How languages evolve - Alex Gendler

3,167,228 views ใƒป 2014-05-27

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: Ido Dekkers ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Tal Dekkers
00:07
In the biblical story of the Tower of Babel,
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ื‘ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ื”ืชื ื›ื™ ืฉืœ ืžื’ื“ืœ ื‘ื‘ืœ,
00:09
all of humanity once spoke a single language
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ื›ืœ ื”ืื ื•ืฉื•ืช ื“ื™ื‘ืจื” ืคืขื ื‘ืฉืคื” ืื—ืช
00:12
until they suddenly split into many groups
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ืขื“ ืฉื”ื ืคืชืื•ื ื”ืชืคืฆืœื• ืœื”ืจื‘ื” ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช
00:14
unable to understand each other.
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ืœืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื—ื“ ืืช ื”ืฉื ื™.
00:16
We don't really know if such an original language ever existed,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ื‘ืืžืช ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืื ืฉืคื” ืžืงื•ืจื™ืช ื›ื–ื• ื”ืชืงื™ื™ืžื” ืื™ ืคืขื,
00:20
but we do know that the thousands of languages existing today
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืฉืืœืคื™ ื”ืฉืคื•ืช ืฉืงื™ื™ืžื•ืช ื›ื™ื•ื
00:23
can be traced back to a much smaller number.
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ืžื’ื™ืขื•ืช ืžืžืกืคืจ ืงื˜ืŸ ื‘ื”ืจื‘ื”.
00:27
So how did we end up with so many?
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ืื– ืื™ืš ื”ื’ืขื ื• ืœื›ืœ ื›ืš ื”ืจื‘ื”?
00:29
In the early days of human migration,
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ื‘ื™ืžื™ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื”ื’ื™ืจื” ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช,
00:31
the world was much less populated.
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ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื”ืจื‘ื” ืคื—ื•ืช ืžืื•ื›ืœืก.
00:33
Groups of people that shared a single language and culture
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ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉื—ืœืงื• ืฉืคื” ื•ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ืื—ืช
00:36
often split into smaller tribes,
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ื”ืชืคืฆืœื• ื”ืจื‘ื” ืคืขืžื™ื ืœืฉื‘ื˜ื™ื ืงื˜ื ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ,
00:38
going separate ways in search of fresh game and fertile land.
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ื•ื”ืœื›ื• ืœื“ืจื›ื™ื ื ืคืจื“ื•ืช ื‘ื—ื™ืคื•ืฉ ืื—ืจื™ ืฆื™ื“ ื—ื“ืฉ ื•ืื“ืžื•ืช ืคื•ืจื™ื•ืช.
00:42
As they migrated and settled in new places,
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ื›ืฉื”ื ื ื“ื“ื• ื•ื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื• ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื™ื,
00:44
they became isolated from one another
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ื”ื ื”ืคื›ื• ืœืžื‘ื•ื“ื“ื™ื ืื—ื“ ืžื”ืฉื ื™
00:46
and developed in different ways.
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ื•ื”ืชืคืชื—ื• ื‘ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื•ืช.
00:48
Centuries of living in different conditions,
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ืžืื•ืช ืฉื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ืชื ืื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื,
00:50
eating different food
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ืื›ื™ืœืช ืžืื›ืœื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื
00:51
and encountering different neighbors
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ื•ืคื’ื™ืฉืช ืฉื›ื ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื
00:53
turned similar dialects with varied pronunciation and vocabulary
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ื”ืคื›ื• ืืช ื”ื ื™ื‘ื™ื ื”ื“ื•ืžื™ื ืขื ื”ื’ื™ื•ืช ื•ืื•ืฆืจ ืžื™ืœื™ื ืžื’ื•ื•ื ื™ื
00:56
into radically different languages,
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ืœืฉืคื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ืจื“ื™ืงืœื™ืช,
00:59
continuing to divide as populations grew and spread out further.
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ื•ื”ืžืฉื™ื›ื• ืœื”ืชื—ืœืง ื›ืฉืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื•ืช ื’ื“ืœื• ื•ื”ืชืคืฉื˜ื• ืจื—ื•ืง ื™ื•ืชืจ.
01:02
Like genealogists, modern linguists try to map this process
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ื›ืžื• ื’ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื, ื—ื•ืงืจื™ ืฉืคื” ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ื™ื ืžื ืกื™ื ืœืžืคื•ืช ืืช ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ื–ื”
01:06
by tracing multiple languages back as far as they can
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžืขืงื‘ ืื—ืจื™ ืฉืคื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ืจื—ื•ืง ื›ื›ืœ ื”ืืคืฉืจ ื‘ืขื‘ืจ
01:09
to their common ancestor, or protolanguage.
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ืœืื‘ื•ืช ื”ืžืฉื•ืชืคื™ื ืฉืœื”ืŸ, ืื• ืคืจื•ื˜ื•-ืฉืคื•ืช.
01:12
A group of all languages related in this way is called a language family,
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ืงื‘ื•ืฆื” ืฉืœ ืฉืคื•ืช ืฉืงืฉื•ืจื” ื‘ื“ืจืš ื–ื• ื ืงืจืืช ืžืฉืคื—ืช ืฉืคื•ืช.
01:16
which can contain many branches and sub-families.
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ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ื›ื™ืœ ื”ืจื‘ื” ืขื ืคื™ื ื•ืชืช ืžืฉืคื—ื•ืช.
01:20
So how do we determine whether languages are related in the first place?
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ืื– ืื™ืš ืื ื—ื ื• ืงื•ื‘ืขื™ื ืื ืฉืคื•ืช ืงืฉื•ืจื•ืช ืื—ืช ืœืฉื ื™ื”?
01:24
Similar sounding words don't tell us much.
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ืžื™ืœื™ื ืฉื ืฉืžืขื•ืช ื“ื•ืžื•ืช ืœื ืื•ืžืจื•ืช ืœื ื• ื”ืจื‘ื”.
01:26
They could be false cognates or just directly borrowed terms
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ื”ืŸ ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืงืฉืจื™ื ืžื“ื•ืžื™ื ืื• ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ื™ื ืฉื”ื•ืฉืืœื• ื™ืฉื™ืจื•ืช
01:29
rather than derived from a common root.
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ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืื•ืชื• ืžืงื•ืจ.
01:32
Grammar and syntax are a more reliable guide,
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ื“ืงื“ื•ืง ื•ืชื—ื‘ื™ืจ ื”ื ืžื“ืจื™ื›ื™ื ื˜ื•ื‘ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ,
01:34
as well as basic vocabulary,
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ื›ืžื• ื’ื ืื•ืฆืจ ืžื™ืœื™ื ื‘ืกื™ืกื™,
01:36
such as pronouns, numbers or kinship terms,
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ื›ืžื• ื›ื™ื ื•ื™ื™ ื’ื•ืฃ, ืžืกืคืจื™ื ืื• ืฉืžื•ืช ื›ื™ื ื•ื™ื™ ืงืจื‘ื”,
01:39
that's less likely to be borrowed.
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ืฉื™ืฉ ืคื—ื•ืช ืกื™ื›ื•ื™ ืฉื”ื•ืฉืืœื•.
01:41
By systematically comparing these features
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืฉื•ื•ืื” ืฉื™ื˜ืชื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืชื›ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืืœื•
01:43
and looking for regular patterns of sound changes
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ื•ื—ื™ืคื•ืฉ ืื—ืจ ืชื‘ื ื™ื•ืช ื—ื•ื–ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ืฆืœื™ืœ
01:46
and correspondences between languages,
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ื•ื”ืชืืžื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืฉืคื•ืช,
01:48
linguists can determine relationships,
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ื—ื•ืงืจื™ ืฉืคื” ืงื•ื‘ืขื™ื ื™ื—ืกื™ื,
01:50
trace specific steps in their evolution
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ืขื•ืงื‘ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ ืฉืœื‘ื™ื ื‘ื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ืช
01:52
and even reconstruct earlier languages with no written records.
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ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ื‘ื•ื ื™ื ืžื—ื“ืฉ ืฉืคื•ืช ืžื•ืงื“ืžื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœืœื ืชืขื•ื“ ื›ืชื•ื‘.
01:56
Linguistics can even reveal other important historical clues,
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ื—ื•ืงืจื™ ืฉืคื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืืคื™ืœื• ืœื—ืฉื•ืฃ ืจืžื–ื™ื ื”ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื™ื ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื,
02:00
such as determining the geographic origins and lifestyles of ancient peoples
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ื›ืžื• ืœืงื‘ื•ืข ืืช ื”ืžืงื•ืจื•ืช ื”ื’ืื•ื’ืจืคื™ื™ื ื•ืื•ืจื— ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ื‘ืขื‘ืจ
02:04
based on which of their words were native,
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ื‘ื”ืชื‘ืกืก ืขืœ ืื™ื–ื” ืžื™ืœื™ื ื”ืŸ ืžืงื•ืจื™ื•ืช,
02:06
and which were borrowed.
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ื•ืื™ืœื• ื”ื•ืฉืืœื•.
02:08
There are two main problems linguists face
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ื™ืฉ ืฉืชื™ ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ืฉืขื•ืžื“ื•ืช ื‘ืคื ื™ ื—ื•ืงืจื™ ืฉืคื”
02:10
when constructing these language family trees.
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ื›ืฉื”ื ืžืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ื ืืช ืขืฆื™ ืžืฉืคื—ื•ืช ื”ืฉืคื” ื”ืืœื”.
02:13
One is that there is no clear way of deciding
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ืื—ืช ื”ื™ื ืฉืื™ืŸ ื“ืจืš ื‘ืจื•ืจื” ืœื”ื—ืœื™ื˜
02:15
where the branches at the bottom should end, that is,
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ืื™ืคื” ื”ืขื ืคื™ื ื‘ืชื—ืชื™ืช ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ืกืชื™ื™ื,
02:17
which dialects should be considered separate languages or vice versa.
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ืฉื–ื” ืื•ืžืจ, ืื™ื–ื” ื ื™ื‘ื™ื ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ื—ืฉื‘ ืฉืคื•ืช ื ืคืจื“ื•ืช ืื• ืœื”ืคืš.
02:22
Chinese is classified as a single language,
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ืกื™ื ื™ืช ืžืกื•ื•ื’ืช ื›ืฉืคื” ืื—ืช,
02:25
but its dialects vary to the point of being mutually unintelligible,
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื ื™ื‘ื™ื ืฉืœื” ื”ืฉืชื ื• ืขื“ ืœื ืงื•ื“ื” ืฉื”ื ื‘ืœืชื™ ืžื•ื‘ื ื™ื ืื—ื“ ืœืฉื ื™,
02:29
while speakers of Spanish and Portuguese
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืฉื“ื•ื‘ืจื™ ืกืคืจื“ื™ืช ื•ืคื•ืจื˜ื•ื’ื–ื™ืช
02:31
can often understand each other.
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื—ื“ ืืช ื”ืฉื ื™.
02:32
Languages actually spoken by living people
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ืฉืคื•ืช ืฉืžื“ื•ื‘ืจื•ืช ืœืžืขืฉื” ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืื ืฉื™ื ื—ื™ื™ื
02:35
do not exist in neatly divided categories,
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ืœื ืงื™ื™ืžื•ืช ื‘ืงื˜ื’ื•ืจื™ื•ืช ืฉืžื—ื•ืœืงื•ืช ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ื ืื”,
02:38
but tend to transition gradually,
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ืืœื ื ื•ื˜ื•ืช ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ื‘ื”ื“ืจื’ื”,
02:40
crossing borders and classifications.
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ื—ื•ืฆื•ืช ื’ื‘ื•ืœื•ืช ื•ื”ื’ื“ืจื•ืช.
02:42
Often the difference between languages and dialects
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ืคืขืžื™ื ื”ื”ื‘ื“ืœื™ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉืคื•ืช ื•ื ื™ื‘ื™ื
02:44
is a matter of changing political and national considerations,
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ื”ื ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืฉืœ ืฉื™ืงื•ืœื™ื ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ื™ื ื•ืœืื•ืžื™ื™ื ืžืฉืชื ื™ื,
02:48
rather than any linguistic features.
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ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืชื›ื•ื ื” ืœืฉื•ื ื™ืช.
02:50
This is why the answer to, "How many languages are there?"
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ืœื›ืŸ ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืœ, "ื›ืžื” ืฉืคื•ืช ื™ืฉ?"
02:52
can be anywhere between 3,000 and 8,000,
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื ื•ืข ื‘ื™ืŸ 3,000 ืœ 8,000,
02:56
depending on who's counting.
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ืชืœื•ื™ ื‘ืžื™ ืฉืกื•ืคืจ.
02:58
The other problem is that the farther we move back in time
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ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ืื—ืจืช ื”ื™ื ืฉื›ื›ืœ ืฉื—ื•ื–ืจื™ื ืื—ื•ืจื” ื™ื•ืชืจ
03:00
towards the top of the tree,
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ืœื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืจืืฉ ื”ืขืฅ,
03:02
the less evidence we have about the languages there.
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ื™ืฉ ืคื—ื•ืช ืจืื™ื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ืฉืคื•ืช ืฉื.
03:05
The current division of major language families
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ื”ื—ืœื•ืงื” ื”ืขื›ืฉื•ื•ื™ืช ืฉืœ ืžืฉืคื—ื•ืช ืฉืคื•ืช ืขื™ืงืจื™ื•ืช
03:07
represents the limit at which relationships can be established
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ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ืช ืืช ื”ืžื’ื‘ืœื” ื‘ื” ื™ื—ืกื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื‘ื ื•ืช
03:10
with reasonable certainty,
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ืขื ื•ื“ืื•ืช ืกื‘ื™ืจื”,
03:12
meaning that languages of different families
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ืžื” ืฉืื•ืžืจ ืฉื”ืฉืคื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžืฉืคื—ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช
03:14
are presumed not to be related on any level.
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ื ื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช ืœื ืงืฉื•ืจื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ืจืžื”.
03:17
But this may change.
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ื™ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืฉืชื ื•ืช.
03:18
While many proposals for higher level relationships --
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ื›ืฉื”ืฆืขื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ืœื™ื—ืกื™ื ื‘ืจืžื•ืช ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ --
03:21
or super families -- are speculative,
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ืื• ืกื•ืคืจ ืžืฉืคื—ื•ืช -- ืžืฉื•ืขืจื•ืช,
03:23
some have been widely accepted
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ื›ืžื” ื”ืชืงื‘ืœื• ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ืจื—ื‘ื”
03:25
and others are being considered,
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ื•ืื—ืจื•ืช ื ืฉืงืœื•ืช,
03:27
especially for native languages with small speaker populations
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ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืœืฉืคื•ืช ื™ืœื™ื“ื™ื•ืช ืขื ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื•ืช ื“ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ืงื˜ื ื•ืช
03:29
that have not been extensively studied.
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ืฉืœื ื ื—ืงืจื• ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื ืจื—ื‘.
03:32
We may never be able to determine how language came about,
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ืื•ืœื™ ืœืขื•ืœื ืœื ื ื”ื™ื” ืžืกื•ื’ืœื™ื ืœืงื‘ื•ืข ืื™ืš ื”ืฉืคื•ืช ื ื•ืฆืจื•,
03:35
or whether all human languages did in fact have a common ancestor
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ืื• ืื ื›ืœ ื”ืฉืคื•ืช ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ื•ืช ื‘ืืžืช ื”ื’ื™ืขื• ืžืื‘ ืžืฉื•ืชืฃ
03:38
scattered through the babel of migration.
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ื•ืคื•ื–ืจื• ื‘ื’ืœื•ืช ื‘ื‘ืœ.
03:41
But the next time you hear a foreign language, pay attention.
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืคืขื ื”ื‘ืื” ืฉืืชื ืฉื•ืžืขื™ื ืฉืคื” ื–ืจื”, ืฉื™ืžื• ืœื‘.
03:44
It may not be as foreign as you think.
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ื”ื™ื ืื•ืœื™ ืœื ื›ืœ ื›ืš ื–ืจื” ื›ืžื• ืฉืืชื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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