The 4 stories we tell ourselves about death | Stephen Cave

譯者: Willy Feng 審譯者: Marssi Draw

I have a question:

我有一個提問：

Who here remembers when they first realized

這裡有誰記得是什麼時候

they were going to die?

第一次意識到自己會死去？

I do. I was a young boy,

我記得 那時我還是小男孩

and my grandfather had just died,

我祖父剛剛過世

and I remember a few days later lying in bed at night

我記得在那幾天後的晚上，我躺在床上

trying to make sense of what had happened.

試著去理解發生了什麼事情

What did it mean that he was dead?

他過世了是什麼意思？

Where had he gone?

他去了哪裡？

It was like a hole in reality had opened up

這有點像在現實中有一個洞

and swallowed him.

打開後把他吞下去

But then the really shocking question occurred to me:

但對我來說，震驚的事情是：

If he could die, could it happen to me too?

如果他會死去，那也會發生在我身上嗎？

Could that hole in reality open up and swallow me?

那個洞也會打開把我吞下去嗎？

Would it open up beneath my bed

它會不會在我的床底下打開

and swallow me as I slept?

在我睡覺時把我吞了？

Well, at some point, all children become aware of death.

某方面而言，所有的小孩都注意到死亡

It can happen in different ways, of course,

當然，死亡會以不同的方式發生

and usually comes in stages.

而且通常是很引人注目的

Our idea of death develops as we grow older.

我們對死亡的認識隨著長大而加深

And if you reach back into the dark corners

如果你能回到你記憶裡

of your memory,

那個黑暗的角落

you might remember something like what I felt

或許你會有跟我那時一樣的感受

when my grandfather died and when I realized

當我祖父過世而我認知到

it could happen to me too,

這也可能發生在我身上

that sense that behind all of this

在這一切背後的感受

the void is waiting.

只能空等待

And this development in childhood

在孩童時期這樣的發展

reflects the development of our species.

反應了我們人類的發展

Just as there was a point in your development

就像是在你生命中的某一時刻

as a child when your sense of self and of time

還是小孩的你對自我和時間的認知

became sophisticated enough

開始變得複雜

for you to realize you were mortal,

你理解自己終將一死

so at some point in the evolution of our species,

所以在人類演化的某一時刻

some early human's sense of self and of time

早期的某些人對自我和時間的認知

became sophisticated enough

開始變得複雜

for them to become the first human to realize,

然後成為第一批

"I'm going to die."

知道「我將會死去」的人們

This is, if you like, our curse.

如果你能接受，這是我們的咒詛

It's the price we pay for being so damn clever.

這是我們過於聰明的代價

We have to live in the knowledge

我們必須活在

that the worst thing that can possibly happen

知道最壞的事將會發生的陰影下

one day surely will,

這一天一定會來到

the end of all our projects,

終結我們所有的計畫

our hopes, our dreams, of our individual world.

我們的希望、夢想和個人世界

We each live in the shadow of a personal

我們每個人活在自個兒的

apocalypse.

末日陰影下

And that's frightening. It's terrifying.

這很恐怖嚇人

And so we look for a way out.

所以我們試圖找個出路

And in my case, as I was about five years old,

以我為例，當我大約五歲時

this meant asking my mum.

我是去問我媽

Now when I first started asking

當我開始詢問

what happens when we die,

我們死後會怎樣

the grown-ups around me at the time

在我周遭的成人回答我

answered with a typical English mix of awkwardness

很典型、尷尬且

and half-hearted Christianity,

無心的基督教語句

and the phrase I heard most often

我最常聽到的是

was that granddad was now

祖父現在

"up there looking down on us,"

「在天上看著我們」

and if I should die too, which wouldn't happen of course,

而且如果我也死去，當然不會是現在

then I too would go up there,

我也會到天上去

which made death sound a lot like

這讓死亡看起來很像是

an existential elevator.

一座可能存在的電梯

Now this didn't sound very plausible.

現在這聽起來不再是有可能的

I used to watch a children's news program at the time,

那時候我通常會觀看兒童新聞節目

and this was the era of space exploration.

那時是一個太空探索的時代

There were always rockets going up into the sky,

節目總是關於火箭升空

up into space, going up there.

飛上高高的太空中

But none of the astronauts when they came back

但沒有任何回來的太空人提及

ever mentioned having met my granddad

見到我去世的祖父

or any other dead people.

或是其他死去的人

But I was scared,

但當時我很害怕

and the idea of taking the existential elevator

而搭乘那可能存在的電梯

to see my granddad

去見我的祖父

sounded a lot better than being swallowed

比起在睡夢中被虛空吞噬

by the void while I slept.

是容易接受的多

And so I believed it anyway,

所以我就相信了

even though it didn't make much sense.

縱使這聽起來很不合理

And this thought process that I went through

這樣的思考模式讓我渡過童年

as a child, and have been through many times since,

從那之後發生過很多次

including as a grown-up,

長大之後也是

is a product of what psychologists call

這被心理學家稱作是

a bias.

偏誤 (bias)

Now a bias is a way in which we systematically

偏誤是我們有系統地

get things wrong,

把事情搞錯

ways in which we miscalculate, misjudge,

估算錯誤、判斷錯誤

distort reality, or see what we want to see,

扭曲現實，或是只看到想看到的

and the bias I'm talking about

而我要說的偏誤

works like this:

是像這樣的：

Confront someone with the fact

使他人去正視

that they are going to die

他們即將會死去的事實

and they will believe just about any story

他們會相信任何故事

that tells them it isn't true

告訴他們這不是真的

and they can, instead, live forever,

而且他們可以永遠活著

even if it means taking the existential elevator.

就算是搭乘那個可能存在的電梯

Now we can see this as the biggest bias of all.

我們可以將這個視為最大的偏誤

It has been demonstrated in over 400

這經過四百個經驗研究

empirical studies.

得到證實

Now these studies are ingenious, but they're simple.

這些研究設計得很巧妙，但相當簡單

They work like this.

像這樣

You take two groups of people

你找了兩組人

who are similar in all relevant respects,

在各個面向上都很相似

and you remind one group that they're going to die

你提醒其中一組人他們即將死去

but not the other, then you compare their behavior.

但另一組沒有，然後你比較他們的行為

So you're observing how it biases behavior

你觀察到，當人們意識到他們終究會死去時

when people become aware of their mortality.

這個認知如何使他們的行為產生偏誤

And every time, you get the same result:

而且每次試驗你都得到相同的結果

People who are made aware of their mortality

被提醒終將會死去的那組人

are more willing to believe stories

比較願意去相信

that tell them they can escape death

他們有辦法逃脫死亡

and live forever.

並且得到永生的故事

So here's an example: One recent study

這裡有一個例子

took two groups of agnostics,

一項研究找來兩組不可知論者

that is people who are undecided

這些人都沒有

in their religious beliefs.

特定的宗教傾向

Now, one group was asked to think about being dead.

其中一組被要求思考死亡這件事

The other group was asked to think about

另一組被要求思考

being lonely.

孤獨

They were then asked again about their religious beliefs.

他們再度被問及他們的宗教信仰

Those who had been asked to think about being dead

被要求思考死亡的那組人

were afterwards twice as likely to express faith

之後有兩倍的可能性

in God and Jesus.

用上帝和耶穌來描敘他們的信仰

Twice as likely.

兩倍的可能性

Even though the before they were all equally agnostic.

即使在這之前他們同樣是不可知論者

But put the fear of death in them,

但把對死亡的恐懼放在眼前

and they run to Jesus.

他們會向耶穌靠攏

Now, this shows that reminding people of death

這顯示向人們提醒死亡

biases them to believe, regardless of the evidence,

會讓他們忽視證據，而在所相信的事物上偏誤

and it works not just for religion,

而這不僅僅影響到宗教

but for any kind of belief system

而是任何跟信仰有關

that promises immortality in some form,

任何能提供永生形式的機制

whether it's becoming famous

無論是變有名

or having children

或是生小孩

or even nationalism,

或甚至是民族主義

which promises you can live on as part of a greater whole.

保證你能成為全體的一部分活下去

This is a bias that has shaped

這樣的偏誤

the course of human history.

塑造了人類的歷史

Now, the theory behind this bias

在這偏誤背後

in the over 400 studies

超過四百個研究

is called terror management theory,

稱之為「恐懼管理理論」

and the idea is simple. It's just this.

這個理論很簡單

We develop our worldviews,

我們發展出我們的世界觀

that is, the stories we tell ourselves

告訴自己一個

about the world and our place in it,

關於世界和我們所在地方的故事

in order to help us manage

為的是要讓我們可以

the terror of death.

處理對死亡的恐懼

And these immortality stories

這些永生的故事

have thousands of different manifestations,

有著上千種的形式

but I believe that behind the apparent diversity

但我相信在這些多樣化的面貌下

there are actually just four basic forms

這些永生故事

that these immortality stories can take.

其實只有四種基本樣式

And we can see them repeating themselves

在歷史中不斷地循環

throughout history, just with slight variations

只有小小的差異

to reflect the vocabulary of the day.

反應當時的語言

Now I'm going to briefly introduce these four

我來簡單介紹永生故事中的

basic forms of immortality story,

這四個基本樣式

and I want to try to give you some sense

我也希望讓各位知道

of the way in which they're retold by each culture

它們是如何在各個文化和世代中

or generation

使用當時的語言

using the vocabulary of their day.

被流傳著

Now, the first story is the simplest.

第一個故事是最簡單的

We want to avoid death,

我們想要避免死亡

and the dream of doing that in this body

夢想著這身軀

in this world forever

可以永久留存在這世上

is the first and simplest kind of immortality story,

這是第一個也是最簡單的永生故事

and it might at first sound implausible,

這聽起來有點難以置信

but actually, almost every culture in human history

但事實上，人類史上幾乎所有的文化

has had some myth or legend

都有神話或傳說是關於

of an elixir of life or a fountain of youth

不老藥或是青春泉水

or something that promises to keep us going

或是某種可以讓我們

forever.

一直活下去的東西

Ancient Egypt had such myths,

古埃及有這樣的神話

ancient Babylon, ancient India.

古巴比倫、古印度

Throughout European history, we find them in the work of the alchemists,

綜觀歐洲史，可以在鍊金術中發現它

and of course we still believe this today,

現在我們依舊相信它

only we tell this story using the vocabulary

只是我們用科學的語言

of science.

訴說它

So 100 years ago,

約一百年前

hormones had just been discovered,

荷爾蒙被發現了

and people hoped that hormone treatments

人們冀望荷爾蒙

were going to cure aging and disease,

可以治療老化和疾病

and now instead we set our hopes on stem cells,

現在我們則是寄望於幹細胞

genetic engineering, and nanotechnology.

遺傳工程和奈米科技

But the idea that science can cure death

但能對抗死亡的科學

is just one more chapter in the story

也僅只是跟文明一樣古老的

of the magical elixir,

另一則

a story that is as old as civilization.

不老藥故事

But betting everything on the idea of finding the elixir

但把一切都賭在發現不老藥

and staying alive forever

和保持永生上面

is a risky strategy.

風險太大

When we look back through history

當我們回頭看歷史

at all those who have sought an elixir in the past,

那些尋找不老藥的人

the one thing they now have in common

都有個共通點

is that they're all dead.

就是他們都過世了

So we need a backup plan, and exactly this kind of plan B

所以我們需要一個備案

is what the second kind of immortality story offers,

也就是第二類的永生故事

and that's resurrection.

那就是復活

And it stays with the idea that I am this body,

復活的概念是我是一個肉身

I am this physical organism.

是一個有機體

It accepts that I'm going to have to die

接受我是會死去的事實

but says, despite that,

但不論這些

I can rise up and I can live again.

我會再次活過來

In other words, I can do what Jesus did.

換句話說，我可以跟耶穌一樣

Jesus died, he was three days in the [tomb],

耶穌死後，有三天在墓穴中

and then he rose up and lived again.

然後他就復活了

And the idea that we can all be resurrected to live again

能夠復活的這個概念

is orthodox believe, not just for Christians

是很傳統的教義，不單是基督教

but also Jews and Muslims.

也是猶太教和回教的

But our desire to believe this story

我們相信這個故事的渴望

is so deeply embedded

如此深植在我們的內心

that we are reinventing it again

以致於在科學時代

for the scientific age,

我們再次創造它

for example, with the idea of cryonics.

例如人體冷凍

That's the idea that when you die,

當你死亡時

you can have yourself frozen,

你可以把自己冷凍起來

and then, at some point when technology

等到某天

has advanced enough,

科技足夠先進

you can be thawed out and repaired and revived

你可以讓自己解凍、修復、甦醒

and so resurrected.

然後復活

And so some people believe an omnipotent god

有些人相信有一位全能的神

will resurrect them to live again,

將會使他們再次活過來

and other people believe an omnipotent scientist will do it.

而有些人則是相信 全能的科學能讓他們復活

But for others, the whole idea of resurrection,

但對某些人來說，復活這件事

of climbing out of the grave,

從墳墓中爬出來

it's just too much like a bad zombie movie.

太像是可怕的僵屍電影

They find the body too messy, too unreliable

他們覺得身軀太髒亂且不可靠

to guarantee eternal life,

無法承受永恆的生命

and so they set their hopes on the third,

所以他們有第三種類型的故事

more spiritual immortality story,

更加靈性不死的故事

the idea that we can leave our body behind

就是我們會離開我們的身體

and live on as a soul.

而靈魂會永遠常存

Now, the majority of people on Earth

地球上絕大部分的人

believe they have a soul,

都相信人有靈魂

and the idea is central to many religions.

這個概念是許多宗教的核心

But even though, in its current form,

但不管是現在的型態

in its traditional form,

或是傳統的型態

the idea of the soul is still hugely popular,

靈魂的概念仍然非常受歡迎

nonetheless we are again

我們在當今數位時代

reinventing it for the digital age,

依舊再次創造它

for example with the idea

例如

that you can leave your body behind

你可以離開你的身體

by uploading your mind, your essence,

透過將你的心智、本質、真正的你

the real you, onto a computer,

上傳到電腦中

and so live on as an avatar in the ether.

以化身存活在太空裡

But of course there are skeptics who say

當然，有人會懷疑說

if we look at the evidence of science,

如果我們檢視科學的證據

particularly neuroscience,

特別是神經學

it suggests that your mind,

提及你的心智

your essence, the real you,

你的本質，真正的你

is very much dependent on a particular part

是非常仰賴你身體的某個部分

of your body, that is, your brain.

那就是你的腦

And such skeptics can find comfort

這樣的懷疑者

in the fourth kind of immortality story,

能從第四種類的的永生故事中 得到安慰

and that is legacy,

那就是遺留下的事物

the idea that you can live on

你可以常存在世

through the echo you leave in the world,

透過你留在世界上的事物

like the great Greek warrior Achilles,

像是希臘戰士阿基里斯

who sacrificed his life fighting at Troy

他犧牲生命對抗特洛依

so that he might win immortal fame.

使他贏得永遠的名聲

And the pursuit of fame is as widespread

追求這樣的名聲

and popular now as it ever was,

從古至今都一樣流行普遍

and in our digital age,

在當今的數位時代

it's even easier to achieve.

這是更容易辦到的

You don't need to be a great warrior like Achilles

你不需要像阿基里斯一樣是個戰士

or a great king or hero.

或是一位國王，或英雄

All you need is an Internet connection and a funny cat. (Laughter)

你只需要一條網路線和一隻有趣的貓 （笑聲）

But some people prefer to leave a more tangible,

但有些人還是會想要留下

biological legacy -- children, for example.

更有形、有生命的事物，像是小孩

Or they like, they hope, to live on

或是他們想要、希望可以

as part of some greater whole,

成為全體的一部分活下去

a nation or a family or a tribe,

國家、家庭或聚落

their gene pool.

它們的基因庫

But again, there are skeptics

但還是有人會懷疑

who doubt whether legacy

這樣遺留下的事物

really is immortality.

是否真的能永流傳

Woody Allen, for example, who said,

像是伍迪艾倫說過 （譯註：美國導演、演員、劇作家）：

"I don't want to live on in the hearts of my countrymen.

「我不想活在我同胞的心裡

I want to live on in my apartment."

我想活在我的公寓裡。」

So those are the four

這些是四種基本的

basic kinds of immortality stories,

永生故事

and I've tried to give just some sense

我試著說明這些故事

of how they're retold by each generation

如何一代一代的流傳著

with just slight variations

而僅有些許的變化

to fit the fashions of the day.

以迎合各時代的思潮

And the fact that they recur in this way,

這些故事不停地重覆傳頌

in such a similar form but in such different belief systems,

在不同的信仰中有著如此相似的形式

suggests, I think,

我覺得

that we should be skeptical of the truth

我們應該要對這些故事

of any particular version of these stories.

有所質疑

The fact that some people believe

有些人相信

an omnipotent god will resurrect them to live again

一位全能的神會使他們復活

and others believe an omnipotent scientist will do it

而其他人相信萬能的科學會使他們復活

suggests that neither are really believing this

這些都說明人們不是因著證據

on the strength of the evidence.

相信這些故事

Rather, we believe these stories

我們相信這些故事

because we are biased to believe them,

只因為我們的偏誤而相信故事

and we are biased to believe them

我們會偏誤而相信故事

because we are so afraid of death.

是因為我們對死亡的恐懼

So the question is,

問題是

are we doomed to lead the one life we have

我們是否讓我們的人生注定

in a way that is shaped by fear and denial,

被恐懼和抗拒支配

or can we overcome this bias?

還是我們可以克服這個偏誤？

Well the Greek philosopher Epicurus

希臘哲學家伊比鳩魯

thought we could.

認為我們可以

He argued that the fear of death is natural,

他主張對死亡的恐懼是天生的

but it is not rational.

但並非理性的

"Death," he said, "is nothing to us,

他說：「死亡對我們來說不算什麼，

because when we are here, death is not,

因為當我們在這裡，死亡就不在；

and when death is here, we are gone."

而當死亡在這裡，我們就不在了。」

Now this is often quoted, but it's difficult

這句話常被引用

to really grasp, to really internalize,

但很難領會、真正內化它

because exactly this idea of being gone

因為所謂的「不在這裡」

is so difficult to imagine.

是很難想像的

So 2,000 years later, another philosopher,

所以兩千年之後，另一個哲學家

Ludwig Wittgenstein, put it like this:

路德維希．維根斯坦這樣說：

"Death is not an event in life:

「死亡不是生命中的一件事，

We do not live to experience death.

我們並非活著來體驗死亡。

And so," he added,

所以，

"in this sense, life has no end."

從這個觀點來看，生命是沒有終點的。」

So it was natural for me as a child

當我還小的時候

to fear being swallowed by the void,

很自然地對於被虛無吞沒產生恐懼

but it wasn't rational,

但這並非理性的

because being swallowed by the void

因為被虛無吞沒

is not something that any of us

並不是一件任何人

will ever live to experience.

會活著經歷的事情

Now, overcoming this bias is not easy because

克服偏誤不是一件容易的事

the fear of death is so deeply embedded in us,

因為對死亡的恐懼深植在我們之中

yet when we see that the fear itself is not rational,

但當我們了解這恐懼是不理性的

and when we bring out into the open

當我們可以在檯面上提出來

the ways in which it can unconsciously bias us,

這恐懼會無意識地讓我們偏誤

then we can at least start

那至少我們可以開始

to try to minimize the influence it has

嘗試去減小它在我們生命中的

on our lives.

影響

Now, I find it helps to see life

我發覺把生命

as being like a book:

當作是一本書會有幫助：

Just as a book is bounded by its covers,

就像書受限於有開頭和結尾

by beginning and end,

被書皮包覆著

so our lives are bounded by birth and death,

就像我們的生命被出生和死亡包覆著

and even though a book is limited by beginning and end,

即使書本受限於要有開頭和結尾

it can encompass distant landscapes,

但它可以包含遠處的風光

exotic figures, fantastic adventures.

異國風情的人物與奇幻的冒險

And even though a book is limited by beginning and end,

即使書本必須有開頭和結尾

the characters within it

其中的人物

know no horizons.

不知道有邊界

They only know the moments that make up their story,

只知道當下要活出他們的故事

even when the book is closed.

即使書本被闔起來之後也一樣

And so the characters of a book

所以書本中的人物

are not afraid of reaching the last page.

不會害怕走到最後一頁

Long John Silver is not afraid of you

史約翰不會害怕

finishing your copy of "Treasure Island."

你讀完《金銀島》

And so it should be with us.

所以我們也當如此

Imagine the book of your life,

想像一本關於你生命的書

its covers, its beginning and end, and your birth and your death.

它的封面、開頭和結尾 以及你的出生和死亡

You can only know the moments in between,

而你只知道這之間

the moments that make up your life.

能活出你生命的時刻

It makes no sense for you to fear

這不該讓你

what is outside of those covers,

對書皮之外的事恐懼

whether before your birth

不管是你出生之前

or after your death.

或是死亡之後

And you needn't worry how long the book is,

你不必擔心書本有多厚

or whether it's a comic strip or an epic.

它是連環漫畫或是長篇史詩

The only thing that matters

唯一重要的事情是

is that you make it a good story.

你有一個好的故事

Thank you.

謝謝

(Applause)

（掌聲）