How languages evolve - Alex Gendler

語言演化 - 亞歷克斯‧詹德勒

譯者: Yu-Chen Chu 審譯者: Adrienne Lin

In the biblical story of the Tower of Babel,

在聖經巴別塔的故事中，

all of humanity once spoke a single language

全人類起初有著共同的語言，

until they suddenly split into many groups

但有天他們突然被分散，

unable to understand each other.

彼此變得無法溝通。

We don't really know if such an original language ever existed,

我們無法確知是否曾經有共同初始語言，

but we do know that the thousands of languages existing today

但追溯現有的上千種語言，

can be traced back to a much smaller number.

我們知道語言早期 其實數量小得許多。

So how did we end up with so many?

那我們現在怎麼會有這麼多種語言？

In the early days of human migration,

人類遷徙早期

the world was much less populated.

世界總人口要少的多。

Groups of people that shared a single language and culture

有著同樣語言和文化的人們

often split into smaller tribes,

常會分為更小的部落，

going separate ways in search of fresh game and fertile land.

自此各自尋找新的獵物和肥沃的土地。

As they migrated and settled in new places,

他們遷移、在新的地方定居，

they became isolated from one another

彼此斷了聯繫，

and developed in different ways.

逐漸有不同發展。

Centuries of living in different conditions,

歷經幾百年不同的生活環境、

eating different food

攝取不同的食物、

and encountering different neighbors

與不同的部落交流來往。

turned similar dialects with varied pronunciation and vocabulary

導致原本僅是發音、詞彙稍有不同的方言，

into radically different languages,

最終演變成完全不同的語言，

continuing to divide as populations grew and spread out further.

而差異會隨著人口增長和遷徙持續增大。

Like genealogists, modern linguists try to map this process

現代語言學家如追溯系譜， 試圖拼湊出演化過程，

by tracing multiple languages back as far as they can

他們由多種語言著手盡可能往回追溯，

to their common ancestor, or protolanguage.

找出最原始共同的語言，或稱為祖語。

A group of all languages related in this way is called a language family,

相關聯的各種語言歸為同語系，

which can contain many branches and sub-families.

語系下分許多語言支系和次語系。

So how do we determine whether languages are related in the first place?

但前提是如何確定語言彼此有關聯？

相似發音的詞彙不能當作證據。

Similar sounding words don't tell us much.

They could be false cognates or just directly borrowed terms

可能只是看似相關， 或是直接借用的外來語，

rather than derived from a common root.

而非來自同源的不同字。

Grammar and syntax are a more reliable guide,

語法和句構是較為可靠的依據，

as well as basic vocabulary,

基本詞彙也是，

such as pronouns, numbers or kinship terms,

如代詞、數字或者親屬稱謂，

that's less likely to be borrowed.

從其他語言借來的可能性較低。

By systematically comparing these features

有條理地一一比較這些特徵，

and looking for regular patterns of sound changes

尋找發音轉變的特定模式，

and correspondences between languages,

以及語言之間的相對應，

linguists can determine relationships,

語言學家可以確定語言關係、

trace specific steps in their evolution

追溯語言演化中的特定時期、

and even reconstruct earlier languages with no written records.

甚至重建史前時代的語言。

Linguistics can even reveal other important historical clues,

從語言學甚至可以發現 其他重要歷史軌跡，

such as determining the geographic origins and lifestyles of ancient peoples

例如判定地理起源 與該地祖先的生活方式，

based on which of their words were native,

可依據哪些字詞是自有的，

and which were borrowed.

哪些是外來語，從中找出端倪。

There are two main problems linguists face

語言學家重建語系時，

when constructing these language family trees.

面臨兩大難題。

One is that there is no clear way of deciding

一是沒有明確的方法判斷

where the branches at the bottom should end, that is,

追溯到什麼程度才能歸為同一語言，

which dialects should be considered separate languages or vice versa.

也就是說語言和方言的判定很模糊。

Chinese is classified as a single language,

中文雖定義為一種語言，

but its dialects vary to the point of being mutually unintelligible,

但是各種方言差異大到 不一定能彼此溝通。

while speakers of Spanish and Portuguese

而西班牙語和葡萄牙語

can often understand each other.

大致上能相互通用。

Languages actually spoken by living people

老實說人是在活用語言，

do not exist in neatly divided categories,

無法死板地劃清語言間的界線。

but tend to transition gradually,

到不如說是不同語言間有過渡期，

crossing borders and classifications.

沒有一清二楚的區別跟分類。

Often the difference between languages and dialects

實際上語言和方言的判定

is a matter of changing political and national considerations,

是基於變動的政治和國族考量，

rather than any linguistic features.

而非基於語言本身的特徵。

This is why the answer to, "How many languages are there?"

這也說明為何「世上有多少種語言？」

can be anywhere between 3,000 and 8,000,

答案可落在三千至八千不等，

depending on who's counting.

僅取決於由誰主導統計。

The other problem is that the farther we move back in time

另一大問題是我們越往回

towards the top of the tree,

追溯語系的根源，

the less evidence we have about the languages there.

當時語言資料越難掌握。

The current division of major language families

現在幾大語系的劃分，

represents the limit at which relationships can be established

是根據已知合理推斷下

with reasonable certainty,

將有關聯的各種語言歸為一類。

meaning that languages of different families

這也意味著我們假定不同語系

are presumed not to be related on any level.

彼此間毫無關聯，

But this may change.

但這假設並非不變的事實。

While many proposals for higher level relationships --

很多猜測提出 更具包容力的大規模分類，

or super families -- are speculative,

也就是總語系的概念，

some have been widely accepted

其中有些受到支持，

and others are being considered,

也有些還在討論中，

especially for native languages with small speaker populations

特別是針對使用人數較少的語言 歸類例子，

that have not been extensively studied.

畢竟這些語言尚未研究透徹。

We may never be able to determine how language came about,

人們可能永遠無法說明 語言是如何創造出來的，

or whether all human languages did in fact have a common ancestor

也無法斷定是否真有所謂祖語的存在，

scattered through the babel of migration.

而祖語在人類各自遷徙後有不同演變。

But the next time you hear a foreign language, pay attention.

但或許下次有機會仔細聽聽外語，

It may not be as foreign as you think.

或許跟我們自己的語言也沒那麼大的差異。