Why our IQ levels are higher than our grandparents' | James Flynn

3,124,817 views ใƒป 2013-09-26

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ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืžืชืจื’ื: Avihu Turzion ืžื‘ืงืจ: Ido Dekkers
00:12
We are going to take a quick voyage
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ืื ื• ื”ื•ืœื›ื™ื ืœืงื—ืช ืžืกืข ื–ืจื™ื–
00:15
over the cognitive history of the 20th century,
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ื‘ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ื”ืงื•ื’ื ื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื” ื”-20,
00:18
because during that century,
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ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืžืื” ื”ื–ื•,
00:20
our minds have altered dramatically.
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ื”ืฉื›ืœ ืฉืœื ื• ื”ืฉืชื ื” ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื“ืจืžื˜ื™.
00:23
As you all know, the cars that people drove in 1900
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ื›ื™ื“ื•ืข ืœื›ื•ืœื›ื, ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื™ื•ืช ืฉืื ืฉื™ื ื ื”ื’ื• ื‘ื”ื ื‘ืฉื ืช 1900
00:26
have altered because the roads are better
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ื”ืฉืชื ื• ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื›ื‘ื™ืฉื™ื ื”ืฉืชืคืจื•
00:28
and because of technology.
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ื•ื‘ื’ืœืœ ื”ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”.
00:31
And our minds have altered, too.
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ื•ื”ืฉื›ืœ ืฉืœื ื• ื”ืฉืชื ื” ื’ื ื›ืŸ.
00:33
We've gone from people who confronted a concrete world
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ืขื‘ืจื ื• ืžืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ื• ืขื ืขื•ืœื ืžื•ื—ืฉื™
00:37
and analyzed that world primarily in terms
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ื•ื ื™ืชื—ื• ืืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ื–ื” ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืœืคื™
00:40
of how much it would benefit them
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ื›ืžื” ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื™ืชืจืžื• ืœื”ื
00:42
to people who confront a very complex world,
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ืœืื ืฉื™ื ืฉืžืชืžื•ื“ื“ื™ื ืขื ืขื•ืœื ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ ืžืื•ื“,
00:47
and it's a world where we've had to develop
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ื•ื–ื” ืขื•ืœื ื‘ื• ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœืคืชื—
00:49
new mental habits, new habits of mind.
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ื”ืจื’ืœื™ื ืžื ื˜ืœื™ื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื, ื”ืจื’ืœื™ ืฉื›ืœ ื—ื“ืฉื™ื.
00:52
And these include things like
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ื•ืืœื” ื›ื•ืœืœื™ื ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื›ืžื•
00:54
clothing that concrete world with classification,
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ื”ืœื‘ืฉืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืžื•ื—ืฉื™ ืขื ืกื™ื•ื•ื’ื™ื,
00:59
introducing abstractions that we try to make
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ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ื”ืคืฉื˜ื” ืฉืื ื• ืžื ืกื™ื ืฉืชื”ื™ื”
01:01
logically consistent,
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ืขืงื‘ื™ืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื”ื’ื™ื•ื ื™,
01:04
and also taking the hypothetical seriously,
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ื•ื’ื ืœืงื™ื—ืช ื”ื”ื™ืคื•ืชื˜ื™ ื‘ืจืฆื™ื ื•ืช,
01:06
that is, wondering about what might have been
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ื›ืœื•ืžืจ, ืชื”ื™ื™ื” ืขืœ ืžื” ืฉื”ื™ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช
01:09
rather than what is.
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ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืžื” ืฉืงื•ืจื”.
01:11
Now, this dramatic change was drawn to my attention
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื”ื ื•ืฉื ื”ื–ื” ื”ื’ื™ืข ืœืชืฉื•ืžืช ืœื™ื‘ื™
01:15
through massive I.Q. gains over time,
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ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืขืœื™ื™ืช I.Q. ืขืฆื•ืžื” ืขื ื”ืฉื ื™ื,
01:18
and these have been truly massive.
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ื•ื”ื™ื ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ.
01:21
That is, we don't just get a few more questions right
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ื›ืœื•ืžืจ, ื–ื” ืœื ืฉืื ื• ืžืฆืœื™ื—ื™ื ืœืขื ื•ืช ืขืœ ืขื•ื“ ื›ืžื” ืฉืืœื•ืช ื ื›ื•ื ื”
01:25
on I.Q. tests.
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ื‘ืžื‘ื—ื ื™ I.Q.
01:27
We get far more questions right on I.Q. tests
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืฆืœื™ื—ื™ื ืœืขื ื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืืœื•ืช ื ื›ื•ื ื” ื‘ืžื‘ื—ื ื™ I.Q.
01:30
than each succeeding generation
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ืžืืฉืจ ื›ืœ ื“ื•ืจ ืงื•ื“ื
01:32
back to the time that they were invented.
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ื—ื–ืจื” ืขื“ ื”ื–ืžืŸ ืฉื‘ื• ื”ื ื”ื•ืžืฆืื•.
01:35
Indeed, if you score the people a century ago
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ืื›ืŸ, ืื ืชื“ืจื’ื• ืืช ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ืœืคื ื™ ืžืื” ืฉื ื™ื
01:39
against modern norms,
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ืžื•ืœ ื”ื ื•ืจืžื•ืช ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ื•ืช,
01:40
they would have an average I.Q. of 70.
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ื”-I.Q. ื”ืžืžื•ืฆืข ื™ื”ื™ื” 70.
01:43
If you score us against their norms,
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ืื ืชื“ืจื’ื• ืื•ืชื ื• ืžื•ืœ ื”ื ื•ืจืžื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื,
01:46
we would have an average I.Q. of 130.
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ืœื ื• ื™ื”ื™ื” ืžืžื•ืฆืข I.Q. ืฉืœ 130.
01:50
Now this has raised all sorts of questions.
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ื–ื” ื”ืขืœื” ื”ืจื‘ื” ืฉืืœื•ืช.
01:53
Were our immediate ancestors
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ื”ืื ืื‘ื•ืชื™ื ื• ื”ืžื™ื™ื“ื™ื™ื
01:55
on the verge of mental retardation?
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ื”ื™ื• ืขืœ ืกืฃ ืคื™ื’ื•ืจ ืฉื›ืœื™?
01:58
Because 70 is normally the score for mental retardation.
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉ-70 ื ื—ืฉื‘ ืฆื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืžืกื•ื•ื’ ื›ืคื™ื’ื•ืจ ืฉื›ืœื™.
02:02
Or are we on the verge of all being gifted?
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ืื• ืฉืžื ืื ื• ืขืœ ืกืฃ ืฉื›ื•ืœื ืžื—ื•ื ื ื™ื?
02:05
Because 130 is the cutting line for giftedness.
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉ-130 ื”ื•ื ื”ืกืฃ ืœืžื—ื•ื ื ื•ืช.
02:10
Now I'm going to try and argue for a third alternative
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื˜ืขื•ืŸ ืฉื™ืฉ ืืœื˜ืจื ื˜ื™ื‘ื” ืฉืœื™ืฉื™ืช
02:13
that's much more illuminating than either of those,
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ืฉืžืื™ืจืช ืขื™ื ื™ื™ื ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืฉืชื™ ืืœื”,
02:17
and to put this into perspective,
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ื•ื›ื“ื™ ืœืฉื™ื ื–ืืช ื‘ืคืจืกืคืงื˜ื™ื‘ื”,
02:19
let's imagine that a Martian came down to Earth
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ื‘ื•ืื• ื ื“ืžื™ื™ืŸ ืฉืื™ืฉ ืžืื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืจื“ ืœื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ
02:22
and found a ruined civilization.
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ื•ืžืฆื ื”ืจื™ืกื•ืช ืฉืœ ืฆื™ื•ื•ื™ืœื™ื–ืฆื™ื”.
02:25
And this Martian was an archaeologist,
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ื•ืื™ืฉ ื”ืžืื“ื™ื ื”ื–ื” ื”ื•ื ืืจื›ื™ืื•ืœื•ื’,
02:28
and they found scores, target scores,
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ื•ื”ื ืžืฆืื• ืžื˜ืจื•ืช, ืžื˜ืจื•ืช ืคื’ื™ืขื”,
02:30
that people had used for shooting.
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ืฉืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืฉืชืžืฉื• ื‘ื”ืŸ ืœื™ืจื™.
02:33
And first they looked at 1865,
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ื•ื‘ื”ืชื—ืœื” ื”ื ื”ืกืชื›ืœื• ืขืœ 1865,
02:36
and they found that in a minute,
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ื•ืžืฆืื• ืฉื‘ื“ืงื”,
02:38
people had only put one bullet in the bullseye.
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ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืฆืœื™ื—ื• ืœืคื’ื•ืข ืจืง ื›ื“ื•ืจ ืื—ื“ ื‘ืืžืฆืข.
02:42
And then they found, in 1898,
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ื•ืื– ื”ื ืžืฆืื• ืฉื‘-1898,
02:44
that they'd put about five bullets in the bullseye in a minute.
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ืฉื”ื ื”ืฆืœื™ื—ื• ืœืคื’ื•ืข ื‘ืขืจืš 5 ื›ื“ื•ืจื™ื ื‘ื•ืœ ื‘ืืžืฆืข ื‘ื“ืงื”.
02:48
And then about 1918 they put a hundred bullets in the bullseye.
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ื•ืื– ืฉื‘-1918 ื”ื ื”ืฆืœื™ื—ื• ืœืคื’ื•ืข 100 ื›ื“ื•ืจื™ื ื‘ื•ืœ ื‘ืืžืฆืข.
02:53
And initially, that archaeologist would be baffled.
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ื•ื‘ื”ืชื—ืœื” ืื•ืชื• ืืจื›ื™ืื•ืœื•ื’ ื™ื”ื™ื” ืžื•ื‘ืœื‘ืœ.
02:57
They would say, look, these tests were designed
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ื”ื ื™ืืžืจื•, ืชืจืื•, ื”ืžื‘ื—ื ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ืชื•ื›ื ื ื•
02:59
to find out how much people were steady of hand,
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ืœืžืฆื•ื ื›ืžื” ื”ื™ื“ ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ื™ืชื” ื™ืฆื™ื‘ื”,
03:03
how keen their eyesight was,
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ื›ืžื” ื—ื“ื” ื”ืจืื™ื™ื” ืฉืœื”ื,
03:06
whether they had control of their weapon.
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ื”ืื ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืœื”ื ืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ืขืœ ื”ื ืฉืง ืฉืœื”ื.
03:08
How could these performances have escalated
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ืื™ืš ื™ื›ืœื• ื”ื‘ื™ืฆื•ืขื™ื ื”ืืœื” ืœื”ืฉืชืคืจ
03:11
to this enormous degree?
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ืœื™ื›ื•ืœืช ื›ืœ ื›ืš ืžืชืงื“ืžืช?
03:13
Well we now know, of course, the answer.
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ื›ืขืช ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ, ืื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืืช ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื”.
03:16
If that Martian looked at battlefields,
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ืื ืื™ืฉ ื”ืžืื“ื™ื ื”ื”ื•ื ื”ืกืชื›ืœ ืขืœ ืฉื“ื•ืช ืงืจื‘,
03:18
they would find that people had only muskets
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ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ืžื•ืฆื ืฉืœืื ืฉื™ื ื”ื™ื• ืจืง ืžื•ืกืงื˜ื™ื
03:21
at the time of the Civil War
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ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืžืœื—ืžืช ื”ืื–ืจื—ื™ื ื”ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ืช
03:23
and that they had repeating rifles
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ื•ืฉื”ื™ื• ืœื”ื ืจื•ื‘ื™ื ืฉื ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืžื—ื“ืฉ
03:25
at the time of the Spanish-American War,
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ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืžืœื—ืžืช ืืจื”"ื‘-ืกืคืจื“,
03:28
and then they had machine guns
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ื•ืฉื”ื™ื• ืœื”ื ืžื›ื•ื ื•ืช ื™ืจื™ื™ื”
03:30
by the time of World War I.
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ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืžืœื—ืžืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื”.
03:33
And, in other words, it was the equipment
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ื•ืฉื‘ืžื™ืœื™ื ืื—ืจื•ืช, ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื“
03:35
that was in the hands of the average soldier
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ืฉื”ื™ื” ื‘ื™ื“ื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื™ื™ืœ ื”ืžืžื•ืฆืข
03:38
that was responsible, not greater keenness of eye
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ืฉื”ื™ื” ืื—ืจืื™ ืœื›ืš, ื•ืœื ื—ื“ื•ืช ื”ืขื™ืŸ ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ
03:41
or steadiness of hand.
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ืื• ื™ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืช ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื“.
03:43
Now what we have to imagine is the mental artillery
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื“ืžื™ื™ืŸ ืืช ื”ืืจื˜ื™ืœืจื™ื” ื”ืฉื›ืœื™ืช
03:46
that we have picked up over those hundred years,
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ืฉืืกืคื ื• ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืžืื” ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืืœื”,
03:50
and I think again that another thinker will help us here,
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ื•ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉืฉื•ื‘ ื”ื•ื’ื” ืื—ืจ ื™ืขื–ื•ืจ ืœื ื• ื›ืืŸ,
03:54
and that's Luria.
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ื•ื–ื” [ืืœื›ืกื ื“ืจ] ืœื•ืจื™ื.
03:56
Luria looked at people
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ืœื•ืจื™ื ื”ืกืชื›ืœ ืขืœ ืื ืฉื™ื
03:58
just before they entered the scientific age,
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ืžืžืฉ ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื”ื ื ื›ื ืกื• ืœืขื™ื“ืŸ ื”ืžื“ืขื™,
04:02
and he found that these people
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืžืฆื ืฉืื•ืชื ืื ืฉื™ื
04:04
were resistant to classifying the concrete world.
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ื”ืชื ื’ื“ื• ืœืกื™ื•ื•ื’ ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืžื•ื—ืฉื™.
04:07
They wanted to break it up
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ื”ื ืจืฆื• ืœื—ืœืง ืื•ืชื•
04:08
into little bits that they could use.
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ืœื—ืœืงื™ื ืงื˜ื ื™ื ืฉื‘ื”ื ื™ื›ืœื• ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ.
04:11
He found that they were resistant
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ื”ื•ื ืžืฆื ืฉื”ื ื”ืชื ื’ื“ื•
04:13
to deducing the hypothetical,
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ืœื”ืกืงืช ื”ื”ื™ืคื•ืชื˜ื™,
04:17
to speculating about what might be,
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ืœืฉืขืจ ืœื’ื‘ื™ ืžื” ื”ื™ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช,
04:19
and he found finally that they didn't deal well
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ื•ืžืฆื ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ ืฉื”ื ืœื ื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ื• ื˜ื•ื‘
04:22
with abstractions or using logic on those abstractions.
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ืขื ื”ืคืฉื˜ื•ืช ืื• ื”ืฉืชืžืฉื• ื‘ืœื•ื’ื™ืงื” ืขืœ ื”ืคืฉื˜ื•ืช ืืœื”.
04:26
Now let me give you a sample of some of his interviews.
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืชืจืฉื• ืœืชืช ืœื›ื ื“ื•ื’ืžื ืœื—ืœืง ืžื”ืจืื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœื•.
04:30
He talked to the head man of a person
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ื”ื•ื ื“ื™ื‘ืจ ืขื ืจืืฉ ื›ืคืจ
04:32
in rural Russia.
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ื‘ืจื•ืกื™ื” ื”ื›ืคืจื™ืช.
04:34
They'd only had, as people had in 1900,
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ื”ื™ื• ืœื•, ื›ืžื• ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ื‘-1900,
04:36
about four years of schooling.
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ื‘ืขืจืš 4 ืฉื ื•ืช ืœื™ืžื•ื“.
04:38
And he asked that particular person,
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืฉืืœ ืืช ืื•ืชื• ืื“ื,
04:41
what do crows and fish have in common?
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ืžื” ื™ืฉ ืœืขื•ืจื‘ื™ื ื•ื“ื’ื™ื ื‘ืžืฉื•ืชืฃ?
04:44
And the fellow said, "Absolutely nothing.
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ื•ืื•ืชื• ื‘ื—ื•ืจ ืืžืจ, "ืฉื•ื ื“ื‘ืจ ืœื—ืœื•ื˜ื™ืŸ.
04:47
You know, I can eat a fish. I can't eat a crow.
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ืืชื” ื™ื•ื“ืข, ืื ื™ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืื›ื•ืœ ื“ื’. ืื ื™ ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืื›ื•ืœ ืขื•ืจื‘.
04:50
A crow can peck at a fish.
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ืขื•ืจื‘ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื ืงืจ ื‘ื“ื’.
04:53
A fish can't do anything to a crow."
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ื“ื’ ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื›ืœื•ื ืœืขื•ืจื‘."
04:56
And Luria said, "But aren't they both animals?"
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ื•ืœื•ืจื™ื ืืžืจ, "ืืš ื”ืœื•ื ืฉื ื™ื”ื ื—ื™ื•ืช?"
04:59
And he said, "Of course not.
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ื•ื”ื‘ื—ื•ืจ ื”ืฉื™ื‘, "ื‘ืจื•ืจ ืฉืœื.
05:00
One's a fish.
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ืื—ื“ ื“ื’.
05:02
The other is a bird."
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ื•ื”ืฉื ื™ ืฆื™ืคื•ืจ."
05:04
And he was interested, effectively,
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ื•ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ืžืขื•ื ื™ื™ืŸ, ืืคืงื˜ื™ื‘ื™ืช,
05:06
in what he could do with those concrete objects.
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ื‘ืžื” ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืขื ืื•ืชื ืขืฆืžื™ื ืžื•ื—ืฉื™ื™ื.
05:10
And then Luria went to another person,
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ื•ืื– ืœื•ืจื™ื ื ื™ื’ืฉ ืœืื™ืฉ ืื—ืจ,
05:12
and he said to them,
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืืžืจ ืœื•,
05:15
"There are no camels in Germany.
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"ืื™ืŸ ื’ืžืœื™ื ื‘ื’ืจืžื ื™ื”.
05:17
Hamburg is a city in Germany.
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ื”ืžื‘ื•ืจื’ ื”ื™ื ืขื™ืจ ื‘ื’ืจืžื ื™ื”.
05:20
Are there camels in Hamburg?"
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ื”ืื ื™ืฉ ื’ืžืœื™ื ื‘ื”ืžื‘ื•ืจื’?"
05:22
And the fellow said,
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ื•ื”ื‘ื—ื•ืจ ืืžืจ,
05:23
"Well, if it's large enough, there ought to be camels there."
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"ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืื ื”ื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืžืกืคื™ืง, ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืฉื ื’ืžืœ."
05:27
And Luria said, "But what do my words imply?"
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ื•ืœื•ืจื™ื ื”ืฉื™ื‘, "ืืš ืžื” ื”ืžื™ืœื™ื ืฉืœื™ ืžืจืžื–ื•ืช?"
05:31
And he said, "Well, maybe it's a small village,
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ื•ื”ืื™ืฉ ืืžืจ, "ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืื•ืœื™ ื–ื” ื›ืคืจ ืงื˜ืŸ,
05:34
and there's no room for camels."
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ื•ืื™ืŸ ืžืงื•ื ืœื’ืžืœื™ื."
05:36
In other words, he was unwilling to treat this
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ื‘ืžื™ืœื™ื ืื—ืจื•ืช, ื”ื•ื ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืžื•ื›ืŸ ืœื”ืชื™ื™ื—ืก ืœื–ื”
05:38
as anything but a concrete problem,
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ื›ื‘ืขื™ื” ืœื ืžื•ื—ืฉื™ืช,
05:41
and he was used to camels being in villages,
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ื•ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ืžื•ืจื’ืœ ืœื›ืš ืฉื‘ื›ืคืจื™ื ื™ืฉ ื’ืžืœื™ื,
05:44
and he was quite unable to use the hypothetical,
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืžืกื•ื’ืœ ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื”ื™ืคื•ืชื˜ื™,
05:48
to ask himself what if there were no camels in Germany.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืฉืื•ืœ ืืช ืขืฆืžื• ืžื” ืื ืื™ืŸ ื’ืžืœื™ื ื‘ื’ืจืžื ื™ื”.
05:53
A third interview was conducted
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ืจืื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœื™ืฉื™ ื ืขืจืš
05:55
with someone about the North Pole.
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ืขื ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ืงื•ื˜ื‘ ื”ืฆืคื•ื ื™.
05:58
And Luria said, "At the North Pole, there is always snow.
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ื•ืœื•ืจื™ื ืืžืจ, "ื‘ืงื•ื˜ื‘ ื”ืฆืคื•ื ื™, ืชืžื™ื“ ื™ืฉ ืฉืœื’.
06:03
Wherever there is always snow, the bears are white.
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ืื™ืคื” ืฉืชืžื™ื“ ื™ืฉ ืฉืœื’, ื”ื“ื•ื‘ื™ื ืœื‘ื ื™ื.
06:06
What color are the bears at the North Pole?"
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ืžื” ืฆื‘ืข ื”ื“ื•ื‘ื™ื ื‘ืงื•ื˜ื‘ ื”ืฆืคื•ื ื™?"
06:10
And the response was, "Such a thing
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ื•ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื”, "ื“ื‘ืจ ื›ื–ื”
06:12
is to be settled by testimony.
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ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื™ื™ืฉื‘ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืขื“ื•ืช.
06:14
If a wise person came from the North Pole
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ืื ืื“ื ื—ื›ื ื”ื™ื” ื—ื•ื–ืจ ืžื”ืงื•ื˜ื‘ ื‘ืฆืคื•ื ื™
06:17
and told me the bears were white,
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ื•ื”ื™ื” ืื•ืžืจ ืœื™ ืฉืฉื ื”ื“ื•ื‘ื™ื ืœื‘ื ื™ื,
06:19
I might believe him,
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ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืžืืžื™ืŸ ืœื•,
06:21
but every bear that I have seen is a brown bear."
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืœ ื“ื‘ ืฉืื ื™ ืจืื™ืชื™ ื”ื•ื ื—ื•ื."
06:25
Now you see again, this person has rejected
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืืชื ืจื•ืื™ื ืฉื•ื‘, ืฉื”ืื“ื ื”ื–ื” ื”ืชื ื’ื“
06:28
going beyond the concrete world
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ืœืœื›ืช ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœืขื•ืœื ื”ืžื•ื—ืฉื™
06:30
and analyzing it through everyday experience,
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ื•ืœื ืชื— ืื•ืชื• ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื ื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื™ื•ื-ื™ื•ืžื™,
06:33
and it was important to that person
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ื•ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืœืื•ืชื• ืื“ื
06:35
what color bears were --
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ืื™ื–ื” ืฆื‘ืข ื™ืฉ ืœื“ื•ื‘ื™ื --
06:37
that is, they had to hunt bears.
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ื›ืœื•ืžืจ, ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืœืฆื•ื“ ื“ื•ื‘ื™ื.
06:39
They weren't willing to engage in this.
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ื”ื ืœื ื”ื™ื• ืžื•ื›ื ื™ื ืœื”ืชืขืกืง ืขื ื–ื”.
06:41
One of them said to Luria,
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ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื ืืžืจ ืœืœื•ืจื™ื,
06:43
"How can we solve things that aren't real problems?
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"ืื™ืš ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืคืชื•ืจ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืื™ื ื ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ืืžื™ืชื™ื•ืช?
06:47
None of these problems are real.
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ืืฃ ืื—ืช ืžื”ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ื”ืืœื” ืื™ื ื ื” ืืžื™ืชื™ืช.
06:49
How can we address them?"
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ืื™ืš ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ ืื™ืชืŸ?"
06:51
Now, these three categories --
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืฉืœื•ืฉ ื”ืงื˜ื’ื•ืจื™ื•ืช ื”ืืœื” --
06:55
classification,
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ืกื™ื•ื•ื’,
06:56
using logic on abstractions,
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ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ืœื•ื’ื™ืงื” ืขืœ ื”ืคืฉื˜ื•ืช,
06:58
taking the hypothetical seriously --
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ืœืงื™ื—ืช ื”ื”ื™ืคื•ืชื˜ื™ ื‘ืจืฆื™ื ื•ืช --
07:01
how much difference do they make in the real world
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ื›ืžื” ื”ื‘ื“ืœ ื”ืŸ ืžื‘ื™ืื•ืช ืœืขื•ืœื ื”ืืžื™ืชื™
07:04
beyond the testing room?
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ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœื—ื“ืจ ื”ืžื‘ื—ืŸ?
07:05
And let me give you a few illustrations.
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ื•ืชืจืฉื• ืœื™ ืœืชืช ืœื›ื ืžืกืคืจ ื”ืืจื•ืช.
07:08
First, almost all of us today get a high school diploma.
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ืจืืฉื™ืช, ื›ืžืขื˜ ื›ื•ืœื ื• ื”ื™ื•ื ืžืงื‘ืœื™ื ืชืขื•ื“ืช ื‘ื™ืช ืกืคืจ.
07:12
That is, we've gone from four to eight years of education
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ื›ืœื•ืžืจ, ื”ืชืงื“ืžื ื• ืžืืจื‘ืข ืœืฉืžื•ื ื” ืฉื ื•ืช ื—ื™ื ื•ืš
07:15
to 12 years of formal education,
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ืœ-12 ืฉื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ืคื•ืจืžืœื™,
07:18
and 52 percent of Americans
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ื•-52 ืื—ื•ื– ืžื”ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ื
07:20
have actually experienced some type of tertiary education.
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ื”ืชื ืกื• ื‘ืคื•ืขืœ ื‘ืื™ื–ืฉื”ื• ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ืžืชืงื“ื.
07:24
Now, not only do we have much more education,
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืœื ืจืง ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš,
07:28
and much of that education is scientific,
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ื•ืฉื”ืจื‘ื” ืžื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื”ื–ื” ื”ื•ื ืžื“ืขื™,
07:30
and you can't do science without classifying the world.
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ื•ืืชื” ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืžื“ืข ื‘ืœื™ ืœืกื•ื•ื’ ืืช ื”ืขื•ืœื.
07:34
You can't do science without proposing hypotheses.
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ืืชื” ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืžื“ืข ื‘ืœื™ ืœื”ืขืœื•ืช ื”ืฉืขืจื•ืช.
07:38
You can't do science without making it logically consistent.
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ืืชื” ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืžื“ืข ื‘ืœื™ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืื•ืชื• ื”ื’ื™ื•ื ื™ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืขืงื‘ื™.
07:42
And even down in grade school, things have changed.
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ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ืกืคืจ ื™ืกื•ื“ื™ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืฉืชื ื•.
07:46
In 1910, they looked at the examinations
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ื‘-1910, ื”ืกืชื›ืœื• ืขืœ ื”ืžื‘ื—ื ื™ื
07:49
that the state of Ohio gave to 14-year-olds,
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ืฉืžื“ื™ื ืช ืื•ื”ื™ื• ื ืชื ื” ืœื‘ื ื™ 14,
07:53
and they found that they were all
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ื•ื”ื ืžืฆืื• ืฉื›ื•ืœื ืขืกืงื•
07:55
for socially valued concrete information.
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ื‘ืžื™ื“ืข ืฉื”ื•ืขืจืš ืข"ื™ ื”ื—ื‘ืจื” ื›ืžื•ื—ืฉื™.
07:58
They were things like,
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ื”ื™ื• ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื›ืžื•,
07:59
what are the capitals of the 44 or 45 states
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ืžื” ื”ื‘ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ 44 ืื• 45 ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช
08:02
that existed at that time?
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ืฉื”ื™ื• ืงื™ื™ืžื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืชื• ื”ื–ืžืŸ?
08:05
When they looked at the exams
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ื›ืฉื”ืกืชื›ืœื• ืขืœ ื”ื‘ื—ื™ื ื•ืช
08:06
that the state of Ohio gave in 1990,
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ืฉืžื“ื™ื ืช ืื•ื”ื™ื• ื ืชื ื” ื‘-1990,
08:09
they were all about abstractions.
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ื›ื•ืœืŸ ืขืกืงื• ื‘ื”ืคืฉื˜ื•ืช.
08:12
They were things like,
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ื”ื™ื• ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื›ืžื•,
08:13
why is the largest city of a state rarely the capital?
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ืžื“ื•ืข ื”ืขื™ืจ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื”ื™ื ืœืื• ื“ื•ื•ืงื ื”ื‘ื™ืจื”?
08:19
And you were supposed to think, well,
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ื•ื”ื™ื™ืช ืืžื•ืจ ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘, ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ,
08:20
the state legislature was rural-controlled,
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ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžื—ื•ืงืงื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื ืฉืœื˜ ืข"ื™ ื›ืคืจื™ื™ื,
08:23
and they hated the big city,
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ื•ื”ื ืฉื ืื• ืืช ื”ืขื™ืจ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื”,
08:25
so rather than putting the capital in a big city,
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ืื– ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ืืช ื”ื‘ื™ืจื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื”ืขื™ืจ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื”
08:28
they put it in a county seat.
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ื”ื ื‘ื—ืจื• ื‘ืžื•ืฉื‘ ืžื—ื•ื–ื™.
08:29
They put it in Albany rather than New York.
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ื”ื ื‘ื—ืจื• ื‘ืื•ืœื‘ื ื™ ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื‘ื ื™ื• ื™ื•ืจืง.
08:32
They put it in Harrisburg rather than Philadelphia.
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ื”ื ื‘ื—ืจื• ื‘ื”ืืจื™ืกื‘ื•ืจื’ ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื‘ืคื™ืœื“ืœืคื™ื”.
08:35
And so forth.
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ื•ื›ืš ื•ื”ืœืื”.
08:37
So the tenor of education has changed.
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ื›ืš ืฉื”ื˜ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื”ืฉืชื ื”.
08:40
We are educating people to take the hypothetical seriously,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื—ื ื›ื™ื ืื ืฉื™ื ืœื”ืชื™ื™ื—ืก ืœื”ื™ืคื•ืชื˜ื™ ื‘ืจืฆื™ื ื•ืช,
08:44
to use abstractions, and to link them logically.
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ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื”ืคืฉื˜ื•ืช, ื•ืœืงืฉืจ ืื•ืชื ืœื•ื’ื™ืช.
08:47
What about employment?
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ืžื” ืœื’ื‘ื™ ืชืขืกื•ืงื”?
08:50
Well, in 1900, three percent of Americans
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ื‘-1900 ืฉืœื•ืฉ ืื—ื•ื–ื™ื ืžื”ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ื
08:53
practiced professions that were cognitively demanding.
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ืขืกืงื• ื‘ืžืงืฆื•ืขื•ืช ืขื ื“ืจื™ืฉื” ืงื•ื’ื ื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ืช.
08:57
Only three percent were lawyers or doctors or teachers.
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ืจืง ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืื—ื•ื–ื™ื ื”ื™ื• ืขื•ืจื›ื™-ื“ื™ืŸ, ืจื•ืคืื™ื ืื• ืžื•ืจื™ื.
09:01
Today, 35 percent of Americans
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ื”ื™ื•ื, 35 ืื—ื•ื–ื™ื ื”ืžืืžืจื™ืงืื™ื
09:04
practice cognitively demanding professions,
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ืขื•ืกืงื™ื ื‘ืžืงืฆื•ืขื•ืช ืขื ื“ืจื™ืฉื” ืงื•ื’ื ื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ืช,
09:07
not only to the professions proper like lawyer
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ืœื ืจืง ื‘ืžืงืฆื•ืขื•ืช ื›ืžื• ืขื•ืจืš ื“ื™ืŸ
09:10
or doctor or scientist or lecturer,
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ืื• ืจื•ืคื ืื• ืžื“ืขืŸ ืื• ืžืจืฆื”,
09:12
but many, many sub-professions
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ืืš ื”ืจื‘ื”, ื”ืจื‘ื” ืชืชื™-ืžืงืฆื•ืขื•ืช
09:14
having to do with being a technician,
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ืฉื“ื•ืจืฉื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื˜ื›ื ืื™,
09:16
a computer programmer.
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ืžืชื›ื ืช ืžื—ืฉื‘ื™ื.
09:18
A whole range of professions now make cognitive demands.
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ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืœื ืฉืœ ืžืงืฆื•ืขื•ืช ื›ื™ื•ื ื“ื•ืจืฉื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืงื•ื’ื ื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ืช.
09:23
And we can only meet the terms of employment
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืขื ื•ืช ืขืœ ื“ืจื™ืฉื•ืช ื”ืชืขืกื•ืงื”
09:25
in the modern world by being cognitively
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ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ ืจืง ืื ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ืชืจ
09:28
far more flexible.
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ื’ืžื™ืฉื™ื ืงื•ื’ื ื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ืช.
09:30
And it's not just that we have many more people
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ื•ื–ื” ืœื ืจืง ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ืื ืฉื™ื
09:33
in cognitively demanding professions.
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ื‘ืžืงืฆื•ืขื•ืช ืขื ื“ืจื™ืฉื•ืช ืงื•ื’ื ื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ืช.
09:36
The professions have been upgraded.
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ื”ืžืงืฆื•ืขื•ืช ื”ืฉืชื“ืจื’ื•.
09:39
Compare the doctor in 1900,
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ืชืฉื•ื• ืืช ื”ืจื•ืคื ืž-1900,
09:41
who really had only a few tricks up his sleeve,
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ืฉื”ื™ื• ืœื• ืจืง ืžืกืคืจ ืชืจื’ื™ืœื™ื ื‘ืืžืชื—ืชื•,
09:44
with the modern general practitioner or specialist,
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ืขื ืจื•ืคื ื›ืœืœื™ ืื• ืžื•ืžื—ื” ื‘ื–ืžื ื ื•,
09:47
with years of scientific training.
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ืขื ืฉื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื›ืฉืจื” ืžื“ืขื™ืช.
09:49
Compare the banker in 1900,
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ืชืฉื•ื• ืืช ื”ื‘ื ืงืื™ ืž-1900,
09:52
who really just needed a good accountant
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ืฉื”ื™ื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืจืง ื—ืฉื‘ ื˜ื•ื‘,
09:54
and to know who was trustworthy in the local community
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ื•ืœื“ืขืช ืžื™ ื ื—ืฉื‘ ืืžื™ืŸ ื‘ืงื”ื™ืœื” ื”ืžืงื•ืžื™ืช
09:57
for paying back their mortgage.
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ื‘ืชืฉืœื•ื ื”ืžืฉื›ื ืชื ืฉืœื•.
10:00
Well, the merchant bankers who brought the world to their knees
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ื‘ื ืงืื™ ื”ืžืกื—ืจ ืฉื”ื•ืจื™ื“ื• ืืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ืขืœ ื‘ืจื›ื™ื•
10:03
may have been morally remiss,
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ืื•ืœื™ ื”ื™ื• ืจืฉืœื ื™ื™ื ืžื•ืกืจื™ืช,
10:05
but they were cognitively very agile.
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ืืš ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ืžืื•ื“ ื–ืจื™ื–ื™ื ืงื•ื’ื ื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ืช.
10:08
They went far beyond that 1900 banker.
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ื”ื ืขื‘ืจื• ื‘ื”ืจื‘ื” ืืช ื”ื‘ื ืงืื™ ืž-1900.
10:12
They had to look at computer projections
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ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ืชื—ื–ื™ื•ืช ืžืžื•ื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช
10:15
for the housing market.
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ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืฉื•ืง ื”ื“ื™ื•ืจ.
10:17
They had to get complicated CDO-squared
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ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ืฉื™ื’ ืขืกืงืื•ืช ืœืžื—ื•ื™ื™ื‘ื•ืช ืขื™ืจื‘ื•ืŸ ืขืœ ื—ื•ื‘
10:20
in order to bundle debt together
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืืจื•ื– ืืช ื”ื—ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื™ื—ื“
10:23
and make debt look as if it were actually a profitable asset.
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ื•ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœื—ื•ื‘ ืœื”ื™ืจืื•ืช ื›ืžื• ื ื›ืก ืžื ื™ื‘.
10:27
They had to prepare a case to get rating agencies
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ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ื›ื™ืŸ ื˜ื™ืขื•ื ื™ื ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ื“ื™ืจื•ื’ ืืฉืจืื™
10:30
to give it a AAA,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืงื‘ืœ ื“ื™ืจื•ื’ AAA,
10:31
though in many cases, they had virtually bribed the rating agencies.
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื‘ืžืงืจื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื, ื”ื ื‘ืคื•ืขืœ ืฉื™ื—ื“ื• ืืช ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ื“ื™ืจื•ื’ ื”ืืฉืจืื™.
10:35
And they also, of course, had to get people
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ื•ื”ื ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ, ื”ื™ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ื’ื ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœืื ืฉื™ื
10:37
to accept these so-called assets
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ืœืงื‘ืœ ืืช ื”ื›ื‘ื™ื›ื•ืœ ื ื›ืกื™ื ื”ืœืœื•
10:40
and pay money for them
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ื•ืœืฉืœื ืขื‘ื•ืจื ื›ืกืฃ
10:41
even though they were highly vulnerable.
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ืืคื™ืœื• ืฉื”ื ื”ื™ื• ืคื’ื™ืขื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ.
10:44
Or take a farmer today.
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ืื• ืงื—ื• ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื ื—ืงืœืื™ ื‘ื™ืžื™ื ื•.
10:45
I take the farm manager of today as very different
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ืื ื™ ืจื•ืื” ืืช ืžื ื”ืœ ื”ื—ื•ื•ื” ืฉืœ ื™ืžื™ื ื• ื›ืฉื•ื ื” ืžืื•ื“
10:49
from the farmer of 1900.
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ืžื”ื—ืงืœืื™ ืฉืœ 1900.
10:51
So it hasn't just been the spread
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ื›ืš ืฉื–ื• ืœื ืจืง ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ื”ืชืคืจืกื•ืช
10:53
of cognitively demanding professions.
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ืฉืœ ืžืงืฆื•ืขื•ืช ืขื ื“ืจื™ืฉื•ืช ืงื•ื’ื ื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ืช.
10:56
It's also been the upgrading of tasks
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ื–ื• ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื’ื ื”ื”ืฉืชื“ืจื’ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžืฉื™ืžื•ืช
10:59
like lawyer and doctor and what have you
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ื›ืžื• ืจื•ืคื ืื• ืขื•ืจืš ื“ื™ืŸ ืื• ืžื” ืฉืชืจืฆื•
11:01
that have made demands on our cognitive faculties.
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ืฉืขื›ืฉื™ื• ื“ื•ืจืฉื™ื ืžืื™ืชื ื• ื›ื•ืฉืจ ืงื•ื’ื ื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื™.
11:05
But I've talked about education and employment.
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ืืš ื“ื™ื‘ืจืชื™ ืขืœ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื•ืชืขืกื•ืงื”.
11:08
Some of the habits of mind that we have developed
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ื›ืžื” ืžื”ืจื’ืœื™ ื”ืฉื›ืœ ืฉืคื™ืชื—ื ื•
11:12
over the 20th century
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ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืžืื” ื”-20
11:13
have paid off in unexpected areas.
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ื”ืฉืชืœืžื• ื‘ืื™ื–ื•ืจื™ื ื‘ืœืชื™ ืฆืคื•ื™ื™ื.
11:16
I'm primarily a moral philosopher.
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ืื ื™ ืžืชืขืกืง ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื‘ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ื” ืžื•ืกืจื™ืช.
11:18
I merely have a holiday in psychology,
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ืื ื™ ื‘ืกื›"ื” ืœื•ืงื— ื—ื•ืคืฉื” ื‘ืคืกื™ื›ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”,
11:22
and what interests me in general is moral debate.
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ื•ืžื” ืฉืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืื•ืชื™ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื›ืœืœื™ ื”ื•ื ื“ื™ื•ืŸ ืžื•ืกืจื™.
11:26
Now over the last century,
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืžืื” ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื”,
11:29
in developed nations like America,
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ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืžืคื•ืชื—ื•ืช ื›ืžื• ืืžืจื™ืงื”
11:31
moral debate has escalated
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ื“ื™ื•ืŸ ืžื•ืกืจื™ ืขืœื” ืžื“ืจื’ื”,
11:33
because we take the hypothetical seriously,
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืื ื• ืœื•ืงื—ื™ื ืืช ื”ื”ื™ืคื•ืชื˜ื™ ื‘ืจืฆื™ื ื•ืช,
11:36
and we also take universals seriously
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ื•ืื ื• ืœื•ืงื—ื™ื ื’ื ืืช ื”ื›ืœืœื™ ื‘ืจืฆื™ื ื•ืช
11:40
and look for logical connections.
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ื•ืžื—ืคืฉื™ื ืืช ื”ื”ืงืฉืจื™ื ื”ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ื.
11:43
When I came home in 1955 from university
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ื›ืฉื—ื–ืจืชื™ ื”ื‘ื™ืชื” ื‘-1955 ืžื”ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ื”
11:46
at the time of Martin Luther King,
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ื‘ื–ืžื ื• ืฉืœ ืžืจื˜ื™ืŸ ืœื•ืชืจ ืงื™ื ื’,
11:49
a lot of people came home at that time
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ืื ืฉื™ื ื—ื–ืจื• ื”ื‘ื™ืชื” ื‘ืื•ืชื• ื–ืžืŸ
11:51
and started having arguments with their parents and grandparents.
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ื•ื”ื—ืœื• ืœื ื”ืœ ื•ื™ื›ื•ื—ื™ื ืขื ื”ื•ืจื™ื”ื ื•ืกื‘ื™ื”ื.
11:55
My father was born in 1885,
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ืื‘ื™ ื ื•ืœื“ ื‘-1885,
11:58
and he was mildly racially biased.
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ื•ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืœื• ื ื˜ื™ื™ื” ื’ื–ืขื ื™ืช ืงืœื”.
12:00
As an Irishman, he hated the English so much
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ื›ืื™ืจื™, ื”ื•ื ืฉื ื ืืช ื”ืื ื’ืœื™ื ื›ืœ ื›ืš
12:03
he didn't have much emotion for anyone else.
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ืฉืœื ื ืฉืืจ ืœื• ื”ืจื‘ื” ืจื’ืฉ ืœืืฃ ืื—ื“ ืื—ืจ.
12:05
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
12:08
But he did have a sense that black people were inferior.
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ื•ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืœื• ืชื—ื•ืฉื” ืฉืฉื—ื•ืจื™ื ื”ื™ื• ื ื—ื•ืชื™ื.
12:13
And when we said to our parents and grandparents,
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ื•ื›ืฉืืžืจื ื• ืœื”ื•ืจื™ื ื• ื•ืกื‘ื™ื ื•,
12:15
"How would you feel if tomorrow morning you woke up black?"
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"ืื™ืš ืชืจื’ื™ืฉ ืื ืžื—ืจ ื‘ื‘ื•ืงืจ ืชืชืขื•ืจืจ ืฉื—ื•ืจ?"
12:20
they said that is the dumbest thing you've ever said.
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ื”ื ืขื ื• ืฉื–ื” ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ืžื˜ื•ืžื˜ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืื™ ืคืขื ืืžืจื ื•.
12:24
Who have you ever known who woke up in the morning --
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ืžื™ ืืชื” ืžื›ื™ืจ ืฉื”ืชืขื•ืจืจ ื‘ื•ืงืจ ืื—ื“ --
12:26
(Laughter) --
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง) --
12:28
that turned black?
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ื•ื”ืคืš ืœืฉื—ื•ืจ?
12:30
In other words, they were fixed in the concrete
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ื‘ืžื™ืœื™ื ืื—ืจื•ืช, ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ืžืงื•ื‘ืขื™ื ื‘ืžื ื”ื’ื™ื
12:33
mores and attitudes they had inherited.
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ื•ื”ืขืžื“ื•ืช ื”ืžื•ื—ืฉื™ื•ืช ืฉื”ื ื™ืจืฉื•.
12:37
They would not take the hypothetical seriously,
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ื”ื ืœื ื”ื™ื• ืœื•ืงื—ื™ื ืืช ื”ื”ื™ืคื•ืชื˜ื™ ื‘ืจืฆื™ื ื•ืช,
12:40
and without the hypothetical,
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ื•ื‘ืœื™ ื”ื”ื™ืคื•ืชื˜ื™
12:41
it's very difficult to get moral argument off the ground.
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ื–ื” ืงืฉื” ืžืื•ื“ ืœื”ืจื™ื ื˜ื™ืขื•ืŸ ืžื•ืกืจื™.
12:45
You have to say, imagine you were
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ืืชื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื•ืžืจ, ื“ืžื™ื™ืŸ ืฉืืชื”
12:48
in Iran, and imagine that your relatives
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ื‘ืื™ืจืŸ, ื•ื“ืžื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื›ืœ ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ืš
12:53
all suffered from collateral damage
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ืกื‘ืœื• ืžื ื–ืง ื”ื™ืงืคื™
12:56
even though they had done no wrong.
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ืขืœ ืืฃ ืฉืœื ืขืฉื• ืฉื•ื ื“ื‘ืจ ืจืข.
12:58
How would you feel about that?
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ืื™ืš ืชืจื’ื™ืฉ ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื–ื”?
13:00
And if someone of the older generation says,
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ื•ืื ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืžื”ื“ื•ืจ ื”ื™ืฉืŸ ื™ื•ืชืจ ื”ื™ื” ืื•ืžืจ,
13:03
well, our government takes care of us,
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ืฉืœื ื• ืชื˜ืคืœ ื‘ื ื•,
13:05
and it's up to their government to take care of them,
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ื•ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ืฉืœื”ื ืชื˜ืคืœ ื‘ื”ื,
13:08
they're just not willing to take the hypothetical seriously.
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ื”ื ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืœื ืžื•ื›ื ื™ื ืœืงื—ืช ืืช ื”ื”ื™ืคื•ืชื˜ื™ ื‘ืจืฆื™ื ื•ืช.
13:12
Or take an Islamic father whose daughter has been raped,
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ืื• ืงื—ื• ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื ืื‘ ืžื•ืกืœืžื™ ืฉื‘ื™ืชื• ื ืื ืกื”,
13:15
and he feels he's honor-bound to kill her.
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืžืจื’ื™ืฉ ืฉื”ื•ื ื›ื‘ื•ืœ ื‘ื›ื‘ื•ื“ ืœื”ืจื•ื’ ืื•ืชื”.
13:18
Well, he's treating his mores
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ื”ื•ื ืžืชื™ื™ื—ืก ืœืžื ื”ื’ื™ื•
13:21
as if they were sticks and stones and rocks that he had inherited,
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ื›ืื™ืœื• ื”ื ืžืงืœื•ืช ื•ืกืœืขื™ื ื•ืื‘ื ื™ื ืฉื”ื•ื ื™ืจืฉ,
13:25
and they're unmovable in any way by logic.
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ื•ืฉืื™ ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื–ื™ื– ืื•ืชื ื‘ืฉื•ื ืฆื•ืจื” ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื”ื’ื™ื•ืŸ.
13:27
They're just inherited mores.
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ื”ื ื‘ืกืš ื”ื›ืœ ืžื ื”ื’ื™ื ืฉืขื‘ืจื• ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉื”.
13:30
Today we would say something like,
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ื”ื™ื•ื ืื ื—ื ื• ื ืืžืจ ืžืฉื”ื• ื›ืžื•,
13:32
well, imagine you were knocked unconscious and sodomized.
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ื“ืžื™ื™ื ื• ืฉื”ื™ื›ื• ืืชื›ื ืขื“ ืื•ื‘ื“ืŸ ื”ื›ืจื” ื•ื‘ื™ืฆืขื• ื‘ื›ื ืžืขืฉื” ืกื“ื•ื.
13:36
Would you deserve to be killed?
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ื”ืื ืžื’ื™ืข ืœื›ื ืœืฆืืช ืœื”ื•ืจื’ ืขืœ ื›ืš?
13:37
And he would say, well that's not in the Koran.
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ื•ื”ื•ื ื™ืืžืจ, ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ ื–ื” ืœื ื‘ืงื•ืจืืŸ.
13:40
That's not one of the principles I've got.
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ื–ื” ืœื ืื—ื“ ื”ืขืงืจื•ื ื•ืช ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื™.
13:44
Well you, today, universalize your principles.
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ ืืชื ื”ื™ื•ื ืžื›ืœื™ืœื™ื ืืช ื”ืขืงืจื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœื›ื.
13:47
You state them as abstractions and you use logic on them.
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ืืชื ืžื ืกื—ื™ื ืื•ืชื ื›ื”ืคืฉื˜ื•ืช ื•ืืชื ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ื”ื’ื™ื•ืŸ ืขืœื™ื”ื.
13:51
If you have a principle such as,
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ืื ื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ืขื™ืงืจื•ืŸ ื›ืžื•,
13:53
people shouldn't suffer unless they're guilty of something,
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ืœืื ืฉื™ื ืœื ืžื’ื™ืข ืœืกื‘ื•ืœ ืืœื ืื ื”ื ืืฉืžื™ื ื‘ืžืฉื”ื•,
13:57
then to exclude black people
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ืื– ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื•ืฆื™ื ืžื”ื›ืœืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉื—ื•ืจื™ื
13:59
you've got to make exceptions, don't you?
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ืืชื ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ื›ื ื™ืก ื—ืจื™ื’ื” ืœื›ืœืœ, ืœื?
14:01
You have to say, well, blackness of skin,
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ืืชื ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื•ืžืจ, ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืขื•ืจ ืฉื—ื•ืจ,
14:04
you couldn't suffer just for that.
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ืื™ ืืคืฉืจ ืœืกื‘ื•ืœ ืจืง ื‘ื’ืœืœ ื–ื”.
14:07
It must be that blacks are somehow tainted.
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ื–ื” ื—ื™ื™ื‘ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืฉืฉื—ื•ืจื™ื ืžื•ื›ืชืžื™ื ืื™ื›ืฉื”ื•.
14:10
And then we can bring empirical evidence to bear, can't we,
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ื•ืื– ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืขื“ื•ื™ื•ืช ืืžืคื™ืจื™ื•ืช ืœื—ื–ืง ืืช ื”ื˜ืขื ื”, ื”ืœื•ื ื›ืŸ,
14:13
and say, well how can you consider all blacks tainted
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ื•ืœื•ืžืจ, ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ ืื™ืš ืืชื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื—ืฉื™ื‘ ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืฉื—ื•ืจื™ื ืžื•ื›ืชืžื™ื
14:16
when St. Augustine was black and Thomas Sowell is black.
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ื›ืืฉืจ ืกื ื˜ ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ื™ืŸ ื•ืชื•ืžืืก ืกืื•ื•ืœ ื”ื™ื• ืฉื—ื•ืจื™ื.
14:20
And you can get moral argument off the ground, then,
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ื•ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืืชื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ื˜ื™ืขื•ืŸ ืžื•ืกืจื™,
14:23
because you're not treating moral principles as concrete entities.
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืืชื” ืœื ืžืชื™ื™ื—ืก ืœืขืงืจื•ื ื•ืช ืžื•ืกืจื™ื™ื ื›ื™ื™ืฉื•ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ื—ืฉื™ื•ืช.
14:28
You're treating them as universals,
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ืืชื” ืžืชื™ื™ื—ืก ืืœื™ื”ื ื›ื›ืœืœื™ื™ื,
14:30
to be rendered consistent by logic.
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ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืคื•ืš ืื•ืชื ืœืขืงื‘ื™ื™ื ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื”ื’ื™ื•ืŸ.
14:33
Now how did all of this arise out of I.Q. tests?
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืื™ืš ื›ืœ ื–ื” ื ื‘ืข ืžืžื‘ื—ื ื™ I.Q.?
14:36
That's what initially got me going on cognitive history.
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ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉื’ืจื ืœื™ ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ืงื•ื’ื ื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ืช.
14:40
If you look at the I.Q. test,
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ืื ืžืกืชื›ืœื™ื ืขืœ ืžื‘ื—ื ื™ ื”-I.Q.
14:42
you find the gains have been greatest in certain areas.
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ืžื’ืœื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื• ืฉื™ืคื•ืจื™ื ื ื™ื›ืจื™ื ื‘ืื™ื–ื•ืจื™ื ืžืกื•ื™ืžื™ื.
14:46
The similarities subtest of the Wechsler
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ืžื‘ื—ืŸ ื”ื™ื™ืฉื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ื“ื•ืžื•ืช ืฉืœ ื•ืงืกืœืจ
14:48
is about classification,
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ื ื•ื’ืข ื‘ืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ ืกื™ื•ื•ื’,
14:51
and we have made enormous gains
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ื•ื”ืชืงื“ืžื ื• ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื ื™ื›ืจ
14:53
on that classification subtest.
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ื‘ืžื‘ื—ืŸ ื”ืกื™ื•ื•ื’ื™ื ื”ื–ื”.
14:56
There are other parts of the I.Q. test battery
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ื™ืฉ ื—ืœืงื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ืžื‘ื—ื ื™ ื”-I.Q.
14:59
that are about using logic on abstractions.
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ืฉื ื•ื’ืขื™ื ื‘ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืœื•ื’ื™ืงื” ืขืœ ื”ืคืฉื˜ื•ืช.
15:02
Some of you may have taken Raven's Progressive Matrices,
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ื—ืœืงื›ื ื ื‘ื—ื ืชื ืขื ื”ืžื˜ืจื™ืฆื•ืช ื”ืคืจื•ื’ืจืกื™ื‘ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืจื™ื™ื‘ืŸ,
15:06
and it's all about analogies.
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ื•ื”ื›ืœ ืขื•ืกืง ืฉื ื‘ืื ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช.
15:08
And in 1900, people could do simple analogies.
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ื•ื‘-1900, ืื ืฉื™ื ื™ื›ืœื• ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืื ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช ืคืฉื•ื˜ื•ืช.
15:12
That is, if you said to them, cats are like wildcats.
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ื›ืœื•ืžืจ, ืื ืืžืจืช ืœื”ื, ื—ืชื•ืœื™ื ื”ื ื›ืžื• ื—ืชื•ืœื™ ื‘ืจ.
15:16
What are dogs like?
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ืœืžื” ื›ืœื‘ื™ื ื“ื•ืžื™ื?
15:18
They would say wolves.
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ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ืื•ืžืจื™ื ื–ืื‘ื™ื.
15:20
But by 1960, people could attack Raven's
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ืืš ื›ื‘ืจ ื‘-1960, ืื ืฉื™ื ื™ื›ืœื• ืœื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ ืขื ืžื‘ื—ื ื™ ืจื™ื™ื‘ืŸ
15:23
on a much more sophisticated level.
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ื‘ืจืžื” ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืชื•ื—ื›ืžืช.
15:26
If you said, we've got two squares followed by a triangle,
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ืื ืืžืจืช, ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืฉื ื™ ืจื™ื‘ื•ืขื™ื ืฉืื—ืจื™ื”ื ื‘ื ืžืฉื•ืœืฉ,
15:31
what follows two circles?
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ืžื” ื‘ื ืื—ืจื™ ืฉื ื™ ืขื™ื’ื•ืœื™ื?
15:33
They could say a semicircle.
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ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื•ืžืจ ื—ืฆื™ ืขื™ื’ื•ืœ.
15:35
Just as a triangle is half of a square,
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ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื›ืฉื ืฉืžืฉื•ืœืฉ ื”ื•ื ื—ืฆื™ ืจื™ื‘ื•ืข,
15:37
a semicircle is half of a circle.
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ื—ืฆื™ ืขื™ื’ื•ืœ ื”ื•ื ื—ืฆื™ ืžืžืขื’ืœ.
15:40
By 2010, college graduates, if you said
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ื‘-2010, ืื ื ื™ืงื— ื‘ื•ื’ืจื™ ืžื›ืœืœื•ืช, ืื ืืžืจืช
15:44
two circles followed by a semicircle,
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ื—ืฆื™ ืขื™ื’ื•ืœ ื‘ื ืื—ืจื™ ืฉื ื™ ืžืขื’ืœื™ื,
15:47
two sixteens followed by what,
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ืžื” ื‘ื ืื—ืจื™ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื 16?
15:50
they would say eight, because eight is half of 16.
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ื•ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ืื•ืžืจื™ื 8, ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉ-8 ื”ื•ื ื—ืฆื™ ืž-16.
15:53
That is, they had moved so far from the concrete world
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ื›ืœื•ืžืจ, ื”ื ื”ืชืจื—ืงื• ื›ืœ ื›ืš ืžื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืžื•ื—ืฉื™
15:56
that they could even ignore
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ืฉื”ื ื™ื›ืœื• ืœื”ืชืขืœื
15:59
the appearance of the symbols that were involved in the question.
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ืžืกื•ื’ ื”ืกืžืœื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื• ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืฉืืœื”.
16:03
Now, I should say one thing that's very disheartening.
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืื ื™ ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื•ืžืจ ื“ื‘ืจ ืื—ื“ ืงืฆืช ืžื“ืื™ื’.
16:06
We haven't made progress on all fronts.
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ืœื ื”ืชืงื“ืžื ื• ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ื—ื–ื™ืชื•ืช.
16:09
One of the ways in which we would like to deal
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ืื—ืช ื”ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืฉืื™ืชืŸ ืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“
16:12
with the sophistication of the modern world
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ืขื ื”ืชื—ื›ื•ื ืฉืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™
16:14
is through politics,
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ื”ื™ื ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืงื”,
16:16
and sadly you can have humane moral principles,
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ื•ืœืžืจื‘ื” ื”ืฆืขืจ ืืชื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืฉื™ื”ื™ื• ืœืš ืขืงืจื•ื ื•ืช ืžื•ืกืจื™ื™ื,
16:19
you can classify, you can use logic on abstractions,
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ืืชื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืกื•ื•ื’, ืืชื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื”ื’ื™ื•ืŸ ืขืœ ื”ืคืฉื˜ื•ืช,
16:24
and if you're ignorant of history and of other countries,
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ืืš ืื ืืชื” ื‘ื•ืจ ื‘ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ืฉืœ ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช,
16:27
you can't do politics.
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ืื™ื ืš ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืขืกื•ืง ื‘ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืงื”.
16:29
We've noticed, in a trend among young Americans,
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ื”ื‘ื—ื ื• ื‘ืžื’ืžื” ื‘ืงืจื‘ ืฆืขื™ืจื™ื ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ื,
16:32
that they read less history and less literature
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ืฉื”ื ืงื•ืจืื™ื ืคื—ื•ืช ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ื•ืคื—ื•ืช ืกืคืจื•ืช
16:35
and less material about foreign lands,
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ื•ืคื—ื•ืช ื—ื•ืžืจ ืขืœ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื–ืจื•ืช,
16:38
and they're essentially ahistorical.
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ื•ื”ื ืœืžืขืฉื” ื ื˜ื•ืœื™ ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื”.
16:39
They live in the bubble of the present.
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ื”ื ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ื‘ื•ืขื” ืฉืœ ื”ื”ื•ื•ื”.
16:42
They don't know the Korean War from the war in Vietnam.
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ื”ื ืœื ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžืœื—ืžืช ืงื•ืจื™ืื” ืœืžืœื—ืžืช ื•ื™ื™ื˜ื ืื.
16:44
They don't know who was an ally of America in World War II.
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ื”ื ืœื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืžื™ ื”ื™ื• ื‘ืขืœื•ืช ื‘ืจื™ืชื” ืฉืœ ืืžืจื™ืงื” ื‘ืžืœื—ืžืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืฉื ื™ื”.
16:49
Think how different America would be
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ืชื—ืฉื‘ื• ื›ืžื” ืืžืจื™ืงื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืฉื•ื ื”
16:51
if every American knew that this is the fifth time
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ืื ื›ืœ ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ ื”ื™ื” ื™ื•ื“ืข ืฉื–ื• ื”ืคืขื ื”ื—ืžื™ืฉื™ืช
16:55
Western armies have gone to Afghanistan to put its house in order,
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ืฉืฆื‘ืื•ืช ืžืขืจื‘ื™ื™ื ื ื›ื ืกื• ืœืืคื’ื ื™ืกื˜ืŸ ื›ื“ื™ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืฉื ืกื“ืจ,
16:59
and if they had some idea of exactly what had happened
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ื•ืื ื”ื™ื” ืœื”ื ืงืฆืช ืžื•ืฉื’ ืขืœ ืžื” ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืงืจื”
17:02
on those four previous occasions.
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ื‘ื›ืœ ืืจื‘ืขืช ื”ืžืงืจื™ื ื”ืงื•ื“ืžื™ื.
17:05
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
17:06
And that is, they had barely left,
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ื•ืžื” ืฉืงืจื”, ืฉื”ื ืขื–ื‘ื• ื‘ืฉืŸ ื•ืขื™ืŸ,
17:08
and there wasn't a trace in the sand.
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ื•ืœื ื ืฉืืจ ืžื”ื ืืคื™ืœื• ืกื™ืžืŸ ื‘ื—ื•ืœ.
17:10
Or imagine how different things would be
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ืื• ื“ืžื™ื™ื ื• ื›ืžื” ืฉื•ื ื™ื ื”ื™ื• ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื
17:13
if most Americans knew that we had been lied
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ืื ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ื ื™ื“ืขื• ืฉืฉื™ืงืจื• ืœื ื•
17:16
into four of our last six wars.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื™ื›ื ืก ืœืืจื‘ืข ืžื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉืฉ ื”ืžืœื—ืžื•ืช ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช.
17:19
You know, the Spanish didn't sink the battleship Maine,
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ืืชื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื, ื”ืกืคืจื“ื™ื ืœื ื”ื˜ื‘ื™ืขื• ืืช ื”ืžืฉื—ืชืช ืžื™ื™ืŸ,
17:22
the Lusitania was not an innocent vessel
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ื”ืœื•ืกื™ื˜ื ื™ื” ืœื ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืื•ื ื™ื™ื” ืชืžื™ืžื”
17:24
but was loaded with munitions,
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ื•ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืขืžื•ืกื” ื‘ืชื—ืžื•ืฉืช,
17:27
the North Vietnamese did not attack the Seventh Fleet,
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ื”ืฆืคื•ืŸ ื•ื™ื™ื˜ื ืืžื™ื ืœื ืชืงืคื• ืืช ื”ืฆื™ ื”ืฉื‘ื™ืขื™,
17:31
and, of course, Saddam Hussein hated al Qaeda
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ื•ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ, ืกื“ืื ื—ื•ืกื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื ื ืืช ืืœ ืงืืขื™ื“ื”
17:34
and had nothing to do with it,
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ื•ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืœื• ืฉื•ื ืงืฉืจ ืืœื™ื”ื,
17:36
and yet the administration convinced 45 percent of the people
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ื•ืขื ื–ืืช ื”ืžืžืฉืœ ืฉื›ื ืข 45 ืื—ื•ื–ื™ื ืžื”ืขื
17:40
that they were brothers in arms,
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ืฉื”ื ื”ื™ื• ืื—ื™ื ืœื ืฉืง,
17:41
when he would hang one from the nearest lamppost.
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ื›ืืฉืจ ื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ื”ื™ื” ืžื•ื›ืŸ ืœืชืœื•ืช ืืช ื”ืฉื ื™ ืขืœ ื”ืขืžื•ื“ ื”ืงืจื•ื‘.
17:45
But I don't want to end on a pessimistic note.
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ืืš ืื ื™ ืœื ืจื•ืฆื” ืœืกื™ื™ื ื‘ื˜ื•ืŸ ืคืกื™ืžื™.
17:49
The 20th century has shown enormous cognitive reserves
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ื”ืžืื” ื”-20 ื”ืคื’ื™ื ื” ืจื–ืจื‘ื•ืช ืงื•ื’ื ื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ืช ืขืฆื•ืžื•ืช
17:53
in ordinary people that we have now realized,
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ื‘ืื ืฉื™ื ืคืฉื•ื˜ื™ื ืฉืขื›ืฉื™ื• ื”ื’ืฉืžื ื•,
17:57
and the aristocracy was convinced
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ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ืืจื™ืกื˜ื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืžืฉื•ื›ื ืขืช
17:59
that the average person couldn't make it,
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ืฉื”ืื“ื ื”ืžืžื•ืฆืข ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืฆืœื™ื—,
18:01
that they could never share their mindset
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ืฉื”ื ืœืขื•ืœื ืœื ื™ื•ื›ืœื• ืœื—ืœื•ืง ืืช ืฆื•ืจืช ื”ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื” ืฉืœื”ื
18:04
or their cognitive abilities.
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ืื• ืืช ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืงื•ื’ื ื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื.
18:07
Lord Curzon once said
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ืœื•ืจื“ ืงื•ืจื–ื•ืŸ ืคืขื ืืžืจ
18:09
he saw people bathing in the North Sea,
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ืฉื”ื•ื ืจืื” ืื ืฉื™ื ืจื•ื—ืฆื™ื ื‘ื™ื ื”ืฆืคื•ื ื™,
18:11
and he said, "Why did no one tell me
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืืžืจ, "ืœืžื” ืืฃ ืื—ื“ ืœื ืืžืจ ืœื™
18:12
what white bodies the lower orders have?"
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ืื™ื–ื” ื’ื•ืคื™ื ืœื‘ื ื™ื ื™ืฉ ืœืคืฉื•ื˜ื™ ื”ืขื?"
18:15
As if they were a reptile.
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ื›ืื™ืœื• ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ื–ื•ื—ืœื™ื.
18:18
Well, Dickens was right and he was wrong. [Correction: Rudyard Kipling]
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ื“ื™ืงื ืก ืฆื“ืง ื•ื”ื•ื ื˜ืขื”. [ืชื™ืงื•ืŸ: ืจื•ื“ื™ืืจื“ ืงื™ืคืœื™ื ื’]
18:21
[Kipling] said, "The colonel's lady and Judy O'Grady
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[ืงื™ืคืœื™ื ื’] ืืžืจ, "ืืฉืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืงื•ืœื•ื ืœ ื•ื’'ื•ื“ื™ ืื•ื’ืจื™ื™ื“ื™
18:25
are sisters underneath the skin."
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ื”ืŸ ืื—ื™ื•ืช ืžืชื—ืช ืœืขื•ืจ."
18:28
(Applause)
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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