The surprising decline in violence | Steven Pinker

477,591 views ใƒป 2007-09-11

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืžืชืจื’ื: Shlomo Adam ืžื‘ืงืจ: Yifat Adler
00:25
Images like this, from the Auschwitz concentration camp,
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ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ื›ืืœื”, ืžืžื—ื ื” ื”ืจื™ื›ื•ื– ืื•ืฉื•ื•ื™ืฅ,
00:29
have been seared into our consciousness during the 20th century
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ื ืฆืจื‘ื• ื‘ืชื•ื“ืขืชื ื• ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืžืื” ื”ืขืฉืจื™ื
00:33
and have given us a new understanding of who we are,
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ื•ื”ืงื ื• ืœื ื• ื”ื‘ื ื” ื—ื“ืฉื” ืžื™ ืื ื—ื ื•,
00:39
where we've come from and the times we live in.
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ืžืื™ืŸ ื‘ืื ื• ื•ื‘ืื™ื–ื• ืชืงื•ืคื” ืื ื• ื—ื™ื™ื.
00:42
During the 20th century, we witnessed the atrocities
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ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืžืื” ื”-20 ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืขื“ื™ื ืœื–ื•ื•ืขื•ืช
00:46
of Stalin, Hitler, Mao, Pol Pot, Rwanda and other genocides,
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ืกื˜ืœื™ืŸ, ื”ื™ื˜ืœืจ, ืžืื•, ืคื•ืœ ืคื•ื˜, ืจื•ืื ื“ื” ื•ื”ืฉืžื“ื•ืช-ืขื ื ื•ืกืคื•ืช,
00:51
and even though the 21st century is only seven years old,
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ื•ืืฃ ืฉื”ืžืื” ื”-21 ื”ื™ื ืจืง ื‘ืช 7 ืฉื ื™ื,
00:55
we have already witnessed an ongoing genocide in Darfur
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ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ืกืคืงื ื• ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืขื“ื™ื ืœืจืฆื—-ืขื ืžืชืžืฉืš ื‘ื“ืืจืคื•ืจ
00:59
and the daily horrors of Iraq.
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ื•ืœื–ื•ื•ืขื•ืช ื”ื™ื•ืžื™ื•ื ืฉืœ ืขื™ืจืง.
01:02
This has led to a common understanding of our situation,
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ื–ื” ื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืชืคื™ืฉื” ืžืงื•ื‘ืœืช ืœื’ื‘ื™ ืžืฆื‘ื ื•,
01:05
namely, that modernity has brought us terrible violence,
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ืœืคื™ื”, ื”ืขื™ื“ืŸ ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ ื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืืœื™ืžื•ืช ื ื•ืจืื”,
01:08
and perhaps that native peoples lived in a state of harmony
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ื•ืฉื™ื™ืชื›ืŸ ื›ื™ ื”ืขืžื™ื ื”ื™ืœื™ื“ื™ื™ื ื—ื™ื• ื‘ื”ืจืžื•ื ื™ื”
01:12
that we have departed from, to our peril.
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ื•ื”ืชืจื—ืงื•ืชื ื• ืžืžื ื” ืกื™ื›ื ื” ืื•ืชื ื•.
01:15
Here is an example from an op-ed on Thanksgiving,
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ื”ื ื” ื“ื•ื’ืžื” ืžืžื“ื•ืจ ื”ื“ืขื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”"ื‘ื•ืกื˜ื•ืŸ ื’ืœื•ื‘" ื‘ื—ื’ ื”ื”ื•ื“ื™ื”
01:19
in the "Boston Globe" a couple of years ago,
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ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื ืชื™ื™ื, ืฉื‘ื• ื ื›ืชื‘:
01:21
where the writer wrote, "The Indian life was a difficult one,
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"ื—ื™ื™ ื”ืื™ื ื“ื™ืื ื™ื ื”ื™ื• ืงืฉื™ื, ืืš ืœื ื”ื™ื• ืœื”ื ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ืชืขืกื•ืงื”,
01:25
but there were no employment problems,
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01:27
community harmony was strong, substance abuse unknown,
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"ื”ื”ืจืžื•ื ื™ื” ื”ืงื”ื™ืœืชื™ืช ื”ื™ืชื” ื—ื–ืงื”, ืœื ื”ืชืžื›ืจื• ืœืกืžื™ื,
01:30
crime nearly nonexistent.
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"ื›ืžืขื˜ ื•ืœื ื”ื™ืชื” ืคืฉื™ืขื”, ืื ื”ื™ื• ืžืœื—ืžื•ืช ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืฉื‘ื˜ื™ื
01:31
What warfare there was between tribes was largely ritualistic
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"ื”ืŸ ื”ื™ื• ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื˜ืงืกื™ื•ืช, ื•ื ื“ื™ืจ ืฉื”ืกืชื™ื™ืžื• ื‘ื”ืจื’ ืœืœื ืื‘ื—ื ื”."
01:35
and seldom resulted in indiscriminate or wholesale slaughter."
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01:38
Now you're all familiar with this treacle.
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ื›ื•ืœื›ื ืžื›ื™ืจื™ื ืื™ื“ื™ืœื™ื” ืžืชืงืชืงื” ื–ื•.
01:41
We teach it to our children.
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ืื ื• ืžืœืžื“ื™ื ืื•ืชื” ืœื™ืœื“ื™ื ื• ื•ืฉื•ืžืขื™ื ืื•ืชื” ื‘ื˜ืœื•ื•ื™ื–ื™ื” ื•ื‘ืจื•ืžื ื™ื.
01:43
We hear it on television and in storybooks.
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01:46
Now, the original title of this session was, "Everything You Know is Wrong,"
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ื”ื›ื•ืชืจืช ื”ืžืงื•ืจื™ืช ืฉืœ ืžืคื’ืฉ ื–ื” ื”ื™ืชื”:
"ื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉื™ื“ื•ืข ืœืš ื”ื•ื ืžื•ื˜ืขื”", ื•ืื ื™ ืื•ื›ื™ื—
01:51
and I'm going to present evidence
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01:53
that this particular part of our common understanding is wrong,
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ืฉื—ืœืง ืžืกื•ื™ื ื–ื” ื‘ืชืคื™ืฉื” ื”ืžืงื•ื‘ืœืช ื”ื•ื ืžื•ื˜ืขื”.
01:56
that, in fact, our ancestors were far more violent than we are,
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ื•ืœืžืขืฉื” ืื‘ื•ืชื™ื ื• ื”ื™ื• ืืœื™ืžื™ื ื‘ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžืื™ืชื ื•,
02:00
that violence has been in decline for long stretches of time,
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ืฉื”ืืœื™ืžื•ืช ื ืžืฆืืช ื‘ื™ืจื™ื“ื” ื‘ืžืฉืช ืชืงื•ืคื•ืช ืืจื•ื›ื•ืช ืžืื“,
02:04
and that today, we are probably living in the most peaceful time
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ื•ืฉื›ื™ื•ื, ืงืจื•ื‘ ืœื•ื•ื“ืื™ ืฉืื ื• ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ืขื™ื“ืŸ ื”ืฉืœื™ื• ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ
02:07
in our species's existence.
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ื‘ืชื•ืœื“ื•ืช ื”ืžื™ืŸ ืฉืœื ื•.
02:09
Now in the decade of Darfur and Iraq,
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ื ื›ื•ืŸ ืฉื›ื™ื•ื, ื‘ื™ืžื™ ื“ืืจืคื•ืจ ื•ืขื™ืจืง,
02:11
a statement like that might seem somewhere between hallucinatory and obscene,
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ืžืฉืคื˜ ื›ื–ื” ื ื—ืฉื‘ ืœืžืฉื”ื• ืฉื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื–ื™ื” ืœืชื•ืขื‘ื”,
02:16
but I'm going to try to convince you that that is the correct picture.
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ืืš ืื ื™ ืื ืกื” ืœืฉื›ื ืข ืืชื›ื
ืฉื–ื• ื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ื”ื ื›ื•ื ื”.
02:22
The decline of violence is a fractal phenomenon.
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ื”ื™ื ืชื•ืคืขื” ืคืจืงื˜ืœื™ืช.
ืืคืฉืจ ืœืจืื•ืชื” ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ืืœืคื™ื, ืžืื•ืช, ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืฉื ื™ื ื•ืฉื ื™ื ื‘ื•ื“ื“ื•ืช,
02:26
You can see it over millennia, over centuries, over decades
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02:29
and over years,
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02:31
although there seems to have been a tipping point
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ืืฃ ืฉื ืจืื” ืฉื”ื™ืชื” ื ืงื•ื“ืช ืฉื™ื
02:33
at the onset of the Age of Reason in the 16th century.
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ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ืขื™ื“ืŸ ื”ืชื‘ื•ื ื” ื‘ืžืื” ื”-16.
02:36
One sees it all over the world, although not homogeneously.
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ืจื•ืื™ื ื–ืืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื, ืื ื›ื™ ืœื ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ืื—ื™ื“ื”.
02:40
It's especially evident in the West,
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ื–ื” ื‘ื•ืœื˜ ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ื‘ืžืขืจื‘,
02:42
beginning with England and Holland around the time of the Enlightenment.
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ื”ื—ืœ ืžืื ื’ืœื™ื” ื•ื”ื•ืœื ื“, ื‘ืขืจืš ื‘ืชืงื•ืคืช ื”ื”ืฉื›ืœื”.
02:46
Let me take you on a journey of several powers of 10 --
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ื”ื‘ื” ื•ืืงื— ืืชื›ื ืœืžืกืข ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื›ืžื” ื›ืคื•ืœื•ืช ืฉืœ ืขืฉืจ--
02:50
from the millennium scale to the year scale --
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ืžืงื ื” ื”ืžื™ื“ื” ืฉืœ ืืœืคื™ ืฉื ื™ื ื•ืขื“ ืœืฉื ื” ื”ื‘ื•ื“ื“ืช,
02:53
to try to persuade you of this.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืฉื›ื ืข ืืชื›ื.
02:55
Until 10,000 years ago, all humans lived as hunter-gatherers,
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ืขื“ ืœืคื ื™ 10,000 ืฉื ื”, ื›ืœ ื‘ื ื™ ื”ืื“ื ื—ื™ื• ื›ืฆื™ื™ื“ื™ื-ืœืงื˜ื™ื,
02:58
without permanent settlements or government.
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ืœืœื ื™ื™ืฉื•ื‘ื™ ืงื‘ืข ืื• ืžื™ืžืฉืœ. ื•ื–ื” ื”ืžืฆื‘ ืฉื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ื ื—ืฉื‘
03:01
And this is the state that's commonly thought to be one of primordial harmony.
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ืœื”ืจืžื•ื ื™ื” ื”ืงื“ืžื•ื ื™ืช. ืื‘ืœ ื”ืืจื›ื™ืื•ืœื•ื’
03:06
But the archaeologist Lawrence Keeley,
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ืœื•ืจื ืก ืงื™ืœื™, ืฉื‘ื—ืŸ ืืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจ ื”ืื‘ื“ื•ืช
03:10
looking at casualty rates among contemporary hunter-gatherers,
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ื‘ืงืจื‘ ื”ืฆื™ื™ื“ื™ื-ื”ืœืงื˜ื™ื ืฉืœ ื™ืžื™ื ื• -
03:15
which is our best source of evidence about this way of life,
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ื”ืžืงื•ืจ ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืœื ื• ืœืจืื™ื•ืช ืœื“ืจืš ื—ื™ื™ื ื–ื• -
03:19
has shown a rather different conclusion.
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ื”ื’ื™ืข ืœืžืกืงื ื” ืฉื•ื ื” ืœืžื“ื™. ื”ื ื” ื’ืจืฃ ืฉื”ื•ื ืฉืจื˜ื˜,
03:21
Here is a graph that he put together,
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03:25
showing the percentage of male deaths due to warfare
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ื”ืžืจืื” ืืช ืื—ื•ื– ืชืžื•ืชืช ื”ื–ื›ืจื™ื ืขืงื‘ ืžืœื—ืžื•ืช
03:28
in a number of foraging or hunting and gathering societies.
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ื‘ืžืกืคืจ ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžื—ืคืฉื™ ืžื–ื•ืŸ ืื• ืฆื™ื™ื“ื™ื-ืžืœืงื˜ื™ื.
03:32
The red bars correspond to the likelihood that a man will die
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ื”ืงื•ื•ื™ื ื”ืื“ื•ืžื™ื ืžืฆื™ื™ื ื™ื ืืช ืกื‘ื™ืจื•ืช ืžื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ืื“ื
03:39
at the hands of another man,
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ืžื™ื“ื™ ืื“ื ืื—ืจ, ื‘ื ื™ื’ื•ื“ ืœืžื•ื•ืช ืžืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ื˜ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช,
03:40
as opposed to passing away of natural causes,
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03:43
in a variety of foraging societies in the New Guinea highlands
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ื‘ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ื—ื™ืคื•ืฉ-ืžื–ื•ืŸ
ื‘ืจืžื•ืช ื’ื™ื ื™ืื” ื”ื—ื“ืฉื” ื•ื‘ื™ืขืจ ื”ื’ืฉื ืฉืœ ื”ืืžื–ื•ื ืก.
03:47
and the Amazon rain forest.
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03:49
And they range from a rate of almost a 60 percent chance that a man will die
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ื•ื”ื ื ืขื™ื ืžืกื™ื›ื•ื™ ืฉืœ ื›ืžืขื˜ 60%
ืฉืื“ื ื™ืžื•ืช ืžื™ื“ื™ ืื“ื ืื—ืจ,
03:53
at the hands of another man
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03:54
to, in the case of the Gebusi, only a 15 percent chance.
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ื•ืขื“ - ื‘ืžืงืจื” ืฉืœ ืฉื‘ื˜ ื”ื’ื‘ื•ืกื™ -
ืกื™ื›ื•ื™ ืฉืœ 15% ื‘ืœื‘ื“.
03:59
The tiny little blue bar in the lower left-hand corner
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ื”ืงื• ื”ื›ื—ื•ืœ ื”ื–ืขื™ืจ ืžืฉืžืืœ ืœืžื˜ื”
04:02
plots the corresponding statistic from the United States and Europe
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ืžืฆื™ื™ืŸ ืืช ื”ืกื˜ื˜ื™ืกื˜ื™ืงื” ื”ืžืงื‘ื™ืœื” ื‘ืืจื”"ื‘ ื•ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ื‘ืžืื” ื”-20,
04:05
in the 20th century,
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ื•ื”ื•ื ื›ื•ืœืœ ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืžื™ืชื•ืช ื‘ืฉืชื™ ืžืœื—ืžื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืœื.
04:07
and it includes all the deaths of both World Wars.
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04:10
If the death rate in tribal warfare had prevailed during the 20th century,
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ืื™ืœื• ืฉื™ืขื•ืจ ื”ืชืžื•ืชื” ื‘ืžืœื—ืžื•ืช ืฉื‘ื˜ื™ื ื ืฉืžืจ ื‘ืžืื” ื”-20,
04:16
there would have been two billion deaths rather than 100 million.
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ื”ื™ื• ืฉื ื™ ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ืžื™ืชื•ืช ื•ืœื 100 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ.
04:20
Also on the millennium scale,
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ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืจืžืช ื”ืžื™ืœื ื™ื•ื,
04:22
we can look at the way of life of early civilizations,
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ืืคืฉืจ ืœื‘ื—ื•ืŸ ืืช ื“ืจืš ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ืชืจื‘ื•ื™ื•ืช ืงื“ื•ืžื•ืช
04:26
such as the ones described in the Bible.
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ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ืืœื• ืฉืชื•ืืจื• ื‘ืชื "ืš.
04:29
And in this supposed source of our moral values,
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ื•ื‘ืžืงื•ืจ-ืœื›ืื•ืจื” ื–ื” ืฉืœ ืขืจื›ื™ื ื• ื”ืžื•ืกืจื™ื™ื
04:33
one can read descriptions of what was expected in warfare,
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ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืžืฆื•ื ืชื™ืื•ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืฆืคื•ื™ ื‘ืžืœื—ืžื”,
04:37
such as the following, from Numbers 31:
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ื›ืžื• ืงื˜ืข ื–ื” ืžืชื•ืš 'ื‘ืžื“ื‘ืจ' ืœ"ื:
04:39
"And they warred against the Midianites as the Lord commanded Moses,
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"ื•ื™ืฆื‘ืื• ืขืœ ืžื“ื™ืŸ ื›ืืฉืจ ืฆื™ื•ื•ื” ื”' ืืช ืžืฉื”,
04:43
and they slew all the males.
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"ื•ื™ื”ืจื’ื• ื›ืœ ื–ื›ืจ. ื•ื™ืืžืจ ืืœื™ื”ื ืžืฉื”,
04:45
And Moses said unto them, 'Have you saved all the women alive?
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"ื”ื—ื™ื™ืชื ื›ืœ ื ืงื‘ื”? ื•ืขืชื”, ื”ื™ืจื’ื• ื›ืœ ื–ื›ืจ ื‘ื˜ืฃ,
04:48
Now, therefore, kill every male among the little ones
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04:51
and kill every woman that hath known man by lying with him,
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"ื•ื›ืœ ืื™ืฉื” ื™ื•ื“ืขืช-ืื™ืฉ ืœืžืฉื›ื‘ ื–ื›ืจ ื”ืจื•ื’ื•,
04:54
but all the women children that have not known a man by lying with him,
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"ื•ื›ืœ ื”ื˜ืฃ ื‘ื ืฉื™ื, ืืฉืจ ืœื ื™ื“ืขื• ืžืฉื›ื‘ ื–ื›ืจ, ื”ื—ื™ื• ืœื›ื."
04:58
keep alive for yourselves.'"
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04:59
In other words: kill the men, kill the children.
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ื‘ืžืœื™ื ืื—ืจื•ืช,
"ื”ื™ืจื’ื• ืืช ื”ื’ื‘ืจื™ื, ื”ื™ืจื’ื• ืืช ื”ื™ืœื“ื™ื,
05:04
If you see any virgins, then you can keep them alive so that you can rape them.
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"ื•ืื ืชืžืฆืื• ื‘ืชื•ืœื•ืช,
"ืฉื™ืžืจื• ืื•ืชืŸ ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื ื›ื“ื™ ืฉืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืื ื•ืก ืื•ืชืŸ."
ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืžืฆื•ื ื‘ืชื "ืš 4 ืื• 5 ืงื˜ืขื™ื ื›ืืœื”.
05:08
And you can find four or five passages in the Bible of this ilk.
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05:12
Also in the Bible, one sees that the death penalty was the accepted punishment
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ื‘ืชื "ืš ื ื™ืชืŸ ื’ื ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉืขื•ื ืฉ ื”ืžื•ื•ืช
ื”ื™ื” ื”ืขื•ื ืฉ ื”ืžืงื•ื‘ืœ ืขืœ ืคืฉืขื™ื ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ื”ื•ืžื•ืกืงืกื•ืืœื™ื•ืช,
05:18
for crimes such as homosexuality,
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05:20
adultery, blasphemy, idolatry, talking back to your parents --
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ื ื™ืื•ืฃ, ื—ื™ืœื•ืœ ื”ืฉื, ืขื‘ื•ื“ืช ืืœื™ืœื™ื, ื”ืชื—ืฆืคื•ืช ืœื”ื•ืจื™ื -
05:24
(Laughter)
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[ืฆื—ื•ืง]
05:25
and picking up sticks on the Sabbath.
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ื•ื”ืจืžืช ืžืงืœื•ืช ื‘ืฉื‘ืช.
05:28
Well, let's click the zoom lens down one order of magnitude
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ื›ืขืช ื ืจื“ ื‘ืกื“ืจ-ื’ื•ื“ืœ ืื—ื“ ื•ื ืชื™ื™ื—ืก ืœืžืื•ืช ืฉื ื™ื.
05:32
and look at the century scale.
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05:34
Now, although we don't have statistics for warfare
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ืืฃ ืฉืื™ืŸ ืœื ื• ื ืชื•ื ื™ื ืกื˜ื˜ื™ืกื˜ื™ื™ื
ืฉืœ ื”ืžืœื—ืžื•ืช ืžื™ืžื™ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื ื•ืขื“ ืœืขื™ื“ืŸ ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™,
05:38
throughout the Middle Ages to modern times,
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05:40
we know just from conventional history
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ืื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืžืชื•ืš ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ื”ืจื’ื™ืœื”--
05:42
that the evidence was under our nose all along
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ื”ืขื“ื•ืช ื ืžืฆืื” ื›ืœ ื”ื–ืžืŸ ืžืชื—ืช ืœืืคื ื• --
05:45
that there has been a reduction in socially sanctioned forms of violence.
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ืฉื”ื™ืชื” ื™ืจื™ื“ื” ื‘ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ื”ืืœื™ืžื•ืช ื”ืžื•ืชืจื•ืช ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ื” ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ืช. ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”,
05:49
For example, any social history will reveal that mutilation and torture
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ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ืฉืœ ื›ืœ ื—ื‘ืจื” ืชืจืื” ืฉื›ืจื™ืชืช ืื™ื‘ืจื™ื ื•ืขื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื
05:54
were routine forms of criminal punishment.
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ื”ื™ื•ื• ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ืขื ื™ืฉื” ืฉื’ืจืชื™ื•ืช ืขืœ ืคืฉืข.
05:56
The kind of infraction today that would give you a fine,
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ื”ืคืจืช-ื—ื•ืง ื”ื ืขื ืฉืช ื‘ื™ืžื™ื ื• ื‘ืงื ืก, ื”ื™ืชื” ืžื‘ื™ืื” ื‘ืื•ืชื ื™ืžื™ื
05:59
in those days, would result in your tongue being cut out,
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ืœื›ืจื™ืชืช ืœืฉื•ื ื›ื ืื• ืื•ื–ื ื™ื›ื,
06:02
your ears being cut off, you being blinded,
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ืœืขืงื™ืจืช ืขื™ื ื™ื™ื, ืœื›ืจื™ืชืช ื™ื“ ื•ื›ืŸ ื”ืœืื”.
06:05
a hand being chopped off and so on.
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06:07
There were numerous ingenious forms of sadistic capital punishment:
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ื”ื™ื• ื›ืžื” ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ืขืชื™ืจื•ืช-ื“ืžื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืขื•ื ืฉ ืžื•ื•ืช ืกื“ื™ืกื˜ื™:
06:11
burning at the stake, disemboweling, breaking on the wheel,
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ืฉืจื™ืคื” ืขืœ ื”ืžื•ืงื“, ืฉืคื™ื›ืช ืžืขื™ื™ื, ืฉื‘ื™ืจืช ื”ื’ื•ืฃ ืขืœ ื’ื‘ื™ ื’ืœื’ืœ,
ืžืฉื™ื›ื” ื•ืชืœื™ืฉืช ืื™ื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ืกื•ืกื™ื ื•ื›ืŸ ื”ืœืื”.
06:15
being pulled apart by horses and so on.
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06:17
The death penalty was a sanction for a long list of nonviolent crimes:
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ืขื•ื ืฉ ื”ืžื•ื•ืช ื”ื•ื˜ืœ ืขืœ ืฉื•ืจื” ืืจื•ื›ื” ืฉืœ ืคืฉืขื™ื ืœื-ืืœื™ืžื™ื:
06:22
criticizing the king, stealing a loaf of bread.
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ืžืชื™ื—ืช ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจืช ืขืœ ื”ืžืœืš, ื’ื ื™ื‘ืช ื›ื›ืจ ืœื—ื.
06:25
Slavery, of course, was the preferred labor-saving device,
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ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ืฉื”ืขื‘ื“ื•ืช ื”ื™ืชื” ื”ืฉื™ื˜ื” ื”ืžื•ืขื“ืคืช ืœื—ืกื›ื•ืŸ ื‘ืขื‘ื•ื“ื”,
06:29
and cruelty was a popular form of entertainment.
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ื•ื”ื”ืชืื›ื–ืจื•ืช ื”ื™ืชื” ืฆื•ืจืช ื‘ื™ื“ื•ืจ ืžืงื•ื‘ืœืช,
06:32
Perhaps the most vivid example was the practice of cat burning,
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ื•ืื•ืœื™ ื”ื“ื•ื’ืžื” ื”ื›ื™ ื‘ืจื•ืจื” ื”ื™ื ืฉืจื™ืคืช ื—ืชื•ืœื™ื:
06:36
in which a cat was hoisted on a stage and lowered in a sling into a fire,
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ื”ื™ื• ืงื•ืฉืจื™ื ื—ืชื•ืœ ื•ืžื ืžื™ื›ื™ื ืื•ืชื• ืœืชื•ืš ืžื“ื•ืจื”,
06:40
and the spectators shrieked in laughter as the cat, howling in pain,
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ื›ืฉื”ืฆื•ืคื™ื ืฆื•ืจื—ื™ื ื•ืฆื•ื—ืงื™ื, ื›ืฉื”ื—ืชื•ืœ ื”ืžื™ื™ืœืœ ืžื›ืื‘ื™ื ื ืฉืจืฃ ืœืžื•ื•ืช.
06:45
was burned to death.
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06:48
What about one-on-one murder?
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ืžื” ืขื ืจืฆื— ืื™ืฉื™?
06:49
Well, there, there are good statistics,
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ื›ืืŸ ื™ืฉ ืกื˜ื˜ื™ืกื˜ื™ืงื•ืช ื˜ื•ื‘ื•ืช,
06:51
because many municipalities recorded the cause of death.
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ืžืคื ื™ ืฉืจืฉื•ื™ื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ืชื™ืขื“ื• ืืช ื’ื•ืจืžื™ ื”ืžื•ื•ืช.
06:57
The criminologist Manuel Eisner
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ื•ื”ืงืจื™ืžื™ื ื•ืœื•ื’ ืžื ื•ืืœ ืื™ื™ื–ื ืจ
07:01
scoured all of the historical records across Europe
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ืกืจืง ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืจืฉื•ืžื•ืช ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื™ืจื•ืคื”
07:04
for homicide rates in any village, hamlet, town, county that he could find,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืžืฆื•ื ืืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ื”ืจืฆื™ื—ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื›ืคืจ, ืขื™ื™ืจื”, ืขื™ืจ ื•ืžื—ื•ื–
ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœ ื”ื™ื” ืœืžืฆื•ื, ื•ื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ืœื›ืš ื ืชื•ื ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ื™ื,
07:10
and then he supplemented them with national data
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07:12
when nations started keeping statistics.
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ื›ืฉื”ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ื—ืœื• ืœื ื”ืœ ืกื˜ื˜ื™ืกื˜ื™ืงื”.
07:14
He plotted on a logarithmic scale,
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ื”ื•ื ืฉืจื˜ื˜ ื–ืืช ืขืœ ืกื•ืœื ืœื•ื’ืจื™ืชืžื™,
ื”ื—ืœ ืž-100 ืžื™ืชื•ืช ืœื›ืœ 100,000 ืื™ืฉ ื‘ืฉื ื”
07:19
going from 100 deaths per 100,000 people per year,
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07:25
which was approximately the rate of homicide in the Middle Ages,
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ืฉื”ื™ื” ื‘ืขืจืš ืฉื™ืขื•ืจ ื”ืจืฆื™ื—ื•ืช ื‘ื™ืžื™ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื,
07:30
and the figure plummets down
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ื•ื”ื’ืจืฃ ืฆื•ืœืœ ืขื“ ืคื—ื•ืช ืžืจืฆื— ืื—ื“ ืœื›ืœ 100,000 ืื™ืฉ ืœืฉื ื”
07:33
to less than one homicide per 100,000 people per year
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07:37
in seven or eight European countries.
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ื‘-7 ืื• 8 ืืจืฆื•ืช ืื™ืจื•ืคื™ื•ืช.
07:41
Then, there is a slight uptick in the 1960s.
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ืื—ืจ ื™ืฉ ืขืœื™ื™ื” ืงืœื” ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-60.
07:43
The people who said that rock and roll would lead to the decline of moral values
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ืืœื” ืฉืืžืจื• ืฉื”ืจื•ืง'ื 'ืจื•ืœ ื™ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืœื™ืจื™ื“ื” ื‘ืขืจื›ื™ ื”ืžื•ืกืจ,
07:47
actually had a grain of truth to that.
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ืฆื“ืงื• ื‘ืžื™ื“ืช-ืžื”.
07:50
But there was a decline from at least two orders of magnitude in homicide
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ืืš ื”ื™ืชื” ื™ืจื™ื“ื” ืœืคื—ื•ืช ื‘ืฉื ื™ ืกื“ืจื™-ื’ื•ื“ืœ ื‘ืจืฆื™ื—ื•ืช
07:54
from the Middle Ages to the present,
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ืžื™ืžื™ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื ื•ืขื“ ื”ื™ื•ื,
07:56
and the elbow occurred in the early 16th century.
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ื•ื”ืชืคื ื™ืช ืื™ืจืขื” ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื”ืžืื” ื”-16.
08:01
Let's click down now to the decade scale.
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ื”ื‘ื” ื ืจื“ ืœืจืžืช ืขืฉืจื•ืช ื”ืฉื ื™ื.
08:04
According to nongovernmental organizations that keep such statistics,
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ืœืคื™ ืืจื’ื•ื ื™ื ืœื-ืžืžืฉืœืชื™ื™ื ื”ืžื ื”ืœื™ื ืกื˜ื˜ื™ืกื˜ื™ืงื•ืช ื›ืืœื”,
08:08
since 1945, in Europe and the Americas,
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ืžืื– 1945, ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ื•ื‘ืืžืจื™ืงื•ืช ื™ืฉ ื™ืจื™ื“ื” ื—ื“ื” ื‘ืžืœื—ืžื•ืช ืคื ื™ืžื™ื•ืช,
08:11
there has been a steep decline in interstate wars,
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ื‘ืžื”ื•ืžื•ืช ืืชื ื™ื•ืช ืงื˜ืœื ื™ื•ืช, ืคื•ื’ืจื•ืžื™ื ืขื ืื‘ื“ื•ืช ื•ื”ืคื™ื›ื•ืช ืฆื‘ืื™ื•ืช,
08:15
in deadly ethnic riots or pogroms
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08:17
and in military coups, even in South America.
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ืืคื™ืœื• ื‘ื“ืจื•ื ืืžืจื™ืงื”.
08:21
Worldwide, there's been a steep decline in deaths in interstate wars.
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ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื ื™ืฉ ื™ืจื™ื“ื” ืชืœื•ืœื” ื‘ืžื™ืชื•ืช ื‘ืžืœื—ืžื•ืช ืคื ื™ืžื™ื•ืช.
08:26
The yellow bars here show the number of deaths per war per year
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ื”ืงื•ื•ื™ื ื”ืฆื”ื•ื‘ื™ื ื›ืืŸ ืžืจืื™ื ืืช ืžืกืคืจื™ ื”ืžื™ืชื•ืช ืœืžืœื—ืžื”
08:31
from 1950 to the present.
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ืž-1950 ื•ืขื“ ื”ื™ื•ื.
08:33
And, as you can see, the death rate goes down
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ื•ื›ืคื™ ืฉืืชื ืจื•ืื™ื, ืฉื™ืขื•ืจ ื”ืžื™ืชื•ืช ื™ื•ืจื“
08:36
from 65,000 deaths per conflict per year in the 1950s
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ืž-65,000 ืžื™ืชื•ืช ืœืกื›ืกื•ืš ื‘ืฉื ื” ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-50,
08:40
to less than 2,000 deaths per conflict per year in this decade,
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ืœื›ื“ื™ ืคื—ื•ืช ืž-2,000 ืžื™ืชื•ืช ืœืกื›ืกื•ืš ืœืฉื ื” ื‘ืขืฉื•ืจ ื”ื ื•ื›ื—ื™,
08:45
as horrific as it is.
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ื ื•ืจื ื›ื›ืœ ืฉื”ื•ื.
08:46
Even in the year scale, one can see a decline of violence.
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ื’ื ื‘ืจืžืช ื”ืฉื ื” ื ืจืื™ืช ื™ืจื™ื“ื” ื‘ืืœื™ืžื•ืช.
08:50
Since the end of the Cold War, there have been fewer civil wars,
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ืžืื– ืชื•ื ื”ืžืœื—ืžื” ื”ืงืจื” ื™ืฉ ืคื—ื•ืช ืžืœื—ืžื•ืช ืื–ืจื—ื™ื ื•ืจืฆื—-ืขื,
08:53
fewer genocides -- indeed, a 90 percent reduction since post-World War II highs --
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื™ืจื™ื“ื” ืฉืœ 90% ืžืื– ื”ืฉื™ืื™ื ืฉืœ ืื—ืจื™ ืžืœื—"ืข ื”ืฉื ื™ื”
08:59
and even a reversal of the 1960s uptick in homicide and violent crime.
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ื•ืืฃ ื”ื™ืคื•ืš ืฉืœ ื”ืขืœื™ื™ื” ืฉืœ ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-60 ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ืช ืจืฆื™ื—ื•ืช ื•ืคืฉืขื™ื ืืœื™ืžื™ื.
09:05
This is from the FBI uniform crime statistics.
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ื–ื” ืœืงื•ื— ืžืกื˜ื˜ื™ืกื˜ื™ืงื•ืช ื”ืคืฉื™ืขื” ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ื•ืœืฉืช ื”ืคื“ืจืœื™ืช.
09:08
You can see that there's a fairly low rate of violence in the '50s and the '60s,
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ืืชื ืจื•ืื™ื ืจืžืช ืืœื™ืžื•ืช ื ืžื•ื›ื” ืœืžื“ื™ ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-50 ื•ื”-60,
09:12
then it soared upward for several decades
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ืื—ืจ ื–ื” ื ืกืง ื‘ืžืฉืš ืžืกืคืจ ืขืฉื•ืจื™ื
09:16
and began a precipitous decline, starting in the 1990s,
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ื•ืคืชื— ื‘ื™ืจื™ื“ื” ืชืœื•ืœื” ื”ื—ืœ ืžืฉื ื•ืช ื”-90,
09:20
so that it went back to the level that was last enjoyed in 1960.
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ื›ืš ืฉื–ื” ื—ื–ืจ ื›ืžืขื˜ ืœืจืžื” ืฉืžืžื ื” ื ื”ื ื™ื ื• ื‘-1960.
09:25
President Clinton, if you're here: thank you.
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ื”ื ืฉื™ื ืงืœื™ื ื˜ื•ืŸ, ืื ืืชื” ื ื•ื›ื— ื›ืืŸ, ืชื•ื“ื” ืœืš.
09:27
(Laughter)
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[ืฆื—ื•ืง]
09:29
So the question is:
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ืื– ื”ืฉืืœื” ื”ื™ื: ืžื“ื•ืข ื›ื” ื”ืจื‘ื” ืื ืฉื™ื ื˜ื•ืขื™ื ื›ืœ-ื›ืš
09:30
Why are so many people so wrong about something so important?
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ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื“ื‘ืจ ื›ื” ื—ืฉื•ื‘? ืœื“ืขืชื™ ื™ืฉ ืžืกืคืจ ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช.
09:34
I think there are a number of reasons.
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09:36
One of them is we have better reporting.
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ื”ืื—ืช, ืชืงืฉื•ืจืช ื˜ื•ื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ. ืกื•ื›ื ื•ืช "ืืกื•ืกื™ื™ืื˜ื“ ืคืจืก"
09:38
The Associated Press is a better chronicler of wars
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ืžืชืขื“ืช ืžืœื—ืžื•ืช ืฉืžืชืจื—ืฉื•ืช ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื˜ื•ื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื”ื ื–ื™ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื” ื”-16.
09:41
over the surface of the earth
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09:43
than 16th-century monks were.
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09:45
(Laughter)
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09:46
There's a cognitive illusion.
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ื™ืฉื ื” ืืฉืœื™ื” ืงื•ื’ื ื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ืช:
09:47
We cognitive psychologists know
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ืื ื•, ื”ืคืกื™ื›ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื ื”ืงื•ื’ื ื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื™ื, ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืฉื›ื›ืœ ืฉืงืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ
09:49
that the easier it is to recall specific instances of something,
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ืœื”ืขืœื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ื“ืขืช ื“ื•ื’ืžืื•ืช ืกืคืฆื™ืคื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžืฉื”ื•,
09:55
the higher the probability that you assign to it.
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ื›ืš ื’ื“ืœื” ื”ืกื‘ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉืื ื• ืžื™ื™ื—ืกื™ื ืœื•.
09:58
Things that we read about in the paper with gory footage
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ืžื” ืฉืื ื• ืงื•ืจืื™ื ื‘ืขื™ืชื•ืŸ ื‘ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ืช ืฆื™ืœื•ืžื™ื ืžื‘ื—ื™ืœื™ื
10:02
burn into memory more than reports of a lot more people dying
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ื ืฆืจื‘ ื‘ื–ื›ืจื•ืŸ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื“ื™ื•ื•ื—ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืื ืฉื™ื
10:06
in their beds of old age.
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ืฉืžืชื™ื ื‘ืžื™ื˜ื•ืชื™ื”ื ืžื–ืงื ื”.
10:09
There are dynamics in the opinion and advocacy markets;
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ื™ืฉ ื“ื™ื ืžื™ืงื” ื‘ื‘ื•ืจืกื•ืช ื”ื“ืขื•ืช ื•ื”ืชืžื™ื›ื”:
10:13
no one ever attracted advocates and donors
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ืื™ืฉ ืžืขื•ืœื ืœื ื”ืฆืœื™ื— ืœืžืฉื•ืš ืฆื•ืคื™ื, ืชื•ืžื›ื™ื ื•ืชื•ืจืžื™ื
10:18
by saying, "Things just seem to be getting better and better."
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ื‘ื›ืš ืฉืืžืจ:
ื ืจืื” ืฉื”ืžืฆื‘ ืจืง ื”ื•ืœืš ื•ืžืฉืชืคืจ.
10:21
(Laughter)
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[ืฆื—ื•ืง]
10:22
There's guilt about our treatment of native peoples
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ืงื™ื™ื ืจื’ืฉ-ืืฉืžื” ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœื™ื—ืกื ื• ืœืขืžื™ื ื™ืœื™ื“ื™ื™ื
10:24
in modern intellectual life,
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ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ืื™ื ื˜ืœืงื˜ื•ืืœื™ื™ื ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ื™ื, ื•ืื™-ืžื•ื›ื ื•ืช ืœื”ื•ื“ื•ืช
10:26
and an unwillingness to acknowledge there could be anything good
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ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœ ื‘ื›ืœืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืฉื”ื• ื˜ื•ื‘ ื‘ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื”ืžืขืจื‘ื™ืช.
10:29
about Western culture.
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10:31
And, of course, our change in standards can outpace the change in behavior.
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ื•ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ, ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื”ืกื˜ื ื“ืจื˜ื™ื ืฉืœื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืงื“ื™ื ืืช ื”ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื‘ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ืช.
10:36
One of the reasons violence went down
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ืื—ืช ื”ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ืœื™ืจื™ื“ื” ื‘ืืœื™ืžื•ืช
10:38
is that people got sick of the carnage and cruelty in their time.
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ื”ื™ื ืฉืœืื ืฉื™ื ื ืžืืก ืžื”ื˜ื‘ื— ื•ื”ืื›ื–ืจื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืชืงื•ืคืชื.
10:42
That's a process that seems to be continuing,
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ื ืจืื” ืฉืชื”ืœื™ืš ื–ื” ื ืžืฉืš,
10:44
but if it outstrips behavior by the standards of the day,
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ืืš ืื ื”ื•ื ืžืงื“ื™ื ืืช ื”ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ืช. ืœืคื™ ื”ืกื˜ื ื“ืจื˜ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื•ื,
10:49
things always look more barbaric than they would have been
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ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืชืžื™ื“ ื ืจืื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืจื‘ืจื™ื™ื ืžื›ืคื™ ืฉื”ื™ื• ื ืจืื™ื
10:52
by historic standards.
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ื‘ืกื˜ื ื“ืจื˜ื™ื ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื™ื. ืื– ื”ื™ื•ื ืื ื• ืžืชืจื’ืฉื™ื, ื•ื‘ืฆื“ืง,
10:53
So today, we get exercised -- and rightly so --
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10:56
if a handful of murderers get executed by lethal injection in Texas
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ื›ืฉืงื•ืžืฅ ืจื•ืฆื—ื™ื ืžื•ืฆืื™ื ืœื”ื•ืจื’ ื‘ื–ืจื™ืงืช ืจืขืœ ื‘ื˜ืงืกืก,
11:03
after a 15-year appeal process.
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ืื—ืจื™ ืขืจืขื•ืจ ืฉื ืžืฉืš 15 ืฉื ื”.
11:06
We don't consider that a couple of hundred years ago,
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ืื™ื ื ื• ืœื•ืงื—ื™ื ื‘ื—ืฉื‘ื•ืŸ ืฉืœืคื ื™ ืžืืชื™ื™ื ืฉื ื”
11:08
they may have been burned at the stake for criticizing the king after a trial
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ื”ื™ื• ืื•ืœื™ ืžืขืœื™ื ืื•ืชื ืขืœ ื”ืžื•ืงื“
ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉืžืชื—ื• ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจืช ืขืœ ื”ืžืœืš, ืื—ืจื™ 10 ื“ืงื•ืช ืžืฉืคื˜
11:13
that lasted 10 minutes,
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ื•ืฉื–ื” ืœืžืขืฉื” ืงืจื” ื›ืœ ื”ื–ืžืŸ.
11:15
and indeed, that that would have been repeated over and over again.
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11:18
Today, we look at capital punishment
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ื›ื™ื•ื, ืื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ื‘ืขื•ื ืฉ ื”ืžื•ื•ืช ืขื“ื•ืช ืœื”ื™ื“ืจื“ืจื•ืช ื‘ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ืชื ื•,
11:20
as evidence of how low our behavior can sink,
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11:24
rather than how high our standards have risen.
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ื•ืœื ืœืขืœื™ื™ื” ื‘ืกื˜ื ื“ืจื˜ื™ื ืฉืœื ื•.
11:27
Well, why has violence declined?
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืžื“ื•ืข ื‘ืืžืช ืคื—ืชื” ื”ืืœื™ืžื•ืช? ืื™ืฉ ืœื ื™ื•ื“ืข ืœื‘ื˜ื—,
11:30
No one really knows, but I have read four explanations,
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ืืš ืงืจืืชื™ ืืจื‘ืขื” ื”ืกื‘ืจื™ื, ืฉื‘ื›ื•ืœื ืœื“ืขืชื™
11:35
all of which, I think, have some grain of plausibility.
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ื™ืฉ ืฉืžืฅ ืกื‘ื™ืจื•ืช. ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ:
11:38
The first is: maybe Thomas Hobbes got it right.
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ืื•ืœื™ ืชื•ืžืก ื”ื•ื‘ืก ื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ื–ืืช. ื”ื•ื ื–ื” ืฉืืžืจ
11:41
He was the one who said
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11:42
that life in a state of nature was "solitary, poor, nasty,
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ืฉื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ื˜ื‘ืข ื”ื™ื• "ื‘ื•ื“ื“ื™ื, ืขืœื•ื‘ื™ื, ื ืืœื—ื™ื, ื’ืกื™ื ื•ืงืฆืจื™ื."
11:46
brutish and short."
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11:48
(Laughter)
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ื•ืœื˜ืขื ืชื•, ืœื ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉื‘ื‘ื ื™ ื”ืื“ื ื—ื‘ื•ื™ ืื™ื–ื” ืฆืžื ืงื“ืžื•ื ื™ ืœื“ื
11:49
Not because, he argued,
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11:51
humans have some primordial thirst for blood
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11:54
or aggressive instinct or territorial imperative,
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ืื• ืื™ื ืกื˜ื™ื ืงื˜ ืชื•ืงืคื ื™, ืื• ืฆื™ื•ื•ื™ ื˜ืจื™ื˜ื•ืจื™ืืœื™,
11:57
but because of the logic of anarchy.
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ืืœื ืขืงื‘ ื”ืœื•ื’ื™ืงื” ืฉืœ ื”ืื ืจื›ื™ื”.
12:00
In a state of anarchy,
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ื‘ืžืฆื‘ ืฉืœ ืื ืจื›ื™ื” ืงื™ื™ื ืคื™ืชื•ื™ ืžืชืžื™ื“
12:01
there's a constant temptation to invade your neighbors preemptively,
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ืœืคืœื•ืฉ ืืœ ืฉื›ื ื™ืš ื›ืืžืฆืขื™-ืžื ืข, ื‘ื˜ืจื ื™ืคืœืฉื• ื”ื ืืœื™ืš.
12:05
before they invade you.
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12:06
More recently, Thomas Schelling gives the analogy
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ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ, ืชื•ืžืก ืฉืœื™ื ื’
ื”ืฆื™ื’ ืืช ื”ื“ื•ื’ืžื” ืฉืœ ื‘ืขืœ-ื”ื‘ื™ืช ืฉืฉื•ืžืข ืจืฉืจื•ืฉ ื‘ืžืจืชืฃ.
12:09
of a homeowner who hears a rustling in the basement.
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12:11
Being a good American, he has a pistol in the nightstand,
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ื›ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ ื˜ื•ื‘, ื”ื•ื ืžื—ื–ื™ืง ืืงื“ื— ื‘ืฉื™ื“ื” ืฉืœืฆื“ ื”ืžื™ื˜ื”.
12:14
pulls out his gun, walks down the stairs.
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ื”ื•ื ืฉื•ืœืฃ ืื•ืชื• ื•ื™ื•ืจื“ ื‘ืžื“ืจื’ื•ืช.
12:16
And what does he see but a burglar with a gun in his hand?
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ื•ืžื” ื”ื•ื ืžื•ืฆื? ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ, ืคื•ืจืฅ ื•ื‘ื™ื“ื• ืืงื“ื—.
12:20
Now, each one of them is thinking,
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ื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื ื—ื•ืฉื‘:
12:21
"I don't really want to kill that guy, but he's about to kill me.
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"ืื™ื ื ื™ ื‘ืืžืช ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ืจื•ื’ ืื•ืชื•, ืื‘ืœ ื”ื•ื ืขื•ืžื“ ืœื”ืจื•ื’ ืื•ืชื™.
12:25
Maybe I had better shoot him before he shoots me,
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"ืื•ืœื™ ื›ื“ืื™ ืœื™ ืœื™ืจื•ืช ื‘ื• ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื™ื™ืจื” ื‘ื™,
12:29
especially since, even if he doesn't want to kill me,
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"ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ื›ื™ ืืคื™ืœื• ืื ื”ื•ื ืœื ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ืจื•ื’ ืื•ืชื™,
12:31
he's probably worrying right now that I might kill him before he kills me."
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"ื”ื•ื ื‘ื˜ื— ืžืคื—ื“ ืฉืื”ืจื•ื’ ืื•ืชื• ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื™ื”ืจื•ื’ ืื•ืชื™."
12:35
And so on.
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ื•ื›ืŸ ื”ืœืื”.
12:36
Hunter-gatherer peoples explicitly go through this train of thought
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ืขืžื™ ืฆื™ื™ื“ื™ื-ืœืงื˜ื™ื ื—ื•ื•ื™ื ื‘ืžืคื•ืจืฉ ืฉืจืฉืจืช ืžื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื–ื•,
12:41
and will often raid their neighbors out of fear of being raided first.
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ื•ืœืจื•ื‘ ื™ืคืฉื˜ื• ืขืœ ืฉื›ื ื™ื”ื ืžื—ืฉืฉ ืฉืืœื” ื™ืคืฉื˜ื• ืขืœื™ื”ื ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื.
12:46
Now, one way of dealing with this problem is by deterrence.
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ื“ืจืš ืื—ืช ืœื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ ืขื ื‘ืขื™ื” ื–ื• ื”ื™ื ืข"ื™ ื”ืจืชืขื”:
12:50
You don't strike first, but you have a publicly announced policy
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ืื™ื ืš ืชื•ืงืฃ ืจืืฉื•ืŸ, ืืš ื™ืฉ ืœืš ืžื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ืฆื”ืจืช ื•ื™ื“ื•ืขื”
12:55
that you will retaliate savagely if you are invaded.
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ืœืคื™ื” ืชื’ื™ื‘ ื‘ืคืจืื•ืช ืื ืชื•ืชืงืฃ.
12:58
The only thing is that it's liable to having its bluff called,
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ื”ืคื’ื ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืช ื–ื• ื”ื•ื ื”ืกื™ื›ื•ืŸ ืฉื‘ื—ืฉื™ืคืช ื”ื‘ืœื•ืฃ,
13:03
and therefore can only work if it's credible.
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ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื”ื™ื ืชืฆืœื™ื— ืจืง ืื ืชื”ื™ื” ืืžื™ื ื”.
13:06
To make it credible, you must avenge all insults and settle all scores,
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ืœืฉื ื›ืš ืขืœื™ืš ืœื ืงื•ื ื›ืœ ืขืœื‘ื•ืŸ ื•ืœื™ื™ืฉื‘ ื›ืœ ื—ืฉื‘ื•ืŸ,
13:11
which leads to the cycles of bloody vendetta.
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ืžื” ืฉื™ื•ืฆืจ ืžืขื’ืœ ืงืกืžื™ื ืฉืœ ื ืงืžื•ืช-ื“ื.
13:14
Life becomes an episode of "The Sopranos."
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ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ื•ืคื›ื™ื ืœืคืจืง ืžื”"ืกื•ืคืจื ื•ืก".
13:17
Hobbes's solution, "Leviathan,"
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ื”ืคืชืจื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ื•ื‘ืก, ื”"ืœื•ื•ื™ืชืŸ",
13:20
was that if authority for the legitimate use of violence
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ืงื•ื‘ืข ืฉืื ื”ืกืžื›ื•ืช ืœืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ืœื’ื™ื˜ื™ืžื™ ื‘ืืœื™ืžื•ืช ื ื™ืชื ืช ืœืจืฉื•ืช ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ืช ื™ื—ื™ื“ื” - "ืœื•ื•ื™ืชืŸ" -
13:24
was vested in a single democratic agency -- a leviathan --
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13:29
then such a state can reduce the temptation of attack,
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ื–ื” ืขืฉื•ื™ ืœื”ืงื˜ื™ืŸ ืืช ื”ืคื™ืชื•ื™ ืœืชืงื•ืฃ,
13:32
because any kind of aggression will be punished,
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ืžืคื ื™ ืฉื›ืœ ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ืชื•ืงืคื ื•ืช ื™ื™ืขื ืฉ ื•ื™ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืืคืก ื›ื“ืื™ื•ืช.
13:35
leaving its profitability zero.
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13:38
That would remove the temptation to invade preemptively
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ื–ื” ื™ื‘ื˜ืœ ืืช ื”ืคื™ืชื•ื™ ืœืคืœื•ืฉ ื›ืืžืฆืขื™-ืžื ืข
13:42
out of fear of them attacking you first.
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ืžื—ืฉืฉ ืฉืชื•ืชืงืฃ ืงื•ื“ื
13:44
It removes the need for a hair trigger for retaliation
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ื•ืืช ื”ื”ื›ืจื— ืœื”ื—ื–ื™ืง ืืฆื‘ืข ืขืœ ื”ื”ื“ืง ืœืฆื•ืจืš ื ืงืžื”,
13:48
to make your deterrent threat credible,
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ืœืฉื ืฉื™ืžื•ืจ ืืžื™ื ื•ืช ืื™ื•ื ื”ื”ืจืชืขื” ืฉืœืš.
13:50
and therefore, it would lead to a state of peace.
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ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื–ื” ืขืฉื•ื™ ืœื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืœืžืฆื‘ ืฉืœ ืฉืœื•ื.
13:53
Eisner -- the man who plotted the homicide rates
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ืื™ื™ื–ื ืจ, ืฉืฉืจื˜ื˜ ืืช ื’ืจืฃ ื”ืจืฆื™ื—ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื”ืฆืœื—ืชื ืœืจืื•ืช ื‘ืฉืงื•ืคื™ืช ื”ืงื•ื“ืžืช--
13:57
that you failed to see in the earlier slide --
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14:00
argued that the timing of the decline of homicide in Europe
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ื˜ืขืŸ ืฉื”ื™ืจื™ื“ื” ื‘ืฉื™ืขื•ืจ ื”ืจืฆื™ื—ื•ืช ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื”
14:04
coincided with the rise of centralized states.
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ื—ืœื” ื‘ื“-ื‘ื‘ื“ ืขื ื”ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื‘ืขืœื•ืช ื”ืžืžืฉืœ ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™.
14:08
So that's a bit of a support for the leviathan theory.
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ื™ืฉ ื‘ื›ืš ืžืฉื•ื ืชืžื™ื›ื” ื‘ืชื™ืื•ืจื™ื™ืช ื”"ืœื•ื•ื™ืชืŸ".
14:11
Also supporting it is the fact that we today see eruptions of violence
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ืชื•ืžื›ืช ื‘ื” ื’ื ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ืฉืื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ื›ื™ื•ื ื”ืชืคืจืฆื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืืœื™ืžื•ืช
14:15
in zones of anarchy, in failed states, collapsed empires,
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ื‘ืื–ื•ืจื™ ืื ืจื›ื™ื”: ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืฉื›ืฉืœื•, ื‘ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื•ืช ืฉืงืจืกื•,
14:19
frontier regions, mafias, street gangs and so on.
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ื‘ืื–ื•ืจื™ ื’ื‘ื•ืœ, ื‘ืืจื’ื•ื ื™ ืžืืคื™ื”, ื‘ื—ื‘ื•ืจื•ืช ืจื—ื•ื‘ ื•ื›ื“ื•ืžื”.
14:24
The second explanation is that in many times and places,
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ื”ื”ืกื‘ืจ ื”ืฉื ื™ ื”ื•ื ืฉื‘ื”ืจื‘ื” ืชืงื•ืคื•ืช ื•ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช
14:27
there is a widespread sentiment that life is cheap.
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ืจื•ื•ื—ื” ื”ืชื—ื•ืฉื” ืฉื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ื ื–ื•ืœื™ื.
14:31
In earlier times, when suffering and early death were common in one's own life,
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ื‘ืขื‘ืจ, ื›ืฉื”ืกื‘ืœ ื•ื”ืžื•ื•ืช ื‘ื˜ืจื-ืขืช ื”ื™ื• ื ืคื•ืฆื™ื ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืคืจื˜,
14:37
one has fewer compunctions about inflicting them on others.
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ื”ื™ื• ืœื• ืคื—ื•ืช ื ืงื™ืคื•ืช ืžืฆืคื•ืŸ ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื’ืจื™ืžืชื ืœื–ื•ืœืช.
14:41
And as technology and economic efficiency make life longer and more pleasant,
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ื•ื›ื›ืœ ืฉื”ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื•ื”ื™ืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ืช
ืขืฉื• ืืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืœืืจื•ื›ื™ื ื•ื ืขื™ืžื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ, ืขืจื›ื ื”ื›ืœืœื™ ืขื•ืœื”.
14:45
one puts a higher value on life in general.
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14:48
This was an argument from the political scientist James Payne.
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ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื˜ื™ืขื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืžื“ืขืŸ ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ ื’'ื™ื™ืžืก ืคื™ื™ืŸ.
14:52
A third explanation invokes the concept of a nonzero-sum game,
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ื”ืกื‘ืจ ืฉืœื™ืฉื™ ืคื•ื ื” ืืœ ื”ืžื•ืฉื’ "ืžืฉื—ืง ืกื›ื•ื ืœื-ืืคืก",
14:56
and was worked out in the book "Nonzero" by the journalist Robert Wright.
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ื•ื”ื•ื ื ื•ืกื— ื‘ืกืคืจ "ืื™ืŸ-ืืคืก" ืžืืช ื”ืขื™ืชื•ื ืื™ ืจื•ื‘ืจื˜ ืจื™ื™ื˜
15:01
Wright points out that, in certain circumstances,
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ืจื™ื™ื˜ ืžืฆื‘ื™ืข ืขืœ ื›ืš ืฉื‘ื ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ืžืกื•ื™ืžื•ืช,
15:04
cooperation or nonviolence can benefit both parties in an interaction,
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ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ-ืคืขื•ืœื” ื•ื”ืขื“ืจ-ืืœื™ืžื•ืช ืขืฉื•ื™ื™ื ืœืชืจื•ื ืœืฉื ื™ ื”ืฆื“ื“ื™ื,
15:08
such as gains in trade when two parties trade their surpluses
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ื›ืžื• ื‘ืจื•ื•ื—ื™-ืžืกื—ืจ, ื›ืฉืฉื ื™ ื”ืฆื“ื“ื™ื
ืกื•ื—ืจื™ื ื‘ืขื•ื“ืคื™ื”ื ื•ืฉื ื™ื”ื ืžืจื•ื•ื™ื—ื™ื,
15:14
and both come out ahead,
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15:15
or when two parties lay down their arms
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ืื• ื›ืฉืฉื ื™ื”ื ืžื ื™ื—ื™ื ืืช ื ืฉืงื ื•ืžืชื—ืœืงื™ื ื‘"ืจื•ื•ื—ื™ ื”ืฉืœื•ื"
15:18
and split the so-called peace dividend
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15:20
that results in them not having to fight the whole time.
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ื”ื ื•ื‘ืขื™ื ืžื›ืš ืฉืื™ื ื ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ื™ืœื—ื ื›ืœ ื”ื–ืžืŸ.
15:23
Wright argues that technology has increased the number
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ืจื™ื™ื˜ ื˜ื•ืขืŸ ืฉื”ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื”ื’ื“ื™ืœื” ืืช ืžืกืคืจื ืฉืœ ืžืฉื—ืงื™ ืกื›ื•ื-ื—ื™ื•ื‘ื™
15:26
of positive-sum games that humans tend to be embroiled in,
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ื‘ื”ื ืื ืฉื™ื ื ื•ื˜ื™ื ืœืงื—ืช ื—ืœืง
15:30
by allowing the trade of goods, services and ideas
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ื‘ื›ืš ืฉื”ื™ื ืžืืคืฉืจืช ืœืกื—ื•ืจ ื‘ืžื•ืฆืจื™ื, ืฉื™ืจื•ืชื™ื ื•ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช
15:34
over longer distances and among larger groups of people.
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ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ืžืจื—ืงื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื•ื‘ื™ืŸ ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืื ืฉื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ.
15:37
The result is that other people become more valuable alive than dead,
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ื”ืชื•ืฆืื” ื”ื™ื ืฉืขืจื›ื• ืฉืœ ื”ื–ื•ืœืช ืจื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ ื›ืฉื”ื•ื ื—ื™ ืžืืฉืจ ื›ืฉื”ื•ื ืžืช,
15:41
and violence declines for selfish reasons.
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ื•ื”ืืœื™ืžื•ืช ืคื•ื—ืชืช ืžืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ืื ื•ื›ื™ื•ืช.
15:45
As Wright put it,
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ื‘ืžื™ืœื•ืชื™ื• ืฉืœ ืจื™ื™ื˜:
15:46
"Among the many reasons that I think that we should not bomb the Japanese
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"ืื—ืช ื”ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืจื‘ื•ืช ืžื“ื•ืข ืœื“ืขืชื™ ืืœ ืœื ื• ืœื”ืคืฆื™ืฅ ืืช ื”ื™ืคื ื™ื,
15:50
is that they built my minivan."
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"ื”ื™ื ืฉื”ื ื‘ื ื• ืืช ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื™ืช ื”ืžืฉืคื—ืชื™ืช ืฉืœื™."
15:52
(Laughter)
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[ืฆื—ื•ืง]
15:54
The fourth explanation is captured in the title of a book
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ื”ื”ืกื‘ืจ ื”ืจื‘ื™ืขื™ ืชื•ืžืฆืช ื‘ื›ื•ืชืจืช ืฉืœ ืกืคืจ,
15:58
called "The Expanding Circle," by the philosopher Peter Singer,
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"ื”ืžืขื’ืœ ื”ืžืชืจื—ื‘", ืžืืช ื”ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืฃ ืคื™ื˜ืจ ืกื™ื ื’ืจ,
ื”ื˜ื•ืขืŸ ืฉื”ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื” ื”ื ื—ื™ืœื” ืœื‘ื ื™ ื”ืื“ื ืชื—ื•ืฉื” ืฉืœ ืืžืคืชื™ื”:
16:02
who argues that evolution bequeathed humans with a sense of empathy,
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16:07
an ability to treat other people's interests as comparable to one's own.
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ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืœื”ืชื™ื™ื—ืก ืœืื™ื ื˜ืจืกื™ื ืฉืœ ืื—ืจื™ื
ื›ื‘ืจื™-ื”ืฉื•ื•ืื” ืœืืœื” ืฉืœืš.
ืœืžืจื‘ื” ื”ืฆืขืจ, ืื ื• ืžื™ื™ืฉืžื™ื ื–ืืช ื›ื‘ืจื™ืจืช ืžื—ื“ืœ ืจืง ืœืžืขื’ืœ ืฆืจ ืžืื“
16:13
Unfortunately, by default,
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16:14
we apply it only to a very narrow circle of friends and family.
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ืฉืœ ื—ื‘ืจื™ื ื•ืžืฉืคื—ื”.
16:18
People outside that circle are treated as subhuman
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ืžื™ ืฉืžื—ื•ืฅ ืœืžืขื’ืœ ื–ื” ื–ื•ื›ื™ื ืœื™ื—ืก ืฉืœ ืชืช-ืื ื•ืฉื™ื™ื
16:21
and can be exploited with impunity.
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ื•ืžื•ืชืจ ืœื ืฆืœื ืžื‘ืœื™ ืœื”ื™ืขื ืฉ ืขืœ ื›ืš.
16:23
But, over history, the circle has expanded.
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ืืš ื‘ืžืจื•ืฆืช ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ื”ืžืขื’ืœ ื”ืชืจื—ื‘.
16:27
One can see, in historical record,
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ื‘ืจืฉื•ืžื•ืช ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื•ืช ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื”ื•ื ืžืชืจื—ื‘ ืžื”ื›ืคืจ, ืœื—ืžื•ืœื”, ืœืฉื‘ื˜,
16:29
it expanding from the village, to the clan, to the tribe, to the nation,
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ืœืžื“ื™ื ื”, ืืœ ื’ื–ืขื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื, ืœืฉื ื™ ื”ืžื™ื ื™ื,
16:33
to other races, to both sexes and, in Singer's own arguments,
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ื•ื‘ื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ืฉืœ ืกื™ื ื’ืจ ืขืฆืžื•, ืขืœื™ื ื• ืœื”ืจื—ื™ื‘ ื•ืœื”ื—ื™ืœ ื–ืืช
16:37
something that we should extend to other sentient species.
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ืขืœ ื’ื–ืขื™ื ืžืจื’ื™ืฉื™ื ื ื•ืกืคื™ื.
16:40
So the question is:
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ื”ืฉืืœื” ื”ื™ื, ืื ื›ืš ืงืจื”, ืžื” ื”ื ื™ืข ื”ืชืจื—ื‘ื•ืช ื–ื•?
16:43
If this has happened, what has powered that expansion?
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16:46
And there are a number of possibilities,
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ื™ืฉ ืžืกืคืจ ืืคืฉืจื•ื™ื•ืช: ืœืžืฉืœ, ืžืขื’ืœื™ ื”ื“ื“ื™ื•ืช ื’ื“ืœื™ื
16:47
such as increasing circles of reciprocity
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16:50
in the sense that Robert Wright argues for.
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ื‘ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ืฉืœ ื˜ื™ืขื•ื ื™ ืจื•ื‘ืจื˜ ืจื™ื™ื˜.
16:53
The logic of the Golden Rule --
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ื”ืœื•ื’ื™ืงื” ืฉืœ ื›ืœืœ ื”ื–ื”ื‘:
16:55
the more you think about and interact with other people,
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ื›ื›ืœ ืฉืืชื” ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืขืœ ืื—ืจื™ื ื•ื‘ื ืขื™ืžื ื‘ืžื’ืข,
16:59
the more you realize that it is untenable to privilege your interests over theirs,
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ืืชื” ืžื‘ื™ืŸ ื›ืžื” ืชืœื•ืฉื” ื”ื™ื ื”ืขื“ืคืช ื”ืื™ื ื˜ืจืกื™ื ืฉืœืš ืขืœ ืฉืœื”ื,
17:06
at least not if you want them to listen to you.
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ืœืคื—ื•ืช ืื ื‘ืจืฆื•ื ืš ืฉื”ื ื™ืงืฉื™ื‘ื• ืœืš. ืื™ื ืš ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื•ืžืจ:
17:08
You can't say that my interests are special compared to yours
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"ื”ืื™ื ื˜ืจืกื™ื ืฉืœื™ ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืฉืœืš",
17:12
any more than you can say
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ืžืžืฉ ื›ืคื™ ืฉืื™ื ืš ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื•ืžืจ:
17:13
the particular spot that I'm standing on is a unique part of the universe
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"ื”ืžืงื•ื ืขืœื™ื• ืื ื™ ืขื•ืžื“ ื”ื•ื ื—ืœืง ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืงื•ื
17:17
because I happen to be standing on it that very minute.
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"ืจืง ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื‘ืžืงืจื” ืื ื™ ืขื•ืžื“ ืขืœื™ื• ื›ืจื’ืข."
17:21
It may also be powered by cosmopolitanism, by histories
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ื–ื” ืขืฉื•ื™ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ื ืข ืžืชื•ืš ืงื•ืกืžื•ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ื•ืช:
ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื”, ืขื™ืชื•ื ื•ืช, ื–ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืช, ืกื™ืคื•ืจืช ืœื-ื‘ื“ื™ื•ื ื™ืช, ื ืกื™ืขื•ืช ื•ื”ืฉื›ืœื”
17:25
and journalism and memoirs and realistic fiction and travel and literacy,
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17:30
which allows you to project yourself into the lives of other people
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ื”ืžืืคืฉืจื™ื ืœืš ืœื”ืฉืœื™ืš ืžืขืฆืžืš ืœื—ื™ื™ ืื—ืจื™ื,
17:34
that formerly you may have treated as subhuman,
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ืฉื‘ืขื‘ืจ ืื•ืœื™ ื”ืชื™ื™ื—ืกืช ืืœื™ื”ื ื›ืืœ ืชืช-ืื ื•ืฉื™ื™ื,
17:37
and also to realize the accidental contingency of your own station in life,
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ื•ื’ื ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืช ืืจืขื™ื•ืช ืžื™ืงื•ืžืš-ืฉืœืš ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื;
ืืช ื”ืชื—ื•ืฉื” ืฉืœ "ื›ื–ื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื™, ืื™ืœื• ืจืฆื” ื”ื’ื•ืจืœ."
17:42
the sense that "There but for fortune go I."
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17:45
Whatever its causes,
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ืชื”ื™ื™ื ื” ื”ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ืืฉืจ ืชื”ื™ื™ื ื”, ืœื™ืจื™ื“ื” ื‘ืืœื™ืžื•ืช ื™ืฉ ื”ืฉืœื›ื•ืช ืžืขืžื™ืงื•ืช.
17:47
the decline of violence, I think, has profound implications.
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ื”ื™ื ืฆืจื™ื›ื” ืœืืœืฅ ืื•ืชื ื• ืœืฉืื•ืœ ืœื ืจืง "ืžื“ื•ืข ื™ืฉ ืžืœื—ืžื”?"
17:51
It should force us to ask not just, "Why is there war?"
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17:54
but also, "Why is there peace?"
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ืืœื ื’ื "ืžื“ื•ืข ื™ืฉ ืฉืœื•ื?"
17:57
Not just, "What are we doing wrong?"
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ืœื ืจืง "ืื™ืคื” ื˜ืขื™ื ื•?", ืืœื ื’ื "ืžื” ืขืฉื™ื ื• ื ื›ื•ืŸ?"
17:59
but also, "What have we been doing right?"
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18:01
Because we have been doing something right,
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ืžืคื ื™ ืฉืื›ืŸ ืขืฉื™ื ื• ืžืฉื”ื• ื ื›ื•ืŸ,
18:03
and it sure would be good to find out what it is.
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ื•ืื™ืŸ ืกืคืง ืฉืžื•ื˜ื‘ ืœื’ืœื•ืช ืžื”ื•.
18:06
Thank you very much.
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ืชื•ื“ื” ืจื‘ื” ืœื›ื.
18:07
(Applause)
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[ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื]
18:17
Chris Anderson: I loved that talk.
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ื›ืจื™ืก ืื ื“ืจืกื•ืŸ: ืื”ื‘ืชื™ ืืช ื”ื”ืจืฆืื”. ืœื“ืขืชื™ ืจื‘ื™ื ื›ืืŸ ื”ื™ื• ืื•ืžืจื™ื
18:20
I think a lot of people here in the room would say
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18:22
that that expansion you were talking about,
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ืฉื”ื”ืจื—ื‘ื” ืฉืœ-- ืžื” ืฉื“ื™ื‘ืจืช ืขืœื™ื”,
18:25
that Peter Singer talks about,
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ืฉืคื™ื˜ืจ ืกื™ื ื’ืจ ื“ื™ื‘ืจ ืขืœื™ื”, ืžื•ื ืขืช ื’ื ืข"ื™ ื”ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”
18:27
is also driven just by technology, by greater visibility of the other
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ืข"ื™ ื ืจืื•ืช ื˜ื•ื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืœ ื”ื–ื•ืœืช ื•ื”ืชื—ื•ืฉื” ืฉื”ืขื•ืœื
18:30
and the sense that the world is therefore getting smaller.
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ื ืขืฉื” ืœืคื™ื›ืš ืงื˜ืŸ ื™ื•ืชืจ. ื”ืื ื™ืฉ ื‘ื›ืš ืฉืžืฅ ืืžืช?
18:33
I mean, is that also a grain of truth?
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18:35
Steven Pinker: Very much.
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ืก"ืค: ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžืื“. ื–ื” ืžืชืื™ื ื’ื ืœืชื™ืื•ืจื™ื” ืฉืœ ืจื™ื™ื˜,
18:37
It would fit both in Wright's theory,
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18:39
that it allows us to enjoy the benefits of cooperation
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ืฉื–ื” ืžืืคืฉืจ ืœื ื• ืœื™ื”ื ื•ืช ืžื™ืชืจื•ื ื•ืช ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ื”ืคืขื•ืœื”
18:44
over larger and larger circles.
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ื‘ืžืขื’ืœื™ื ื”ื•ืœื›ื™ื ื•ื’ื“ืœื™ื. ืื‘ืœ ืœื“ืขืชื™ ื–ื” ื’ื ืขื•ื–ืจ ืœื ื•
18:46
But also, I think it helps us imagine what it's like to be someone else.
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ืœื“ืžื™ื™ืŸ ืื™ืš ื–ื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืื—ืจ.
18:51
I think when you read of these horrific tortures
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ืœื“ืขืชื™, ื›ืฉืงื•ืจืื™ื ืขืœ ื”ืขื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื”ืžื—ืจื™ื“ื™ื ืฉืœ ื™ืžื™ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื, ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื:
18:53
that were common in the Middle Ages,
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18:55
you think, "How could they possibly have done it,
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"ืื™ืš ื”ื ื™ื›ืœื• ื‘ื›ืœืœ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื–ืืช?
18:57
how could they not have empathized with the person
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"ืื™ืš ื”ื ื™ื›ืœื• ืฉืœื ืœื—ื•ืฉ ื”ื–ื“ื”ื•ืช ืขื ื”ืื™ืฉ ืฉืืช ืžืขื™ื• ืฉืคื›ื•?"
19:00
that they're disemboweling?"
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19:01
But clearly, as far as they're concerned, this is just an alien being
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืจื•ืจ ืฉืžื‘ื—ื™ื ืชื ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ืกืชื ื—ื™ื™ื–ืจ,
19:06
that does not have feelings akin to their own.
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ืฉืื™ืŸ ืœื• ืจื’ืฉื•ืช ื›ืžื•ืชื.
19:08
Anything, I think, that makes it easier
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ื›ืœ ื“ื‘ืจ, ืœื“ืขืชื™, ืฉืžืงืœ ืœื“ืžื™ื™ืŸ ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื–ื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื ืขืœื™ ื”ื–ื•ืœืช,
19:10
to imagine trading places with someone else
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19:12
means that it increases your moral consideration
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ืžืฉืžืขื• ื”ืชื’ื‘ืจื•ืช ื”ื”ืชื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื”ืžื•ืกืจื™ืช ืฉืœืš ื‘ืื•ืชื• ืื“ื.
19:15
to that other person.
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19:16
CA: I'd love every news media owner to hear that talk
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ื›"ื: ื”ืœื•ื•ืื™ ืฉื›ืœ ืื™ืœื™ ื”ืชืงืฉื•ืจืช ื™ืฉืžืขื• ื”ืจืฆืื” ื–ื•
19:19
at some point, it's so important.
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ืžืชื™ ืฉื”ื•ื ื‘ืฉื ื” ื”ื‘ืื”. ืœื“ืขืชื™ ื–ื” ื‘ืืžืช ื—ืฉื•ื‘. ืชื•ื“ื” ืจื‘ื”.
19:21
CA: Thank you. SP: My pleasure.
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ืก"ืค: ืœืขื•ื ื’ ืœื™.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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