How reliable is your memory? | Elizabeth Loftus

2,435,250 views ใƒป 2013-09-23

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืžืชืจื’ื: Sigal Tifferet ืžื‘ืงืจ: Shlomo Adam
00:12
I'd like to tell you about a legal case that I worked on
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ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœืกืคืจ ืœื›ื ืขืœ ืชื™ืง ืžืฉืคื˜ื™ ืขืœื™ื• ืขื‘ื“ืชื™
00:16
involving a man named Steve Titus.
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ื”ืงืฉื•ืจ ืœืื“ื ื‘ืฉื ืกื˜ื™ื‘ ื˜ื™ื˜ื•ืก.
00:20
Titus was a restaurant manager.
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ื˜ื™ื˜ื•ืก ื”ื™ื” ืžื ื”ืœ ืžืกืขื“ื”.
00:23
He was 31 years old, he lived in Seattle, Washington,
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ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืŸ 31, ื—ื™ ื‘ืกื™ืื˜ืœ, ื•ื•ืฉื™ื ื’ื˜ื•ืŸ,
00:27
he was engaged to Gretchen,
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ื”ื™ื” ืžืื•ืจืก ืœื’ืจื˜ืฉืŸ,
00:29
about to be married, she was the love of his life.
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ื”ื ืขืžื“ื• ืœื”ื™ื ืฉื, ื”ื™ื ื”ื™ืชื” ืื”ื‘ืช ื—ื™ื™ื•.
00:32
And one night, the couple went out
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ื•ืœื™ืœื” ืื—ื“ ื”ื–ื•ื’ ื™ืฆื
00:34
for a romantic restaurant meal.
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ืœืืจื•ื—ื” ืจื•ืžื ื˜ื™ืช ื‘ืžืกืขื“ื”.
00:37
They were on their way home,
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ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ื‘ื“ืจื›ื ื”ื‘ื™ืชื”
00:39
and they were pulled over by a police officer.
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ื›ืฉืฉื•ื˜ืจ ืขืฆืจ ืื•ืชื.
00:42
You see, Titus' car sort of resembled
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ืืชื ืžื‘ื™ื ื™ื, ื”ืจื›ื‘ ืฉืœ ื˜ื™ื˜ื•ืก ื”ื™ื” ื“ื•ืžื”
00:45
a car that was driven earlier in the evening
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ืœืจื›ื‘ ื‘ื• ื ื”ื’ ืžื•ืงื“ื ื™ื•ืชืจ
00:49
by a man who raped a female hitchhiker,
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ืื“ื ืฉืื ืก ื˜ืจืžืคื™ืกื˜ื™ืช,
00:52
and Titus kind of resembled that rapist.
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ื•ื˜ื™ื˜ื•ืก ื”ื™ื” ื“ื™ ื“ื•ืžื” ืœืื ืก ื”ื–ื”.
00:56
So the police took a picture of Titus,
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ืื– ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ืฆื™ืœืžื” ืืช ื˜ื™ื˜ื•ืก,
00:59
they put it in a photo lineup,
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ื•ืฉืžื” ืืช ื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ื‘ืžืกื“ืจ ื–ื™ื”ื•ื™,
01:01
they later showed it to the victim,
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ื•ื”ืจืืชื” ืื•ืชื” ืœืงื•ืจื‘ืŸ,
01:03
and she pointed to Titus' photo.
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ื•ื”ื™ื ื”ืฆื‘ื™ืขื” ืขืœ ื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ืฉืœ ื˜ื™ื˜ื•ืก.
01:06
She said, "That one's the closest."
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ื”ื™ื ืืžืจื”: "ื”ื•ื ื”ื›ื™ ื“ื•ืžื”."
01:09
The police and the prosecution proceeded with a trial,
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ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ื•ื”ืชื‘ื™ืขื” ืชื‘ืขื• ืื•ืชื•,
01:13
and when Steve Titus was put on trial for rape,
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ื•ื›ืฉืกื˜ื™ื‘ ื˜ื™ื˜ื•ืก ื”ื•ืขืžื“ ืœื“ื™ืŸ ืขืœ ืื•ื ืก,
01:16
the rape victim got on the stand
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ืงื•ืจื‘ืŸ ื”ืื•ื ืก ืขืžื“ื” ืขืœ ื”ื“ื•ื›ืŸ
01:19
and said, "I'm absolutely positive that's the man."
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ื•ืืžืจื”: "ืื ื™ ื‘ื˜ื•ื—ื” ืœื’ืžืจื™ ืฉื–ื” ื”ืื“ื."
01:23
And Titus was convicted.
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ื•ื˜ื™ื˜ื•ืก ื”ื•ืจืฉืข.
01:26
He proclaimed his innocence,
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ื”ื•ื ื”ื›ืจื™ื– ืขืœ ื—ืคื•ืชื•,
01:28
his family screamed at the jury,
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ื”ืžืฉืคื—ื” ืฉืœื• ืฆืจื—ื” ืขืœ ื”ืžื•ืฉื‘ืขื™ื,
01:30
his fiancรฉe collapsed on the floor sobbing,
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ืืจื•ืกืชื• ื”ืชืžื•ื˜ื˜ื” ืขืœ ื”ืจืฆืคื” ื‘ื‘ื›ื™,
01:33
and Titus is taken away to jail.
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ื•ื˜ื™ื˜ื•ืก ื ืœืงื— ืœื›ืœื.
01:37
So what would you do at this point?
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ืื– ืžื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื ืขื•ืฉื™ื ื‘ืฉืœื‘ ื”ื–ื”?
01:40
What would you do?
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ืžื” ืืชื ื”ื™ื™ืชื ืขื•ืฉื™ื?
01:42
Well, Titus lost complete faith in the legal system,
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ื˜ื™ื˜ื•ืก ืื™ื‘ื“ ื›ืœ ืืžื•ืŸ ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืžืฉืคื˜,
01:46
and yet he got an idea.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื™ื” ืœื• ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ.
01:48
He called up the local newspaper,
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ื”ื•ื ื”ืชืงืฉืจ ืœืขื™ืชื•ืŸ ื”ืžืงื•ืžื™,
01:50
he got the interest of an investigative journalist,
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ืขื•ืจืจ ืืช ืกืงืจื ื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ืขื™ืชื•ื ืื™ ื—ื•ืงืจ,
01:53
and that journalist actually found the real rapist,
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ื•ื”ืขื™ืชื•ื ืื™ ื”ื–ื” ื’ื™ืœื” ืืช ื”ืื ืก ื”ืืžื™ืชื™,
01:58
a man who ultimately confessed to this rape,
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ืื“ื ืฉื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื•ื“ื” ื‘ืื•ื ืก ื”ื–ื”,
02:01
a man who was thought to have committed 50 rapes
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ืื“ื ืฉื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉื‘ื™ืฆืข 50 ืžืงืจื™ ืื•ื ืก
02:05
in that area,
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ื‘ืื™ื–ื•ืจ ื”ื–ื”,
02:06
and when this information was given to the judge,
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ื•ื›ืฉื”ืžื™ื“ืข ื”ื•ืขื‘ืจ ืœืฉื•ืคื˜,
02:09
the judge set Titus free.
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ื”ืฉื•ืคื˜ ืฉื—ืจืจ ืืช ื˜ื™ื˜ื•ืก.
02:12
And really, that's where this case should have ended.
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ื•ื‘ืืžืช, ื›ืืŸ ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืฆืจื™ืš ื”ื™ื” ืœื”ืกืชื™ื™ื.
02:16
It should have been over.
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ื”ื•ื ืฆืจื™ืš ื”ื™ื” ืœื”ืกืชื™ื™ื.
02:17
Titus should have thought of this as a horrible year,
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ื˜ื™ื˜ื•ืก ืฆืจื™ืš ื”ื™ื” ืœืจืื•ืช ื‘ื›ืš ืฉื ื” ืื™ื•ืžื”,
02:20
a year of accusation and trial, but over.
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ืฉื ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืืฉืžื” ื•ืžืฉืคื˜, ืื‘ืœ ืฉื ื” ืฉื—ืœืคื”.
02:24
It didn't end that way.
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ื–ื” ืœื ื ื’ืžืจ ื›ืš.
02:26
Titus was so bitter.
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ื˜ื™ื˜ื•ืก ื”ื™ื” ื›ื” ืžืจื™ืจ.
02:28
He'd lost his job. He couldn't get it back.
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ื”ื•ื ืื™ื‘ื“ ืืช ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื•. ื”ื•ื ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ื”ื™ื” ืœืงื‘ืœ ืื•ืชื” ื—ื–ืจื”.
02:31
He lost his fiancรฉe.
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ื”ื•ื ืื™ื‘ื“ ืืช ืืจื•ืกืชื•.
02:33
She couldn't put up with his persistent anger.
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ื”ื™ื ืœื ื™ื›ืœื” ืœืขืžื•ื“ ื‘ื›ืขืก ื”ืชืžื™ื“ื™ ืฉืœื•.
02:36
He lost his entire savings,
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ื”ื•ื ืื™ื‘ื“ ืืช ื›ืœ ื—ืกื›ื•ื ื•ืชื™ื•,
02:38
and so he decided to file a lawsuit
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ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ืœื”ื’ื™ืฉ ืชื‘ื™ืขื”
02:41
against the police and others whom he felt
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ื ื’ื“ ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ื•ืื—ืจื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื• ืื—ืจืื™ื,
02:43
were responsible for his suffering.
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ืœื“ืขืชื•, ืœืกื‘ืœ ืฉืœื•.
02:45
And that's when I really started working on this case,
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ื•ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื”ืฉืœื‘ ื‘ื• ื”ืชื—ืœืชื™ ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ ืขืœ ื”ืžืงืจื”,
02:50
trying to figure out
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ื‘ื ื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ
02:52
how did that victim go from
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ืื™ืš ื”ืงื•ืจื‘ืŸ ืขื‘ืจื”
02:54
"That one's the closest"
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ืž"ื”ื•ื ื”ื›ื™ ื“ื•ืžื”."
02:56
to "I'm absolutely positive that's the guy."
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ืœ"ืื ื™ ื‘ื˜ื•ื—ื” ืœื’ืžืจื™ ืฉื–ื” ื”ืื“ื."
03:00
Well, Titus was consumed with his civil case.
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ื˜ื™ื˜ื•ืก ืฉืงืข ื‘ืชื‘ื™ืขื” ื”ืื–ืจื—ื™ืช ืฉืœื•.
03:04
He spent every waking moment thinking about it,
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ื”ื•ื ื—ืฉื‘ ืขืœื™ื” ื‘ื›ืœ ืจื’ืข ื‘ื™ื•ื,
03:07
and just days before he was to have his day in court,
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ื•ื™ืžื™ื ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื”ื’ื™ืข ืชื•ืจื• ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžืฉืคื˜,
03:11
he woke up in the morning,
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ื”ื•ื ื”ืชืขื•ืจืจ ื‘ื‘ื•ืงืจ,
03:13
doubled over in pain,
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ืžืงื•ืคืœ ืžื›ืื‘ื™ื,
03:15
and died of a stress-related heart attack.
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ื•ืžืช ืžื”ืชืงืฃ ืœื‘ ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื”ืœื—ืฅ.
03:18
He was 35 years old.
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ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืŸ 35.
03:21
So I was asked to work on Titus' case
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ืื– ืื ื™ ื ืชื‘ืงืฉืชื™ ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ ืขืœ ื”ืžืงืจื” ืฉืœ ื˜ื™ื˜ื•ืก
03:26
because I'm a psychological scientist.
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ื›ื™ ืื ื™ ืคืกื™ื›ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช ืžื“ืขื ื™ืช.
03:28
I study memory. I've studied memory for decades.
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ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืงืจืช ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ. ืขืฉื™ืชื™ ื–ืืช ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืฉื ื™ื.
03:32
And if I meet somebody on an airplane --
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ื•ืื ืื ื™ ืคื•ื’ืฉืช ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ื‘ืžื˜ื•ืก --
03:35
this happened on the way over to Scotland --
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ื–ื” ืงืจื” ื‘ื“ืจืš ืžืขืœ ืกืงื•ื˜ืœื ื“ --
03:37
if I meet somebody on an airplane,
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ืื ืื ื™ ืคื•ื’ืฉืช ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ื‘ืžื˜ื•ืก,
03:39
and we ask each other, "What do you do? What do you do?"
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ืฉื•ืืœื™ื ื–ื” ืืช ื–ื• "ืžื” ืืช ืขื•ืฉื”? ืžื” ืืชื” ืขื•ืฉื”?"
03:42
and I say "I study memory,"
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ื•ืื ื™ ืื•ืžืจืช "ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืงืจืช ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ,"
03:44
they usually want to tell me how they have trouble remembering names,
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ื”ื ื‘ื“"ื› ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœืกืคืจ ืœื™ ืขืœ ื”ืงื•ืฉื™ ืฉืœื”ื ืœื–ื›ื•ืจ ืฉืžื•ืช,
03:47
or they've got a relative who's got Alzheimer's
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ืื• ืขืœ ืงืจื•ื‘ ืžืฉืคื—ื” ืฉื—ืœื” ื‘ืืœืฆื”ื™ื™ืžืจ
03:50
or some kind of memory problem,
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ืื• ืื™ื–ื• ืฉื”ื™ื ื‘ืขื™ื” ื‘ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ,
03:52
but I have to tell them
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื™ ื—ื™ื™ื‘ืช ืœื•ืžืจ ืœื”ื
03:54
I don't study when people forget.
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ืฉืื ื™ ืœื ื—ื•ืงืจืช ืžืชื™ ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉื•ื›ื—ื™ื.
03:58
I study the opposite: when they remember,
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ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืงืจืช ืืช ื”ื”ื™ืคืš: ืžืชื™ ืื ืฉื™ื ื–ื•ื›ืจื™ื,
04:01
when they remember things that didn't happen
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ืžืชื™ ื”ื ื–ื•ื›ืจื™ื ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืœื ื”ืชืจื—ืฉื•
04:03
or remember things that were different
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ืื• ื–ื•ื›ืจื™ื ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืฉื•ื ื™ื
04:05
from the way they really were.
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ืžื›ืคื™ ืฉื”ื™ื• ื‘ืžืฆื™ืื•ืช.
04:07
I study false memories.
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ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืงืจืช ื–ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืช ืฉื•ื•ื.
04:12
Unhappily, Steve Titus is not the only person
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ืœืฆืขืจื™, ืกื˜ื™ื‘ ื˜ื™ื˜ื•ืก ืื™ื ื• ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“
04:16
to be convicted based on somebody's false memory.
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ืฉื”ื•ืจืฉืข ืขืœ ืกืžืš ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืฉื•ื•ื ืฉืœ ืžื™ืฉื”ื•.
04:21
In one project in the United States,
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ื‘ืคืจื•ื™ื™ืงื˜ ืื—ื“ ื‘ืืจื”"ื‘,
04:24
information has been gathered
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ื ืืกืฃ ืžื™ื“ืข
04:26
on 300 innocent people,
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ืขืœ 300 ืื ืฉื™ื ื—ืคื™ื ืžืคืฉืข,
04:30
300 defendants who were convicted of crimes they didn't do.
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300 ื ืืฉืžื™ื ืฉื”ื•ืจืฉืขื• ื‘ืคืฉืขื™ื ืฉื”ื ืœื ื‘ื™ืฆืขื•.
04:34
They spent 10, 20, 30 years in prison for these crimes,
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ื”ื ื™ืฉื‘ื• 10, 20, 30 ืฉื ื” ื‘ื›ืœื ืขืœ ื”ืคืฉืขื™ื ื”ืœืœื•,
04:39
and now DNA testing has proven
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ื•ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ื‘ื“ื™ืงื•ืช ื“ื "ื ื”ื•ื›ื™ื—ื•
04:42
that they are actually innocent.
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ืฉื”ื ื‘ืขืฆื ื–ื›ืื™ื.
04:45
And when those cases have been analyzed,
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ื•ื›ืฉื ื™ืชื—ื• ืืช ื”ืžืงืจื™ื ื”ืœืœื•,
04:47
three quarters of them
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3/4 ืžื”ื
04:49
are due to faulty memory, faulty eyewitness memory.
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ื ื’ืจืžื• ื‘ืฉืœ ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืฉื’ื•ื™, ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ื‘ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืขื“ื™ื.
04:55
Well, why?
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ืœืžื”?
04:56
Like the jurors who convicted those innocent people
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ื›ืžื• ื”ืžื•ืฉื‘ืขื™ื ืฉื”ืจืฉื™ืขื• ืืช ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ื–ื›ืื™ื ื”ืืœื”,
05:00
and the jurors who convicted Titus,
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ื•ื”ืžื•ืฉื‘ืขื™ื ืฉื”ืจืฉื™ืขื• ืืช ื˜ื™ื˜ื•ืก,
05:02
many people believe that memory
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ืื ืฉื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ืžืืžื™ื ื™ื ืฉื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ
05:04
works like a recording device.
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ืขื•ื‘ื“ ื›ืžื• ืžืชืงืŸ ื”ืงืœื˜ื”.
05:06
You just record the information,
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ืืชื ืžืงืœื™ื˜ื™ื ืืช ื”ืžื™ื“ืข,
05:08
then you call it up and play it back
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ื•ืื– ืืชื ืžืื—ื–ืจื™ื ืื•ืชื• ื•ืžืฉืžื™ืขื™ื ืื•ืชื• ืฉื•ื‘
05:11
when you want to answer questions or identify images.
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ื›ืฉืืชื ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœืขื ื•ืช ืขืœ ืฉืืœื•ืช ืื• ืœื–ื”ื•ืช ื“ื™ืžื•ื™ื™ื.
05:14
But decades of work in psychology
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ืื‘ืœ ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืฉื ื•ืช ืžื—ืงืจ ื‘ืคืกื™ื›ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”
05:16
has shown that this just isn't true.
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ืžืจืื•ืช ืฉื–ื” ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืื™ื ื• ื ื›ื•ืŸ.
05:20
Our memories are constructive.
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ื”ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื• ื ื‘ื ื™ื.
05:22
They're reconstructive.
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ื”ื ืžืฉืชื—ื–ืจื™ื.
05:24
Memory works a little bit more like a Wikipedia page:
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ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืคื•ืขืœ ืงืฆืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ื›ืžื• ื“ืฃ ื‘ื•ื•ื™ืงื™ืคื“ื™ื”:
05:27
You can go in there and change it, but so can other people.
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ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ื›ื ืก ื•ืœืฉื ื•ืช ืื•ืชื•, ืื‘ืœ ื›ืš ื’ื ืื—ืจื™ื.
05:32
I first started studying this constructive memory process
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ื”ืชื—ืœืชื™ ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ืืช ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื‘ื ื™ื™ืช ื”ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ
05:37
in the 1970s.
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ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-70.
05:40
I did my experiments that involved showing people
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ืขืจื›ืชื™ ื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ื”ื ื”ืจืื™ืชื™ ืœืื ืฉื™ื
05:44
simulated crimes and accidents
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ืกื™ืžื•ืœืฆื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืคืฉืขื™ื ื•ืชืื•ื ื•ืช
05:47
and asking them questions about what they remember.
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ื•ืฉืืœืชื™ ืื•ืชื ืฉืืœื•ืช ืขืœ ืžื” ื”ื ื–ื•ื›ืจื™ื.
05:50
In one study, we showed people a simulated accident
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ื‘ืžื—ืงืจ ืื—ื“ ื”ืจืื™ื ื• ืœืื ืฉื™ื ืชืื•ื ื” ืžื‘ื•ื™ื™ืžืช
05:54
and we asked people,
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ื•ืฉืืœื ื• ืื•ืชื
05:56
how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?
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ืžื” ื”ื™ืชื” ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ื”ื ืกื™ืขื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื™ื•ืช ื›ืฉื”ืŸ ืคื’ืขื• ื–ื• ื‘ื–ื•?
05:58
And we asked other people,
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ื•ืฉืืœื ื• ืื—ืจื™ื,
06:00
how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?
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ืžื” ื”ื™ืชื” ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ื”ื ืกื™ืขื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื™ื•ืช ื›ืฉื”ืŸ ื”ืชื ื’ืฉื• ื–ื• ื‘ื–ื•?
06:04
And if we asked the leading "smashed" question,
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ื•ืื ืืžืจื ื• ืืช ืžื™ืœืช ื”ื”ื ื—ื™ื™ื” "ื”ืชื ื’ืฉื•",
06:07
the witnesses told us the cars were going faster,
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ื”ืขื“ื™ื ืืžืจื• ืœื ื• ืฉื”ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ื”ื™ืชื” ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ,
06:10
and moreover, that leading "smashed" question
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ื™ืชืจื” ืžื›ืš, ื›ืฉื”ื ื—ื™ื ื• ืื•ืชื ื‘"ื”ืชื ื’ืฉื•"
06:14
caused people to be more likely to tell us
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ืื ืฉื™ื ื ื˜ื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœื•ืžืจ ืœื ื•
06:17
that they saw broken glass in the accident scene
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ืฉื”ื ืจืื• ื–ื›ื•ื›ื™ื•ืช ืฉื‘ื•ืจื•ืช ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื”ืชืื•ื ื”,
06:20
when there wasn't any broken glass at all.
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ืฉืœื ื”ื™ื• ืฉื ื›ืœืœ.
06:24
In another study, we showed a simulated accident
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ื‘ืžื—ืงืจ ืื—ืจ ื”ืจืื™ื ื• ืชืื•ื ื” ืžื‘ื•ื™ืžืช
06:27
where a car went through an intersection with a stop sign,
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ื‘ื” ืžื›ื•ื ื™ืช ืขื‘ืจื” ื‘ืฆื•ืžืช ืขื ืชืžืจื•ืจ ืขืฆื•ืจ,
06:30
and if we asked a question that insinuated it was a yield sign,
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ื•ืื ืจืžื–ื ื• ืฉื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืชืžืจื•ืจ "ืชืŸ ื–ื›ื•ืช ืงื“ื™ืžื”",
06:35
many witnesses told us they remember seeing a yield sign
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ืขื“ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ืืžืจื• ืœื ื• ืฉื”ื ื–ื•ื›ืจื™ื ืชืžืจื•ืจ ื›ื–ื”
06:39
at the intersection, not a stop sign.
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ื‘ืฆื•ืžืช, ื•ืœื ืชืžืจื•ืจ ืขืฆื•ืจ.
06:43
And you might be thinking, well, you know,
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ื•ืื•ืœื™ ืืชื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื, ื˜ื•ื‘,
06:45
these are filmed events,
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ืืœื” ืื™ืจื•ืขื™ื ืžืฆื•ืœืžื™ื,
06:46
they are not particularly stressful.
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ื”ื ืœื ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ืžืœื—ื™ืฆื™ื.
06:48
Would the same kind of mistakes be made
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ื”ืื ืื•ืชืŸ ืฉื’ื™ืื•ืช ืชืชืจื—ืฉื ื”
06:51
with a really stressful event?
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ื‘ืžืฆื‘ ืžืœื—ื™ืฅ ืืžื™ืชื™?
06:54
In a study we published just a few months ago,
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ืžืžื—ืงืจ ืฉืคืจืกืžื ื• ืจืง ืœืคื ื™ ื›ืžื” ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื,
06:57
we have an answer to this question,
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ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืœืฉืืœื” ื”ื–ื•,
06:59
because what was unusual about this study
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ื›ื™ ืžื” ืฉื”ื™ื” ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ื‘ืžื—ืงืจ ื”ื–ื”
07:02
is we arranged for people to have a very stressful experience.
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ื”ื•ื ืฉืกื™ื“ืจื ื• ืฉืื ืฉื™ื ื™ืขื‘ืจื• ื—ื•ื•ื™ื” ืžืื•ื“ ืžืœื—ื™ืฆื”.
07:07
The subjects in this study
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ื”ืžืฉืชืชืคื™ื ื‘ืžื—ืงืจ ื”ื–ื”
07:10
were members of the U.S. military
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ื”ื™ื• ื—ื™ื™ืœื™ื ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ื™ื
07:12
who were undergoing a harrowing training exercise
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ืฉืขื‘ืจื• ืื™ืžื•ื ื™ื ืงืฉื™ื
07:17
to teach them what it's going to be like for them
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ืฉืžืœืžื“ื™ื ืื•ืชื ืžื” ื™ืงืจื”
07:19
if they are ever captured as prisoners of war.
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ืื ื”ื ื™ื™ืคืœื• ื‘ืฉื‘ื™.
07:23
And as part of this training exercise,
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ื•ื›ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืื™ืžื•ื ื™ื ื”ืœืœื•,
07:26
these soldiers are interrogated in an aggressive,
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ื”ื—ื™ื™ืœื™ื ื ื—ืงืจื™ื ื‘ืชื•ืงืคื ื•ืช,
07:29
hostile, physically abusive fashion for 30 minutes
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ื‘ืขื•ื™ื ื•ืช ื•ื‘ื”ืชืขืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืžืฉืš 30 ื“ืงื•ืช,
07:34
and later on they have to try to identify
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ื•ืื—"ื› ื”ื ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื ืกื•ืช ื•ืœื–ื”ื•ืช
07:37
the person who conducted that interrogation.
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ืืช ื”ืื“ื ืฉืขืจืš ืืช ื”ื—ืงื™ืจื” ื”ื–ื•.
07:40
And when we feed them suggestive information
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ื•ื›ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžื–ื™ื ื™ื ืื•ืชื ื‘ืžื™ื“ืข ืกื•ื’ืกื˜ื™ื‘ื™
07:44
that insinuates it's a different person,
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ืฉืจื•ืžื– ืขืœ ื›ืš ืฉื–ื” ืื“ื ืื—ืจ,
07:47
many of them misidentify their interrogator,
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ืจื‘ื™ื ืžื”ื ืฉื•ื’ื™ื ื‘ื–ื™ื”ื•ื™ ื”ื—ื•ืงืจ,
07:51
often identifying someone who doesn't even remotely
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ื•ืœืขื™ืชื™ื ืงืจื•ื‘ื•ืช ืžื–ื”ื™ื ืื“ื ืฉื›ืœืœ ืœื ื“ื•ืžื”
07:55
resemble the real interrogator.
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ืœื—ื•ืงืจ ื”ืืžื™ืชื™.
07:58
And so what these studies are showing
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ื•ืžื” ืฉื”ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ื”ืืœื” ืžืจืื™ื
08:00
is that when you feed people misinformation
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ื”ื•ื ืฉื›ืฉืžื–ื™ื ื™ื ืื ืฉื™ื ื‘ืžื™ื“ืข ืฉื’ื•ื™
08:04
about some experience that they may have had,
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ืขืœ ื—ื•ื•ื™ื” ืฉื”ื ืื•ืœื™ ืขื‘ืจื•,
08:07
you can distort or contaminate or change their memory.
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ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืขื•ื•ืช ืื• ืœื–ื”ื ืื• ืœืฉื ื•ืช ืืช ื”ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืฉืœื”ื.
08:13
Well out there in the real world,
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ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื”ืืžื™ืชื™,
08:15
misinformation is everywhere.
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ืžื™ื“ืข ืฉื’ื•ื™ ื ืžืฆื ื‘ื›ืœ ืžืงื•ื.
08:18
We get misinformation
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืงื‘ืœื™ื ืžื™ื“ืข ืฉื’ื•ื™
08:19
not only if we're questioned in a leading way,
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ืœื ืจืง ืื ืžืชื—ืงืจื™ื ืื•ืชื ื• ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžื•ื ื—ื”,
08:22
but if we talk to other witnesses
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ืืœื ื’ื ืื ืื ื• ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืขื ืขื“ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื
08:25
who might consciously or inadvertently feed us
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ืฉืขืœื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื–ื™ืŸ ืื•ืชื ื• ื‘ืžื•ื“ืข ืื• ืœื
08:28
some erroneous information,
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ื‘ืžื™ื“ืข ืžื•ื˜ืขื”,
08:30
or if we see media coverage about some event we might have experienced,
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ืื• ืื ืื ื—ื ื• ื ื—ืฉืคื™ื ืœื›ื™ืกื•ื™ ืชืงืฉื•ืจืชื™ ืขืœ ืืจื•ืข ืฉืื•ืœื™ ืขื‘ืจื ื•,
08:35
all of these provide the opportunity
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ื›ืœ ืืœื” ื”ืŸ ื”ื–ื“ืžื ื•ื™ื•ืช
08:37
for this kind of contamination of our memory.
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ืœื–ื”ื ืืช ื”ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืฉืœื ื• ื‘ื“ืจืš ื”ื–ื•.
08:42
In the 1990s, we began to see
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ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-90 ื”ืชื—ืœื ื• ืœืจืื•ืช
08:46
an even more extreme kind of memory problem.
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ื‘ืขื™ื™ืช ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืืคื™ืœื• ืงื™ืฆื•ื ื™ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ.
08:50
Some patients were going into therapy with one problem --
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ื›ืžื” ืคืฆื™ื™ื ื˜ื™ื ื ื›ื ืกื• ืœื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ืขื ื‘ืขื™ื” ืื—ืช -
08:53
maybe they had depression, an eating disorder --
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ืœืžืฉืœ ื“ื™ื›ืื•ืŸ ืื• ื”ืคืจืขืช ืื›ื™ืœื” -
08:56
and they were coming out of therapy
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ื•ื™ืฆืื• ืžื”ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ
08:59
with a different problem.
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ืขื ื‘ืขื™ื” ืื—ืจืช.
09:02
Extreme memories for horrific brutalizations,
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ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืช ืงื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืชืขืœืœื•ื™ื•ืช ื ื•ืจืื™ื•ืช,
09:05
sometimes in satanic rituals,
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ืœืคืขืžื™ื ื‘ื˜ืงืกื™ื ืฉื˜ื ื™ื™ื,
09:07
sometimes involving really bizarre and unusual elements.
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ืœืคืขืžื™ื ืขื ืžืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ื ืžืžืฉ ืžื•ื–ืจื™ื ื•ื—ืจื™ื’ื™ื.
09:12
One woman came out of psychotherapy
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ืืฉื” ืื—ืช ื™ืฆืื” ืžื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ืคืกื™ื›ื•ืชืจืคื™
09:15
believing that she'd endured years
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ื‘ืืžื•ื ื” ืฉื”ื™ื ืกื‘ืœื” ืฉื ื™ื
09:17
of ritualistic abuse, where she was forced into a pregnancy
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ืžื”ืชืขืœืœื•ืช ื˜ืงืกื™ืช, ื‘ื” ื”ื™ื ื ืื ืกื” ื•ื ื›ื ืกื” ืœื”ืจื™ื•ืŸ,
09:21
and that the baby was cut from her belly.
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ื•ื”ืชื™ื ื•ืง ื ืขืงืจ ืžื‘ื˜ื ื”.
09:24
But there were no physical scars
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ืื‘ืœ ืœื ื”ื™ื• ืฆืœืงื•ืช ืคื™ื–ื™ื•ืช
09:26
or any kind of physical evidence
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ืื• ื›ืœ ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ืขื“ื•ืช ืคื™ื–ื™ืช
09:28
that could have supported her story.
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ืฉื™ืชืžื›ื• ื‘ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืฉืœื”.
09:31
And when I began looking into these cases,
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ื•ื›ืฉื”ืชื—ืœืชื™ ืœื‘ื—ื•ืŸ ืืช ื”ืžืงืจื™ื ื”ืืœื”,
09:34
I was wondering,
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ืชื”ื™ืชื™,
09:35
where do these bizarre memories come from?
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ืžืื™ืŸ ืžื’ื™ืขื™ื ื”ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืžื•ื–ืจื™ื ื”ืœืœื•?
09:38
And what I found is that most of these situations
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ื•ืžื” ืฉื’ื™ืœื™ืชื™ ื”ื•ื ืฉืจื•ื‘ ื”ืžืฆื‘ื™ื ื”ืœืœื•
09:42
involved some particular form of psychotherapy.
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ื›ืœืœื• ืกื•ื’ ืžืกื•ื™ื ืžืื“ ืฉืœ ืคืกื™ื›ื•ืชืจืคื™ื”.
09:47
And so I asked,
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ืื– ืฉืืœืชื™,
09:49
were some of the things going on in this psychotherapy --
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ื”ืื ื—ืœืง ืžื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉื”ืชืจื—ืฉื• ื‘ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ื”ื–ื” -
09:52
like the imagination exercises
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ื›ืžื• ืชืจื’ื™ืœื™ ื“ืžื™ื•ืŸ
09:55
or dream interpretation,
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ืื• ืคื™ืจื•ืฉ ื—ืœื•ืžื•ืช,
09:57
or in some cases hypnosis,
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ืื• ื‘ืžืงืจื™ื ืžืกื•ื™ืžื™ื ื”ื™ืคื ื•ื–ื”,
10:00
or in some cases exposure to false information --
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ืื• ื‘ืžืงืจื™ื ืžืกื•ื™ืžื™ื ื—ืฉื™ืคื” ืœืžื™ื“ืข ืฉื’ื•ื™ -
10:03
were these leading these patients
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ื”ืื ื”ื ื’ืจืžื• ืœืžื˜ื•ืคืœื™ื ื”ืœืœื•
10:06
to develop these very bizarre,
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ืœืคืชื— ืืช ื”ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื”ื–ื•ื™ื™ื
10:09
unlikely memories?
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ื•ื”ืœื ืกื‘ื™ืจื™ื ื”ืœืœื•?
10:12
And I designed some experiments
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ื•ืชื™ื›ื ื ืชื™ ื›ืžื” ื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื
10:14
to try to study the processes that were being used
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ืœื ืกื•ืช ื•ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ืืช ื”ืชื”ืœื™ื›ื™ื ืฉืฉื™ืžืฉื•
10:19
in this psychotherapy so I could study
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ื‘ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ื”ื–ื”, ื›ืš ืฉืื•ื›ืœ ืœื‘ื—ื•ืŸ
10:22
the development of these very rich false memories.
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ืืช ื”ื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื–ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืช ืžื–ื•ื™ืคื™ื ื›ื” ืžืคื•ืจื˜ื™ื.
10:26
In one of the first studies we did,
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ื‘ืื—ื“ ื”ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉืขืจื›ื ื•,
10:28
we used suggestion,
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ื”ืฉืชืžืฉื ื• ื‘ืกื•ื’ืกื˜ื™ื”,
10:30
a method inspired by the psychotherapy we saw in these cases,
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ื‘ื”ืฉืจืืช ื”ืคืกื™ื›ื•ืชืจืคื™ื” ืฉืจืื™ื ื• ื‘ืžืงืจื™ื ื”ืœืœื•,
10:34
we used this kind of suggestion
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ื”ืฉืชืžืฉื ื• ื‘ืกื•ื’ืกื˜ื™ื” ื”ื–ื•,
10:36
and planted a false memory
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ื•ืฉืชืœื ื• ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืฉื’ื•ื™
10:38
that when you were a kid, five or six years old,
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ืฉื›ืฉื”ื™ื™ืช ื™ืœื“ ื‘ืŸ 5-6,
10:41
you were lost in a shopping mall.
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ื”ืœื›ืช ืœืื™ื‘ื•ื“ ื‘ืงื ื™ื•ืŸ.
10:44
You were frightened. You were crying.
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ืคื—ื“ืช. ื‘ื›ื™ืช.
10:46
You were ultimately rescued by an elderly person
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ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืฆื™ืœ ืื•ืชืš ืื“ื ื–ืงืŸ
10:49
and reunited with the family.
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ื•ื”ื—ื–ื™ืจ ืื•ืชืš ืœืžืฉืคื—ื”.
10:51
And we succeeded in planting this memory
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ื•ื”ืฆืœื—ื ื• ืœืฉืชื•ืœ ืืช ื”ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ื”ื–ื”
10:53
in the minds of about a quarter of our subjects.
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ื‘ืžื•ื—ื ืฉืœ ื›ืจื‘ืข ืžื”ื ื‘ื“ืงื™ื.
10:57
And you might be thinking, well,
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ื•ืื•ืœื™ ืืชื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื, ื˜ื•ื‘,
10:59
that's not particularly stressful.
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ื–ื” ืœื ืžืžืฉ ืžืœื—ื™ืฅ.
11:02
But we and other investigators have planted
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื—ื ื• ื•ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ืฉืชืœื ื•
11:05
rich false memories of things that were
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ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืช ืžื–ื•ื™ืคื™ื ื•ืžืคื•ืจื˜ื™ื ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื•
11:08
much more unusual and much more stressful.
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ื—ืจื™ื’ื™ื ื•ืžืœื—ื™ืฆื™ื.
11:11
So in a study done in Tennessee,
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ืื– ื‘ืžื—ืงืจ ืฉื ืขืจืš ื‘ื˜ื ืกื™,
11:13
researchers planted the false memory
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ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ื”ืฉืชื™ืœื• ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืžื–ื•ื™ืฃ
11:16
that when you were a kid, you nearly drowned
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ืฉื›ืฉื”ื™ื™ืช ื™ืœื“, ื›ืžืขื˜ ื˜ื‘ืขืช
11:18
and had to be rescued by a life guard.
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ื•ืžืฆื™ืœ ื”ืฆื™ืœ ืื•ืชืš.
11:21
And in a study done in Canada,
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ื•ื‘ืžื—ืงืจ ืฉื ืขืจืš ื‘ืงื ื“ื”,
11:23
researchers planted the false memory
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ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ื”ืฉืชื™ืœื• ืืช ื”ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ื”ืžื–ื•ื™ืฃ
11:25
that when you were a kid,
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ืฉื›ืฉื”ื™ื™ืช ื™ืœื“,
11:27
something as awful as being attacked by a vicious animal
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ืงืจื” ืœืš ืžืฉื”ื• ื ื•ืจื, ื›ืžื•
11:30
happened to you,
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ื”ืชืงืคื” ืฉืœ ื‘ืข"ื— ืื›ื–ืจื™,
11:32
succeeding with about half of their subjects.
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ื•ื”ืฆืœื™ื—ื• ืขื ื‘ืขืจืš ืžื—ืฆื™ืช ืžื”ื ื‘ื“ืงื™ื ืฉืœื”ื.
11:35
And in a study done in Italy,
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ื•ื‘ืžื—ืงืจ ืฉื ืขืฉื” ื‘ืื™ื˜ืœื™ื”,
11:38
researchers planted the false memory,
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ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ืฉืชืœื• ืืช ื”ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ื”ืžื–ื•ื™ืฃ,
11:40
when you were a kid, you witnessed demonic possession.
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ืฉื›ืฉื”ื™ื™ืช ื™ืœื“, ื”ื™ื™ืช ืขื“ ืœื“ื™ื‘ื•ืง ืฉื˜ื ื™.
11:45
I do want to add that it might seem
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ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ืฉื–ื” ืื•ืœื™ ื ืจืื”
11:48
like we are traumatizing these experimental subjects
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ื›ืื™ืœื• ืื ื—ื ื• ื’ื•ืจืžื™ื ืœื˜ืจืื•ืžื” ืœื ื‘ื“ืงื™ื ื”ืœืœื•,
11:51
in the name of science,
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ื‘ืฉื ื”ืžื“ืข,
11:53
but our studies have gone through thorough evaluation
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ืฉืœื ื• ืขื‘ืจื• ื”ืขืจื›ื” ื™ืกื•ื“ื™ืช
11:58
by research ethics boards
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ืข"ื™ ื•ืขื“ื•ืช ืžื—ืงืจ ืืชื™ื•ืช
12:00
that have made the decision
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ืฉืงื™ื‘ืœื• ืืช ื”ื”ื—ืœื˜ื”
12:02
that the temporary discomfort that some
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ืฉืื™ ื”ื ื•ื—ื•ืช ื”ื–ืžื ื™ืช ืฉื—ืœืง
12:05
of these subjects might experience in these studies
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ืžื”ื ื‘ื“ืงื™ื ืขืœื•ืœื™ื ืœื—ื•ืฉ ื‘ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ื”ืœืœื•,
12:08
is outweighed by the importance of this problem
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ื”ื™ื ืคื—ื•ืชื” ืžื—ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืช ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ื–ื•
12:12
for understanding memory processes
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ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ื ืช ืชื”ืœื™ื›ื™ ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ
12:15
and the abuse of memory that is going on
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ื•ื”ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ืœืจืขื” ื‘ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ, ืฉืžืชืจื—ืฉ
12:18
in some places in the world.
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ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ืžืกื•ื™ืžื™ื ื‘ืขื•ืœื.
12:22
Well, to my surprise,
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืœื”ืคืชืขืชื™,
12:25
when I published this work and began to speak out
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ื›ืฉืคื™ืจืกืžืชื™ ืืช ื”ืžื—ืงืจ ื”ื–ื” ื•ื”ืชื—ืœืชื™ ืœื”ื˜ื™ืฃ
12:28
against this particular brand of psychotherapy,
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ื ื’ื“ ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœื™ื ืžื”ืกื•ื’ ื”ืกืคืฆื™ืคื™ ื”ื–ื”,
12:32
it created some pretty bad problems for me:
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ื–ื” ื™ืฆืจ ืขื‘ื•ืจื™ ื›ืžื” ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ื“ื™ ืงืฉื•ืช:
12:36
hostilities, primarily from the repressed memory therapists,
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ืขื•ื™ื ื•ืช, ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืžืžื˜ืคืœื™ื ื‘ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืช ืžื•ื“ื—ืงื™ื,
12:41
who felt under attack,
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ืฉื—ืฉื• ืฉื”ื ืชื—ืช ื”ืชืงืคื”,
12:43
and by the patients whom they had influenced.
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ื•ืžืฆื“ ื”ืคืฆื™ื™ื ื˜ื™ื ืขืœื™ื”ื ื”ื ื”ืฉืคื™ืขื•.
12:46
I had sometimes armed guards at speeches
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ืœืคืขืžื™ื ื”ื’ื™ืขื• ืื™ืชื™ ืฉื•ืžืจื™ื ื—ืžื•ืฉื™ื ืœื”ืจืฆืื•ืช
12:49
that I was invited to give,
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ืฉื”ื•ื–ืžื ืชื™ ืœืชืช,
12:51
people trying to drum up letter-writing campaigns to get me fired.
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ืื ืฉื™ื ื ื™ืกื• ืœืืจื’ืŸ ืงืžืคื™ื™ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื›ืชื™ื‘ืช ืžื›ืชื‘ื™ื, ืฉื ื•ืขื“ื• ืœืคื˜ืจ ืื•ืชื™.
12:55
But probably the worst
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื›ื™ ื’ืจื•ืข
12:57
was I suspected that a woman
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ื”ื™ื” ืฉื—ืฉื“ืชื™ ืฉืืฉื”,
13:00
was innocent of abuse
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ืฉื ืชื‘ืขื” ืข"ื™ ื‘ืชื” ื”ื‘ื•ื’ืจืช,
13:02
that was being claimed by her grown daughter.
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ื”ื™ื ื‘ืขืฆื ื—ืคื” ืžืคืฉืข ื”ื”ืชืขืœืœื•ืช.
13:05
She accused her mother of sexual abuse
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ื”ื‘ืช ื”ืืฉื™ืžื” ืืช ืืžื” ื‘ื”ืชืขืœืœื•ืช ืžื™ื ื™ืช
13:09
based on a repressed memory.
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ื‘ื”ืชื‘ืกืก ืขืœ ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืžื•ื“ื—ืง.
13:11
And this accusing daughter had actually allowed her story
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ื•ื”ื‘ืช ื”ืžืืฉื™ืžื” ื”ื–ื• ืืคืฉืจื” ืœืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืฉืœื”
13:13
to be filmed and presented in public places.
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ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ืกืจื˜ ื•ืžื•ืฆื’ ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ื™ื.
13:17
I was suspicious of this story,
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ืื ื™ ื—ืฉื“ืชื™ ื‘ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ื”ื–ื”,
13:19
and so I started to investigate,
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ืื– ื”ืชื—ืœืชื™ ืœื—ืงื•ืจ,
13:22
and eventually found information that convinced me
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ื•ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ ืžืฆืืชื™ ืžื™ื“ืข ืฉืฉื›ื ืข ืื•ืชื™
13:26
that this mother was innocent.
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ืฉื”ืืžื ื”ื™ืชื” ื—ืคื” ืžืืฉืžื”.
13:28
I published an exposรฉ on the case,
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ืคืจืกืžืชื™ ืืช ืžืžืฆืื™ ื‘ื™ื—ืก ืœืžืงืจื”,
13:31
and a little while later, the accusing daughter
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ื•ืžืขื˜ ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ, ื”ื‘ืช ื”ืžืืฉื™ืžื”
13:35
filed a lawsuit.
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ื”ื’ื™ืฉื” ืชื‘ื™ืขื” ืžืฉืคื˜ื™ืช.
13:36
Even though I'd never mentioned her name,
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉืžืขื•ืœื ืœื ื”ื–ื›ืจืชื™ ืืช ืฉืžื”,
13:39
she sued me for defamation and invasion of privacy.
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ื”ื™ื ืชื‘ืขื” ืื•ืชื™ ืขืœ ื“ื™ื‘ื” ื•ื—ื“ื™ืจื” ืœืคืจื˜ื™ื•ืช.
13:43
And I went through nearly five years
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ื•ืื ื™ ืขื‘ืจืชื™ ื›ืžืขื˜ 5 ืฉื ื™ื
13:46
of dealing with this messy, unpleasant litigation,
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ืฉืœ ื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ื•ืช ืขื ืžืฉืคื˜ ืœื ื ืขื™ื,
13:52
but finally, finally, it was over and I could really
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ืื‘ืœ ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ, ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ, ื”ื•ื ื ื’ืžืจ ื•ืื ื™ ื™ื›ื•ืœืชื™
13:56
get back to my work.
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ื‘ืืžืช ืœื—ื–ื•ืจ ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืฉืœื™.
13:58
In the process, however, I became part
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ื–ื”, ื”ืคื›ืชื™ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื—ืœืง
14:01
of a disturbing trend in America
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ืžืžื’ืžื” ืžื˜ืจื™ื“ื” ื‘ืืจื”"ื‘
14:04
where scientists are being sued
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ื‘ื” ืžื“ืขื ื™ื ื ืชื‘ืขื™ื
14:06
for simply speaking out on matters of great public controversy.
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ืขืœ ื›ืš ืฉื”ื ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื ื•ืฉืื™ื ื”ื ืžืฆืื™ื ื‘ืžื—ืœื•ืงืช ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื”.
14:10
When I got back to my work, I asked this question:
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ื›ืฉื—ื–ืจืชื™ ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื™, ืฉืืœืชื™ ืืช ื”ืฉืืœื” ื”ื‘ืื”:
14:14
if I plant a false memory in your mind,
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ืื ืืฉืชื•ืœ ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืžื–ื•ื™ืฃ ื‘ืžื•ื—ื›ื,
14:16
does it have repercussions?
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ื”ืื ืชื”ื™ื™ื ื” ืœื›ืš ื”ืฉืœื›ื•ืช?
14:18
Does it affect your later thoughts,
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ื”ื ื–ื” ื™ืฉืคื™ืข ืขืœ ืžื—ืฉื‘ื•ืชื™ื›ื ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ?
14:20
your later behaviors?
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ืขืœ ื”ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื›ื?
14:22
Our first study planted a false memory
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ื‘ืžื—ืงืจ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœื ื• ืฉืชืœื ื• ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืžื–ื•ื™ืฃ
14:24
that you got sick as a child eating certain foods:
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ืฉื›ื™ืœื“, ื—ืœื™ืช ืœืื—ืจ ืฉืื›ืœืช ืžืื›ืœื™ื ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžื™ื:
14:27
hard-boiled eggs, dill pickles, strawberry ice cream.
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ื‘ื™ืฆื™ื ืงืฉื•ืช, ืžืœืคืคื•ื ื™ื ื—ืžื•ืฆื™ื, ื’ืœื™ื“ืช ืชื•ืช.
14:30
And we found that once we planted this false memory,
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ื•ืžืฆืื ื• ืฉืžืจื’ืข ืฉื”ืฉืชืœื ื• ืืช ื”ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ื”ืžื–ื•ื™ืฃ ื”ื–ื”,
14:34
people didn't want to eat the foods as much
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ืื ืฉื™ื ืœื ื›"ื› ืจืฆื• ืœืื›ื•ืœ ืืช ื”ืžืื›ืœื™ื ื”ืœืœื•
14:36
at an outdoor picnic.
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ื‘ืคื™ืงื ื™ืงื™ื ื‘ื˜ื‘ืข.
14:38
The false memories aren't necessarily bad or unpleasant.
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ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืฉื•ื•ื ื”ืœืœื• ืื™ื ื ื‘ื”ื›ืจื— ืจืขื™ื ืื• ื‘ืœืชื™ ื ืขื™ืžื™ื.
14:42
If we planted a warm, fuzzy memory
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ืื ืฉืชืœื ื• ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ื—ื ื•ื ืขื™ื
14:44
involving a healthy food like asparagus,
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ื”ืžืขื•ืจื‘ ื‘ืื•ื›ืœ ื‘ืจื™ื ื›ืžื• ืืกืคืจื’ื•ืก,
14:48
we could get people to want to eat asparagus more.
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœืื ืฉื™ื ืœืจืฆื•ืช ืœืื›ื•ืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืืกืคืจื’ื•ืก.
14:51
And so what these studies are showing
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ื•ืžื” ืฉื”ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ืžืจืื™ื
14:53
is that you can plant false memories
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ื”ื•ื ืฉื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื”ืฉืชื™ืœ ื–ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืช ืฉื•ื•ื
14:55
and they have repercussions
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ื•ื™ืฉ ืœื”ื ื”ืฉืœื›ื•ืช
14:57
that affect behavior long after the memories take hold.
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ื”ืžืฉืคื™ืขื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ืช ื”ืจื‘ื” ื–ืžืŸ ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื”ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืžืชื’ื‘ืฉ.
15:02
Well, along with this ability
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ื™ื—ื“ ืขื ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ื”ื–ื•
15:04
to plant memories and control behavior
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ืœื”ืฉืชื™ืœ ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืช ื•ืœืฉืœื•ื˜ ื‘ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ืช,
15:07
obviously come some important ethical issues,
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ืขื•ืœื•ืช ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ื›ืžื” ืฉืืœื•ืช ืžื•ืกืจื™ื•ืช ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื•ืช,
15:11
like, when should we use this mind technology?
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ื›ืžื•, ืžืชื™ ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ื” ื”ื ืคืฉื™ืช ื”ื–ื•?
15:15
And should we ever ban its use?
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ื•ื”ืื ืขืœื™ื ื• ืœืืกื•ืจ ืืช ื”ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ื”?
15:18
Therapists can't ethically plant false memories
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ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ื” ืืชื™ืช, ืžื˜ืคืœื™ื ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืฉืชื™ืœ ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืช ืฉื•ื•ื
15:21
in the mind of their patients
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ื‘ืžื•ื—ื•ืช ื”ืžื˜ื•ืคืœื™ื ืฉืœื”ื,
15:23
even if it would help the patient,
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ืืคื™ืœื• ืื ื–ื” ื™ืกื™ื™ืข ืœืžื˜ื•ืคืœ,
15:25
but there's nothing to stop a parent
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ืื‘ืœ ืื™ืŸ ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉื™ืžื ืข ืžื”ื•ืจื™ื
15:27
from trying this out on their overweight or obese teenager.
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ืœื ืกื•ืช ื–ืืช ืขืœ ื”ืžืชื‘ื’ืจืช ืฉืœื”ื ื‘ืขืœืช ืžืฉืงืœ ื™ืชืจ.
15:31
And when I suggested this publicly,
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ื•ื›ืฉื”ืฆืขืชื™ ื–ืืช ื‘ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ,
15:34
it created an outcry again.
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ื–ื” ืฉื•ื‘ ื”ืขืœื” ื–ืขืงื”.
15:37
"There she goes. She's advocating that parents lie to their children."
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"ื”ื™ื ืฉื•ื‘ ืžืชื—ื™ืœื”. ื”ื™ื ืžืขื•ื“ื“ืช ื”ื•ืจื™ื ืœืฉืงืจ ืœื™ืœื“ื™ื”ื."
15:41
Hello, Santa Claus. (Laughter)
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ื”ืœื•, ืกื ื˜ื” ืงืœืื•ืก. (ืฆื—ื•ืง)
15:43
I mean, another way to think about this is,
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ื›ืœื•ืžืจ, ื“ืจืš ืื—ืจืช ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ื–ื” ื”ื™ื
15:53
which would you rather have,
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ืœืฉืื•ืœ ืžื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื ืžืขื“ื™ืคื™ื,
15:55
a kid with obesity, diabetes, shortened lifespan,
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ื™ืœื“ ืขื ื‘ืขื™ื™ืช ื”ืฉืžื ื”, ืกื›ืจืช, ืชื•ื—ืœืช ื—ื™ื™ื ืงืฆืจื”,
15:58
all the things that go with it,
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ื•ื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉืงืฉื•ืจ ื‘ื›ืš,
16:00
or a kid with one little extra bit of false memory?
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ืื• ื™ืœื“ ืขื ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืฉื•ื•ื ืื—ื“ ืงื˜ืŸ?
16:03
I know what I would choose for a kid of mine.
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ืื ื™ ื™ื•ื“ืขืช ืžื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ื‘ื•ื—ืจืช ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ื™ืœื“ ืฉืœื™.
16:06
But maybe my work has made me different from most people.
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ืื‘ืœ ื™ืชื›ืŸ ืฉืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื™ ื”ืคื›ื” ืื•ืชื™ ืœืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื•ื‘ ื”ืื ืฉื™ื.
16:10
Most people cherish their memories,
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ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ืžื•ืงื™ืจื™ื ืืช ื”ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื,
16:12
know that they represent their identity,
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ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืฉื”ื ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ื™ื ืืช ื”ื–ื”ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื,
16:14
who they are, where they came from.
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ืžื™ ื”ื, ืžื ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ื’ื™ืขื•.
16:16
And I appreciate that. I feel that way too.
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ื•ืื ื™ ืžืขืจื™ื›ื” ืืช ื–ื”. ื’ื ืื ื™ ื—ืฉื” ื›ืš.
16:19
But I know from my work
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื™ ื™ื•ื“ืขืช ืžืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื™
16:21
how much fiction is already in there.
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ื›ืžื” ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืช ื›ื‘ืจ ื ืžืฆืื•ืช ืฉื.
16:26
If I've learned anything from these decades
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ืื ืœืžื“ืชื™ ืžืฉื”ื• ืžืขืฉืจื•ืช ื”ืฉื ื™ื
16:28
of working on these problems, it's this:
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ื‘ื”ืŸ ืื ื™ ืขื•ื‘ื“ืช ืขืœ ื”ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ื”ืœืœื•, ื–ื”
16:31
just because somebody tells you something
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ืฉืจืง ืžืฉื•ื ืฉืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืื•ืžืจ ืœื›ื ืžืฉื”ื•
16:33
and they say it with confidence,
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ื•ืขื•ืฉื” ื–ืืช ื‘ื‘ื˜ื—ื•ืŸ,
16:35
just because they say it with lots of detail,
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ืจืง ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื”ื•ื ืื•ืžืจ ื–ืืช ื‘ืคื™ืจื•ื˜ ืจื‘,
16:37
just because they express emotion when they say it,
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ืจืง ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื”ื•ื ืžื‘ื˜ื ืจื’ืฉ ื‘ืื•ืžืจื• ื–ืืช,
16:40
it doesn't mean that it really happened.
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ื–ื” ืœื ืื•ืžืจ ืฉื–ื” ื‘ืืžืช ืงืจื”.
16:43
We can't reliably distinguish true memories from false memories.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื‘ื—ื™ืŸ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžื”ื™ืžืŸ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืช ืืžืช ืœื–ื™ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืช ืฉื•ื•ื.
16:47
We need independent corroboration.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื–ืงื•ืงื™ื ืœืื™ืฉื•ืฉ ื‘ืœืชื™ ืชืœื•ื™.
16:51
Such a discovery has made me more tolerant
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ืชื’ืœื™ืช ื–ื• ื”ืคื›ื” ืื•ืชื™ ืœื™ื•ืชืจ ืกื•ื‘ืœื ื™ืช
16:54
of the everyday memory mistakes
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ืœื˜ืขื•ื™ื•ืช ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ื™ื•ืžื™ื•ืžื™ื•ืช
16:56
that my friends and family members make.
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ืฉื—ื‘ืจื™ ื•ื‘ื ื™ ืžืฉืคื—ืชื™ ืขื•ืฉื™ื.
16:59
Such a discovery might have saved Steve Titus,
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ืชื’ืœื™ืช ื›ื–ื• ื”ื™ืชื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ืฆื™ืœ ืืช ืกื˜ื™ื‘ ื˜ื™ื˜ื•ืก,
17:03
the man whose whole future was snatched away
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ื”ืื“ื ืฉื›ืœ ืขืชื™ื“ื• ื ื—ื˜ืฃ ืžืžื ื•
17:07
by a false memory.
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ืข"ื™ ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืฉื•ื•ื.
17:09
But meanwhile, we should all keep in mind,
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ืืš ื‘ื™ื ืชื™ื™ื, ืขืœ ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืœื–ื›ื•ืจ,
17:12
we'd do well to,
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ื›ื“ืื™ ืœื–ื›ื•ืจ,
17:14
that memory, like liberty,
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ืฉื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ, ื›ืžื• ื—ื™ืจื•ืช,
17:18
is a fragile thing.
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ื”ื•ื ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉื‘ื™ืจ.
17:21
Thank you. Thank you.
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ืชื•ื“ื”. ืชื•ื“ื”.
17:24
Thank you. (Applause)
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ืชื•ื“ื”. (ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
17:27
Thanks very much. (Applause)
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ืชื•ื“ื” ืจื‘ื”. (ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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