘ืขืœื™ ื™ื•ื–ืžื”.
12:45
They used to trade with people pretty far away from where they lived,
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ื”ื ื ื”ื’ื• ืœืกื—ื•ืจ ืขื ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืจื—ืง ืžืžืงื•ื ืžื’ื•ืจื™ื”ื.
12:48
and so in this case, they were traveling by sea
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ื•ื›ืš ื‘ืžืงืจื” ื–ื”, ื”ื ื ื”ื’ื• ืœื”ืคืœื™ื’ ื‘ื™ื
12:51
all the way to Mesopotamia, present-day Iraq.
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ื›ืœ ื”ื“ืจืš ืขื“ ืืจื-ื ื”ืจื™ื™ื, ืขื™ืจืง ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื•ื.
12:54
And what seems to have happened here
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ื•ื›ื ืจืื” ืžื” ืฉืงืจื” ืฉื
12:56
is that the Indus traders, the merchants,
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ื”ื•ื ืฉื”ืกื•ื—ืจื™ื ืžืื™ื ื“ื•ืก
12:59
were using this script to write a foreign language.
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ื”ืฉืชืžืฉื• ื‘ื›ืชื‘ ื–ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื›ืชื•ื‘ ืฉืคื” ื–ืจื”.
13:02
It's just like our English and Dutch example.
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ื–ื” ื›ืžื• ื‘ื“ื•ื’ืžื ืฉืœ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื•ื”ื•ืœื ื“ื™ืช.
13:04
And that would explain why we have these strange patterns
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ื•ื–ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืžื“ื•ืข ื™ืฉ ืชื‘ื ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ื–ืจื•ืช ื”ืœืœื•
13:06
that are very different from the kinds of patterns you see in the text
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ืฉื”ืŸ ืžืื•ื“ ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ืžืกื•ื’ื™ ื”ืชื‘ื ื™ื•ืช ืฉืจื•ืื™ื ื‘ื˜ืงืกื˜
13:09
that are found within the Indus Valley.
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ืฉื ืžืฆื ื‘ืขืžืง ื”ืื™ื ื“ื•ืก.
13:12
This suggests that the same script, the Indus script,
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ื–ื” ืžืฆื‘ื™ืข ืขืœ ื›ืš ืฉืื•ืชื• ื›ืชื‘, ื”ื›ืชื‘ ืžืื™ื ื“ื•ืก,
13:14
could be used to write different languages.
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ื ื™ืชืŸ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืชื• ืœื›ืชื•ื‘ ื‘ืฉืคื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช.
13:17
The results we have so far seem to point to the conclusion
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ื”ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช ืฉืจืื™ื ื• ืขื“ ื›ื” ืžืฆื‘ื™ืขื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ืžืกืงื ื”
13:20
that the Indus script probably does represent language.
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ืฉื›ืชื‘ ื”ืื™ื ื“ื•ืก ื›ื›ืœ ื”ื ืจืื” ื›ืŸ ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ ืฉืคื”.
13:23
If it does represent language,
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ืื ื”ื•ื ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ ืฉืคื”,
13:25
then how do we read the symbols?
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ืื– ื›ื™ืฆื“ ืขืœื™ื ื• ืœืงืจื•ื ืืช ื”ืกื™ืžื ื™ื?
13:27
That's our next big challenge.
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ื–ื”ื• ื”ืืชื’ืจ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื”ื‘ื ืฉืœื ื•.
13:29
So you'll notice that many of the symbols
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ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื‘ื—ื™ืŸ ืฉืจื‘ื™ื ืžื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืกื™ืžื ื™ื
13:31
look like pictures of humans, of insects,
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ื ืจืื™ื ื›ืžื• ื“ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื“ื, ื—ืจืงื™ื,
13:33
of fishes, of birds.
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ื“ื’ื™ื ื•ืฆื™ืคื•ืจื™ื.
13:36
Most ancient scripts
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ืจื•ื‘ ื”ื›ืชื‘ื™ื ื”ืขืชื™ืงื™ื
13:38
use the rebus principle,
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ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ืขื™ืงืจื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื—ื™ื“ืช ืฆื™ื•ืจื™ื,
13:40
which is, using pictures to represent words.
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ืฉื–ื” ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืฆื™ื•ืจื™ื ืœื”ืฆื’ืช ืžื™ืœื™ื.
13:43
So as an example, here's a word.
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ื‘ืชื•ืจ ื“ื•ื’ืžื, ื”ื ื” ืžื™ืœื”.
13:46
Can you write it using pictures?
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ื”ืื ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœื›ืชื•ื‘ ืื•ืชื” ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ืฆื™ื•ืจื™ื?
13:48
I'll give you a couple seconds.
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ืืชืŸ ืœื›ื ื›ืžื” ืฉื ื™ื•ืช.
13:50
Got it?
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ื”ื‘ื ืชื?
13:52
Okay. Great.
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ื˜ื•ื‘.
13:54
Here's my solution.
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ื”ื ื” ื”ืคื™ืชืจื•ืŸ ืฉืœื™.
13:56
You could use the picture of a bee followed by a picture of a leaf --
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ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืฆื™ื•ืจ ื“ื‘ื•ืจื” ื•ืื—ืจื™ื• ืฆื™ื•ืจ ืขืœื” --
13:58
and that's "belief," right.
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ื•ื–ื” "ืืžื•ื ื”".
14:00
There could be other solutions.
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืคื™ืชืจื•ื ื•ืช ืื—ืจื™ื.
14:02
In the case of the Indus script,
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ื‘ืžืงืจื” ืฉืœ ื›ืชื‘ ืื™ื ื“ื•ืก,
14:04
the problem is the reverse.
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ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ืคื•ื›ื”.
14:06
You have to figure out the sounds of each of these pictures
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ืฆืจื™ืš ืœืžืฆื•ื ืืช ื”ืฆืœื™ืœื™ื ืฉืœ ื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ืžื”ืฆื™ื•ืจื™ื
14:09
such that the entire sequence makes sense.
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ื›ืš ืฉื›ืœ ื”ืจืฆืฃ ื™ื”ื™ื” ื”ื’ื™ื•ื ื™.
14:11
So this is just like a crossword puzzle,
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ื–ื” ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื›ืžื• ื—ื™ื“ืช ืชืฉื‘ืฅ,
14:14
except that this is the mother of all crossword puzzles
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ืืœื ืฉื–ื•ื”ื™ ืื ื›ืœ ื—ื™ื“ื•ืช ื”ืชืฉื‘ืฅ,
14:17
because the stakes are so high if you solve it.
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ืžืคื ื™ ืฉืžื” ืฉืขื•ืžื“ ืขืœ ื”ืคืจืง ื–ื” ื“ื‘ืจ ืžืื•ื“ ืจืฆื™ื ื™, ืื ืคื•ืชืจื™ื ืื•ืชื”.
14:21
My colleagues, Iravatham Mahadevan and Asko Parpola,
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ืขืžื™ืชื™ื™, ืื™ืจืื•ื•ืื˜ื”ื ืžื”ื“ื•ื•ืืŸ ื•ืืกืงื• ืคืืจืคื•ืœื”
14:24
have been making some headway on this particular problem.
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ืขืฉื• ื”ืชืงื“ืžื•ืช ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžืช ื‘ืคื™ืชืจื•ืŸ ื‘ืขื™ื” ื–ื•.
14:26
And I'd like to give you a quick example of Parpola's work.
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ื•ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœืชืช ืœื›ื ื“ื•ื’ืžื ืงืฆืจื” ืžืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื• ืฉืœ ืคืืจืคื•ืœื”.
14:28
Here's a really short text.
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ืœื”ืœืŸ ื˜ืงืกื˜ ืงืฆืจ.
14:30
It contains seven vertical strokes followed by this fish-like sign.
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ื”ื•ื ืžื›ื™ืœ 7 ืงื•ื•ื™ื ืื ื›ื™ื™ื ื•ืœืื—ืจื™ื”ื ืกื™ืžืŸ ื“ืžื•ื™ ื“ื’.
14:33
And I want to mention that these seals were used
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ื•ื‘ืจืฆื•ื ื™ ืœื”ื–ื›ื™ืจ ืฉื—ื•ืชืžื•ืช ืืœื• ืฉื™ืžืฉื•
14:35
for stamping clay tags
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ืœื”ื˜ื‘ืขืช ืชื•ื•ื™ื•ืช ื—ื™ืžืจ
14:37
that were attached to bundles of goods,
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ืฉื”ื•ืฆืžื“ื• ืœืฆืจื•ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ืคืจื™ื˜ื™ื,
14:39
so it's quite likely that these tags, at least some of them,
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ืฉื–ื” ื“ื™ ื”ื’ื™ื•ื ื™ ืฉืชื•ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืœืœื•, ืœืคื—ื•ืช ื‘ื—ืœืงืŸ,
14:42
contain names of merchants.
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ื ื•ืฉืื•ืช ืฉืžื•ืช ืฉืœ ืกื•ื—ืจื™ื.
14:44
And it turns out that in India
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ื•ืžืชื‘ืจืจ ืฉื‘ื”ื•ื“ื•
14:46
there's a long tradition
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ืงื™ื™ืžืช ืžืกื•ืจืช ืืจื•ื›ื”
14:48
of names being based on horoscopes
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ืฉืœ ืฉืžื•ืช ื”ืžืชื‘ืกืกื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื•ืจื•ืกืงื•ืคื™ื
14:50
and star constellations present at the time of birth.
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ื•ืžืฆื‘ื™ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ื‘ืขืช ื”ืœื™ื“ื”.
14:53
In Dravidian languages,
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ื‘ืฉืคื•ืช ื“ืจืื•ื•ื™ื“ื™ืื ื™ื•ืช,
14:55
the word for fish is "meen"
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ื”ืžื™ืœื” ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื“ื’ ื”ื™ื "ืžื™ืŸ"
14:57
which happens to sound just like the word for star.
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ืืฉืจ ื ืฉืžืขืช ืžืžืฉ ื›ืžื• ื”ืžื™ืœื” ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื›ื•ื›ื‘.
15:00
And so seven stars
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ื•ื›ืš ืฉื‘ืขื” ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื
15:02
would stand for "elu meen,"
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ื”ื™ื "ืืœื• ืžื™ืŸ"
15:04
which is the Dravidian word
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ืฉื”ื™ื ืžื™ืœื” ื“ืจืื•ื•ื™ื“ื™ืื ื™ืช
15:06
for the Big Dipper star constellation.
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ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื "ื”ื“ื•ื‘ื” ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื”".
15:08
Similarly, there's another sequence of six stars,
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ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื“ื•ืžื”, ื™ืฉื ื• ืจืฆืฃ ืื—ืจ ืฉืœ ืฉื™ืฉื” ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื,
15:11
and that translates to "aru meen,"
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ื•ื–ื” ืžื™ืชืจื’ื ืœ"ืืจื• ืžื™ืŸ"
15:13
which is the old Dravidian name
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ืฉื”ื•ื ืฉื ื“ืจืื•ื•ื™ื“ื™ืื ื™ ื™ืฉืŸ
15:15
for the star constellation Pleiades.
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ืœืžื‘ื ื” ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ื‘ืžื–ืœ ืฉื•ืจ.
15:17
And finally, there's other combinations,
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ื•ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ, ื™ืฉ ืฆื™ืจื•ืคื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื,
15:20
such as this fish sign with something that looks like a roof on top of it.
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ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ืกื™ืžืŸ ื“ื’ ื–ื” ืฉืœืคืขืžื™ื ื ืจืื” ื›ืื™ืœื• ื™ืฉ ืœื• ื’ื’ ืžืขืœื™ื•.
15:23
And that could be translated into "mey meen,"
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ื•ื–ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ืชืจื’ื ืœ"ืžื™ื™ ืžื™ืŸ"
15:26
which is the old Dravidian name for the planet Saturn.
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ืฉื”ื•ื ืฉื ื“ืจืื•ื•ื™ื“ื™ืื ื™ ื™ืฉืŸ ืœื›ื•ื›ื‘-ื”ืœื›ืช ืฉื‘ืชืื™.
15:29
So that was pretty exciting.
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ืื– ื›ืœ ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื“ื™ ืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ.
15:31
It looks like we're getting somewhere.
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ื ืจืื” ื›ืื™ืœื• ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืชืงื“ืžื™ื ืœืืŸ ืฉื”ื•ื.
15:33
But does this prove
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืื ื–ื” ืžื•ื›ื™ื—
15:35
that these seals contain Dravidian names
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ืฉื—ื•ืชืžื•ืช ืืœื• ืžื›ื™ืœื•ืช ืฉืžื•ืช ื“ืจืื•ื•ื™ื“ื™ืื ื™ื
15:37
based on planets and star constellations?
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ื”ืžื‘ื•ืกืกื™ื ืขืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™-ืœื›ืช ื•ืžื‘ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื?
15:39
Well not yet.
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื.
15:41
So we have no way of validating
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ืื™ืŸ ืœื ื• ื“ืจืš ืœืืžืช
15:43
these particular readings,
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ืืช ื”ืงืจื™ืื•ืช ื”ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžื•ืช ื”ืœืœื•,
15:45
but if more and more of these readings start making sense,
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื•ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื”ืงืจื™ืื•ืช ื”ืœืœื• ื™ืชื—ื™ืœื• ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ื‘ื ื•ืช,
15:48
and if longer and longer sequences
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ื•ืื ืจืฆืคื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื•ื™ื•ืชืจ ืืจื•ื›ื™ื
15:50
appear to be correct,
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ื™ื™ืจืื• ื›ื ื›ื•ื ื™ื,
15:52
then we know that we are on the right track.
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ืื– ื ื“ืข ืฉืขืœื™ื ื• ืขืœ ื”ืžืกืœื•ืœ ื”ื ื›ื•ืŸ.
15:54
Today,
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ื ื›ื•ืŸ ืœื”ื™ื•ื,
15:56
we can write a word such as TED
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ืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื›ืชื•ื‘ ืžื™ืœื” ื›ืžื• TED
15:59
in Egyptian hieroglyphics and in cuneiform script,
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ื‘ื›ืชื‘ ื—ืจื˜ื•ืžื™ื ืžืฆืจื™ ื•ื‘ื›ืชื‘ ื™ืชื“ื•ืช,
16:02
because both of these were deciphered
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ืžืื—ืจ ื•ืฉื ื™ ื”ื›ืชื‘ื™ื ืคื•ืขื ื—ื•
16:04
in the 19th century.
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ื‘ืžืื” ื”-19.
16:06
The decipherment of these two scripts
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ื”ืคื™ืขื ื•ื— ืฉืœ ืฉื ื™ ื”ื›ืชื‘ื™ื
16:08
enabled these civilizations to speak to us again directly.
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ืื™ืคืฉืจ ืœืฉืชื™ ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืœืœื• ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืืœื™ื ื• ื™ืฉื™ืจื•ืช.
16:11
The Mayans
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ื‘ื ื™-ื”ืžืื™ื”
16:13
started speaking to us in the 20th century,
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ื”ื—ืœื• ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืืœื™ื ื• ื‘ืžืื” ื”-20,
16:15
but the Indus civilization remains silent.
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ืื‘ืœ ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื”ืื™ื ื“ื•ืก ื ื•ืชืจื” ืฉืงื˜ื”.
16:18
Why should we care?
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ืžื“ื•ืข ื–ื” ืื™ื›ืคืช ืœื ื•?
16:20
The Indus civilization does not belong
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ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื”ืื™ื ื“ื•ืก ืื™ื ื” ืฉื™ื™ื›ืช
16:22
to just the South Indians or the North Indians
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ืืš ื•ืจืง ืœืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ ื“ืจื•ื ืื• ืฆืคื•ืŸ ื”ื•ื“ื•
16:24
or the Pakistanis;
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ืื• ืœืคืงื™ืกื˜ื ื™ื;
16:26
it belongs to all of us.
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ื”ื™ื ืฉื™ื™ื›ืช ืœื›ื•ืœื ื•.
16:28
These are our ancestors --
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ื”ื ืื‘ื•ืช ืื‘ื•ืชื™ื ื• --
16:30
yours and mine.
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ืฉืœื›ื ื•ืฉืœื™.
16:32
They were silenced
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ื”ื ื”ื•ืฉืชืงื• ืขืœ-ื™ื“ื™
16:34
by an unfortunate accident of history.
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ืชืื•ื ื” ืžืฆืขืจืช ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื”.
16:36
If we decipher the script,
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ืื ื ืคืขื ื— ืืช ื”ื›ืชื‘,
16:38
we would enable them to speak to us again.
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ื ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืืœื™ื ื• ืฉื•ื‘.
16:40
What would they tell us?
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ืžื” ื”ื ื™ืกืคืจื• ืœื ื•?
16:43
What would we find out about them? About us?
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ืžื” ื ื’ืœื” ืขืœื™ื”ื? ืขืœื™ื ื•?
16:46
I can't wait to find out.
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ืื™ื ื™ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืžืชื™ืŸ ืขื“ ืฉื ื’ืœื”.
16:49
Thank you.
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ืชื•ื“ื” ืœื›ื.
16:51
(Applause)
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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