Sarah-Jayne Blakemore: The mysterious workings of the adolescent brain
832,984 views ・ 2012-09-17
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Translator: Joseph Geni
Reviewer: Morton Bast
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譯者: Yu-Sheng Lin
審譯者: Barry Hu
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Fifteen years ago, it was widely assumed
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在15年前, 大家普遍地認為
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that the vast majority of brain development
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腦部的發育成長, 主要都在
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takes place in the first few years of life.
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剛出生的前幾個年頭發生
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Back then, 15 years ago, we didn't have the ability
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在15年前做研究的人
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to look inside the living human brain
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並無法觀察到活生生的人的腦部運作
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and track development across the lifespan.
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更談不上追蹤人的一生期間的腦部發展
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In the past decade or so, mainly due to advances
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但在過去的十年間
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in brain imaging technology
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主要由於腦部造影技術的發展
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such as magnetic resonance imaging, or MRI,
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例如: 核磁共振造影, 簡稱 MRI
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neuroscientists have started to look inside the living
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神經學研究者開始有辦法看到, 各年齡層的
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human brain of all ages, and to track changes
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活生生的人的腦部運作, 並且追蹤隨著時間
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in brain structure and brain function,
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腦部結構與功能所發生的改變
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so we use structural MRI if you'd like to take a snapshot,
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因此,若要觀察腦部結構, 我們會使用結構性的MRI
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a photograph, at really high resolution of the inside
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一張高解析度的照片, 可以看到活著的人的
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of the living human brain, and we can ask questions like,
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腦內結構, 可以解答我們的這些疑問, 例如:
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how much gray matter does the brain contain,
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大腦裡的灰質占了多少?
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and how does that change with age?
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隨著年齡又有什麼樣的變化
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And we also use functional MRI, called fMRI,
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我們也可以使用功能性的MRI, 又稱 fMRI
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to take a video, a movie, of brain activity
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來拍攝大腦活動的影片
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when participants are taking part in some kind of task
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被拍攝的人同時正在進行某項工作
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like thinking or feeling or perceiving something.
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比如思考或感覺或感知某些事物
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So many labs around the world are involved in this kind
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世界各地有很多實驗室都在參與這種
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of research, and we now have a really rich
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研究,我們現在擁有大量的觀察資料
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and detailed picture of how the living human brain develops,
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記錄活的人的腦部發展的的詳細照片/影片
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and this picture has radically changed the way
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這些影像資料完全改變了
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we think about human brain development
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我們對人類大腦發展的觀點
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by revealing that it's not all over in early childhood,
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資料顯示了, 人腦並非僅在童年早期就發展完畢
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and instead, the brain continues to develop
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相反的, 大腦持續在發展, 延續到
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right throughout adolescence and into the '20s and '30s.
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整個青春期, 一直到 廿幾 到 卅幾 歲 都還在發展
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So adolescence is defined as the period of life that starts
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青春期的定義, 是一段生命的期間, 始於
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with the biological, hormonal, physical changes of puberty
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生物上的、 內分泌上的、 身體上的改變
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and ends at the age at which an individual attains
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一直到個人建立了一個社會中的
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a stable, independent role in society.
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穩定而且獨立的地位的時間為止
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(Laughter)
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(笑聲)
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It can go on a long time. (Laughter)
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青春期有可能延續的很長久(笑聲)
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One of the brain regions that changes most dramatically
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在青春期, 腦部劇烈改變的區域之一,
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during adolescence is called prefrontal cortex.
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叫做 前額葉皮層。
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So this is a model of the human brain,
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這裡是一個人的腦部的模型
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and this is prefrontal cortex, right at the front.
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而這是前額葉皮層,就在前面。
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Prefrontal cortex is an interesting brain area.
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前額葉皮層是一個有趣的大腦區域。
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It's proportionally much bigger in humans than
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比例上來說, 人腦的前額葉皮層遠大於
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in any other species, and it's involved in a whole range of
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任何其他物種,這個腦部區域負責一系列的
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high level cognitive functions, things like decision-making,
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抽象認知功能,如決策,
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planning, planning what you're going to do tomorrow
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規劃,規劃你明天要做的事情
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or next week or next year, inhibiting
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或是下星期或明年,這個腦區也會抑制
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inappropriate behavior, so stopping yourself saying
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不適當的行為,比方阻止你自己說出
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something really rude or doing something really stupid.
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一些粗魯的話語, 或是做很蠢的事情
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It's also involved in social interaction,
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這個腦區也涉及社會互動,
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understanding other people, and self-awareness.
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瞭解其他人, 還有自我知覺
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So MRI studies looking at the development of this region
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有些 MRI 研究觀察了這個腦區的發展
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have shown that it really undergoes dramatic development
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發現在這個區域經歷了劇烈的變化
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during the period of adolescence.
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在青春期的期間
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So if you look at gray matter volume, for example,
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例如, 就 灰質的體積來說
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gray matter volume across age from age four to 22 years
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從4歲到22歲的期間, 灰質的體積
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increases during childhood, which is what you can see
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在兒童時期開始增加, 如同你在投影片上看到的
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on this graph. It peaks in early adolescence.
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增加到頂的時候, 大約是青春期的早期
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The arrows indicate peak gray matter volume
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兩個箭頭標示著 前額葉皮層 灰質最高的時間點
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in prefrontal cortex. You can see that that peak happens
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你可以看到這個最高點在女生較早發生
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a couple of years later in boys relative to girls,
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而男生的最高點則晚了一兩年
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and that's probably because boys go through puberty
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這有可能是因為男孩進入青春期的年紀
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a couple of years later than girls on average,
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普遍來說比女孩晚上一兩年
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and then during adolescence, there's a significant decline
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然後在後續的青春期, 數值就明顯地下降
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in gray matter volume in prefrontal cortex.
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前額葉皮層的灰質體積一路降低
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Now that might sound bad, but actually this is
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這聽起來好像不太好, 但事實上
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a really important developmental process, because
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這是真正重要的發展過程,因為
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gray matter contains cell bodies and connections
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灰質包含細胞本體, 還有細胞間的連接器
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between cells, the synapses, and this decline
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又稱為 神經突觸,
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in gray matter volume during prefrontal cortex
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這段期間發生的額葉皮層的灰質減少
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is thought to correspond to synaptic pruning,
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被解讀成 突觸 修剪的過程
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the elimination of unwanted synapses.
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把不需要的神經突觸刪去
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This is a really important process. It's partly dependent
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這是一個非常重要的過程。有一部分是因為
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on the environment that the animal or the human is in,
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這個動物或人類所處的環境的影響
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and the synapses that are being used are strengthened,
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讓有用到的突觸變強
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and synapses that aren't being used
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而在所處環境下用不到的突觸
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in that particular environment are pruned away.
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就被修剪掉了。
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You can think of it a bit like pruning a rosebush.
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你可以把它想像如同修剪薔薇叢。
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You prune away the weaker branches so that
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你會把較弱的分支剪掉
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the remaining, important branches, can grow stronger,
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讓留下來的, 較重要的分支, 可以長得更好
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and this process, which effectively fine-tunes brain tissue
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這樣的過程, 有效地微調了腦部的組織
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according to the species-specific environment,
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來因應該物種所處的特定的環境
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is happening in prefrontal cortex and in other brain regions
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這個過程 發生在前額葉皮層, 還有大腦的其他區域
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during the period of human adolescence.
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在人類青春期的期間。
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So a second line of inquiry that we use to track changes
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第二層的研究, 是用功能性的 MRI (fMRI)
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in the adolescent brain is using functional MRI
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來追蹤青春期的腦部的變化
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to look at changes in brain activity across age.
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各個年齡階段腦部活動狀況有什麼改變
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So I'll just give you an example from my lab.
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這裡用我的實驗室的一個例子來說明
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So in my lab, we're interested in the social brain, that is
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我的實驗室研究的是 "社交腦",就是
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the network of brain regions that we use to understand
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大腦各區域的相互連結, 讓人類可以理解
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other people and to interact with other people.
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其他人,並與其他人進行互動。
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So I like to show a photograph of a soccer game
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這裡我想展示一張在足球賽裡拍的照片
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to illustrate two aspects of how your social brains work.
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來說明你的 社交腦 運作的兩個面向
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So this is a soccer game. (Laughter)
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在這場足球賽裡(笑聲)
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Michael Owen has just missed a goal, and he's lying
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麥克 · 歐文 剛剛射門沒進,他正躺在地上
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on the ground, and the first aspect of the social brain
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你的社交腦的第一個面向
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that this picture really nicely illustrates is how automatic
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可以用這張照片貼切的展現出來, 就是 社交情緒
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and instinctive social emotional responses are,
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是如此自動且本能的流露出來
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so within a split second of Michael Owen missing this goal,
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所以只在 麥克 · 歐文 射門沒進的 幾分之一秒裡
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everyone is doing the same thing with their arms
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每個人的反應都一樣, 雙手抱頭
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and the same thing with their face, even Michael Owen
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臉上的表情也都一樣, 就連 麥克 · 歐文
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as he slides along the grass, is doing the same thing
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在滑倒在草皮上的時候, 也是相同的動作與表情
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with his arms, and presumably has a similar
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雙手也抱著頭, 臉上應該也是一樣的表情
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facial expression, and the only people who don't
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而照片中有議群與眾不同的
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are the guys in yellow at the back — (Laughs) —
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是在後面的黃色的傢伙 — — (笑) — —
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and I think they're on the wrong end of the stadium,
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我想他們應該是坐錯邊了, 跑到敵隊陣營裡了
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and they're doing another social emotional response
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他們有著另一種社交情緒反應
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that we all instantly recognize, and that's the second aspect
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我們大家都馬上就認出來了, 這也是社交腦的第二個面向
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of the social brain that this picture really nicely illustrates,
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透過這張找片很好地展現了
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how good we are at reading other people's behavior,
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我們是多麼地善於解讀別人的舉動
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their actions, their gestures, their facial expressions,
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從 他們的行動,他們的手勢,臉部表情,
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in terms of their underlying emotions and mental states.
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可以知道他們蘊含的情感與心裡面的狀態
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So you don't have to ask any of these guys.
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所以你不必開口問這些人
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You have a pretty good idea of what they're feeling
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就能相當了解他們的感受
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and thinking at this precise moment in time.
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還有在那個時刻的他們的想法
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So that's what we're interested in looking at in my lab.
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這就是我的實驗室有興趣研究的
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So in my lab, we bring adolescents and adults into the lab
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所以在我的實驗室, 我們邀來了青少年和成人
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to have a brain scan, we give them some kind of task
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來進行腦部掃描,我們會給他們一些任務
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that involves thinking about other people, their minds,
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任務中涉及了, 猜測其他人心裡想什麼
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their mental states, their emotions, and one of the findings
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其他人的精神狀態、 情緒。我們有一項發現
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that we've found several times now, as have other labs
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我們重覆觀察到好幾次, 也有其他的實驗室
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around the world, is part of the prefrontal cortex called
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在世界其他地方觀察到,大腦前額葉皮層的一部分
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medial prefrontal cortex, which is shown in blue on the slide,
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叫做 內側前額葉皮層,在投影片上標示藍色的地方
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and it's right in the middle of prefrontal cortex
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就在 前額葉皮層的中間
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in the midline of your head.
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在你的頭中線。
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This region is more active in adolescents when they make
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青少年的這個區域變得更加活躍, 當他們進行
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these social decisions and think about other people
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一些社交決定, 還有想到其他人的時候
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than it is in adults, and this is actually a meta-analysis
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成人相對就沒那麼活躍。這項分析集合了
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of nine different studies in this area from labs around
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這個領域在全球各地的實驗室的九項不同研究結果
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the world, and they all show the same thing, that activity
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所有研究都顯示了相同的狀況, 就是
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in this medial prefrontal cortex area decreases
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內側前額葉皮層區的活動降低的現象
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during the period of adolescence.
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出現在青春期的被觀察者腦部
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And we think that might be because adolescents and adults
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我們認為這可能是由於青少年和成人
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use a different mental approach, a different
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使用不同的思維方式,不同
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cognitive strategy, to make social decisions,
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認知策略,來進行社交的決定
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and one way of looking at that is to do behavioral studies
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要研究這件事的方法之一, 是透過行為研究
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whereby we bring people into the lab and we give them
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我們把人請到實驗室裡, 並請他們
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some kind of behavioral task, and I'll just give you
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進行某些行為上的工作項目。這裡我會說明
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another example of the kind of task that we use in my lab.
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另一個例子, 關於在實驗室中採用的工作項目
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So imagine that you're the participant in one of our
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想像一下, 你是我們請來參與實驗的其中一人
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experiments. You come into the lab,
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你走進實驗室,
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you see this computerized task.
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你看到這個電腦化的任務。
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In this task, you see a set of shelves.
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在此任務中,你看到一組貨架。
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Now, there are objects on these shelves, on some of them,
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這些貨架上有些格子裡擺了東西
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and you'll notice there's a guy standing behind the set
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你會注意到有一個人站在貨架的另一邊
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of shelves, and there are some objects that he can't see.
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而且有一些格子的東西他是看不到的
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They're occluded, from his point of view, with a kind of
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這些格子從他那邊看, 是被擋住的, 他只看得到
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gray piece of wood.
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灰色的木板
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This is the same set of shelves from his point of view.
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這是他的方向看過來的同一個貨架
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Notice that there are only some objects that he can see,
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請注意, 他只能所看到的一部分的物件
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whereas there are many more objects that you can see.
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而從你這邊, 你可以看到更多的物件
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Now your task is to move objects around.
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現在你的任務是要移動物件。
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The director, standing behind the set of shelves,
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站在貨架對面的人是指揮者
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is going to direct you to move objects around,
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將會給你搬動物件的指令
07:32
but remember, he's not going to ask you to move objects
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但是請記住,他不會叫你去搬動那些
07:34
that he can't see. This introduces a really interesting
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他看不到的物件。這就帶來了非常有趣狀況:
07:38
condition whereby there's a kind of conflict
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其中存在著一種衝突性
07:40
between your perspective and the director's perspective.
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就是你的視角與指揮者的視角的不同
07:43
So imagine he tells you to move the top truck left.
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所以想像若他告訴, 把最上層的卡車向左移
07:46
There are three trucks there. You're going to instinctively
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你看得到三輛卡車, 本能地你會想去搬
07:48
go for the white truck, because that's the top truck
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白色的卡車,因為這是最上層的卡車
07:51
from your perspective, but then you have to remember,
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從您的角度看,但是你要記得
07:53
"Oh, he can't see that truck, so he must mean
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"哦,他看不到那輛卡車,所以他說的應該是
07:55
me to move the blue truck," which is the top truck
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要我搬藍色的卡車" 這才是最上層的卡車
07:58
from his perspective. Now believe it or not,
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從他的角度看。那麼, 不知道你信不信
08:01
normal, healthy, intelligent adults like you make errors
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像你這樣的正常、 健康、 聰明的成人, 出錯的
08:04
about 50 percent of the time on that kind of trial.
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比例大概是 50%, 在這樣的實驗裡.
08:07
They move the white truck instead of the blue truck.
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他們去搬白色卡車, 而不是藍色的。
08:10
So we give this kind of task to adolescents and adults,
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我們把這樣的工作交給參加實驗的青少年與成人
08:13
and we also have a control condition
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我們也設計了一個控制組
08:15
where there's no director and instead we give people a rule.
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在控制組沒有指揮者, 而是我們給定了一個規則,
08:19
We tell them, okay, we're going to do exactly the same thing
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我們告訴他們,好吧,我們要做完全一樣的事情
08:21
but this time there's no director. Instead you've got to
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但這次沒有指揮者。而是你自己要記得
08:23
ignore objects with the dark gray background.
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去忽略掉黑灰色背景格子裡的物件。
08:27
You'll see that this is exactly the same condition, only
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你可以看到這是完全相同的狀況, 唯一的差別
08:29
in the no-director condition they just have to remember
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是在沒有指揮者的控制組, 他們只要記得
08:32
to apply this somewhat arbitrary rule, whereas
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用上這條多少有點隨心所欲的規則, 而在
08:35
in the director condition, they have to remember
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有指揮者那組, 他們必須記得
08:37
to take into account the director's perspective
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要考慮到指揮者的視角
08:40
in order to guide their ongoing behavior.
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來決定他們要進行的動作
08:45
Okay, so if I just show you the percentage errors
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好, 那我要讓大家看看出錯的百分比的數據
08:47
in a large developmental study we did,
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來自我們所進行的一個大型的發展研究
08:50
this is in a study ranging from age seven to adulthood,
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研究對象的年齡層從七歲到成年
08:53
and what you're going to see is the percentage errors
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你將會看到的是出錯的百分比
08:55
in the adult group in both conditions,
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在成人族群中, 實驗組與控制組的數據圖
08:57
so the gray is the director condition, and you see
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灰色的是有指揮者的狀況, 你可以看到
09:00
that our intelligent adults are making errors about 50 percent
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這些聰明的成人大概有50%的犯錯比例
09:03
of the time, whereas they make far fewer errors
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而他們出錯的比例相對來說低了很多
09:05
when there's no director present, when they just have
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在沒有指揮者的狀況下, 在他們只要
09:07
to remember that rule of ignoring the gray background.
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自己記得那條規則, 忽略掉灰色背景的格子
09:10
Developmentally, these two conditions develop
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從發展的過程來看, 兩組的發展趨勢
09:13
in exactly the same way. Between late childhood
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幾乎是完全相同的。從兒童期的後段,
09:16
and mid-adolescence, there's an improvement,
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到青春期的中段, 一直都有進步
09:18
in other words a reduction of errors, in both of these trials,
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換句話說, 出錯率降低了, 在兩種實驗都如此
09:22
in both of these conditions.
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在這兩個年齡層也都如此。
09:23
But it's when you compare the last two groups,
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但當您比較最後兩組數據
09:25
the mid-adolescent group and the adult group
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青春期中段 與 成年人
09:27
where things get really interesting, because there, there is
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就變得很有意思了, 因為在這兩個階段之間
09:30
no continued improvement in the no-director condition.
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沒有指揮者狀況下, 出錯率並沒有變低了
09:33
In other words, everything you need to do in order to
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換句話說,你所需要的關於去
09:36
remember the rule and apply it seems to be fully developed
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記住規則和應用規則的部分, 似乎已經完全發展好了
09:39
by mid-adolescence, whereas in contrast,
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在青春期中段之前就完成了,而相比之下,
09:41
if you look at the last two gray bars, there's still
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如果你看看最後兩個灰色線條,仍有
09:44
a significant improvement in the director condition
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很明顯的進步, 在有指揮者的部分
09:47
between mid-adolescence and adulthood, and what
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從 青春期 中段 到成年還是有進步
09:49
this means is that the ability to take into account someone
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這代表了, 把其他人的觀點列入考量
09:53
else's perspective in order to guide ongoing behavior,
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來導引所進行的行為的能力
09:56
which is something, by the way, that we do in everyday life all
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這也是我們日常生活每天都在做的事情
09:58
the time, is still developing in mid-to-late adolescence.
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這種能力在青春期的中段到後段仍然在發展
10:03
So if you have a teenage son or a daughter and you
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因此,若你剛好有十幾歲的兒子或女兒
10:05
sometimes think they have problems taking other people's
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而且你有時候會覺得他們不太容易接納別人的觀點
10:08
perspectives, you're right. They do. And this is why.
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你的感覺沒錯, 他們確實如此, 你也知道為什麼了
10:11
So we sometimes laugh about teenagers.
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所以我們有時候會笑青少年
10:15
They're parodied, sometimes even demonized in the media
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他們被醜化, 有時甚至被媒體妖魔化
10:19
for their kind of typical teenage behavior. They take risks,
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只因為他們的一些典型的青少年舉動,他們會冒險
10:22
they're sometimes moody, they're very self-conscious.
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他們有時喜怒無常,他們的自我意識很強
10:25
I have a really nice anecdote from a friend of mine
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我有一個朋友告訴我一個小故事
10:28
who said that the thing he noticed most
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我朋友說, 他所注意到
10:30
about his teenage daughters before and after puberty
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關於他的十幾歲的女兒, 在青春期前後最大的變化
10:33
was their level of embarrassment in front of him.
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是女兒在他面前受窘的程度
10:35
So, he said, "Before puberty, if my two daughters
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他說到, 在青春期之前, 如果我的兩個女兒
10:38
were messing around in a shop, I'd say, 'Hey,
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在一家店裡胡鬧, 我會說: "嘿!
10:40
stop messing around and I'll sing your favorite song,'
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別再胡鬧了, 我就唱一首你們最愛聽的歌"
10:42
and instantly they'd stop messing around and he'd sing
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而當他開始唱她們最喜歡的歌,
10:44
their favorite song. After puberty, that became the threat.
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女兒們馬上就停止胡鬧。而在青春期之後,這招就變成威脅了
10:47
(Laughter)
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(笑聲)
10:49
The very notion of their dad singing in public
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她們想到爸爸在公眾場合唱歌這件事
10:53
was enough to make them behave.
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就足以讓她們守規矩了
10:55
So people often ask,
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所以人們常會問,
10:56
"Well, is adolescence a kind of recent phenomenon?
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"嗯,青春期是最近流行的一種現象嗎?
10:59
Is it something we've invented recently in the West?"
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這是西方社會最近才發明出來的嗎?"
11:01
And actually, the answer is probably not. There are lots
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其實答案很可能是否定的。歷史上有很多
11:04
of descriptions of adolescence in history that sound
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關於青春期的描寫, 聽起來
11:07
very similar to the descriptions we use today.
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跟我們現在描寫的方式很相像。
11:09
So there's a famous quote by Shakespeare from "The Winter's Tale"
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在莎士比亞的《冬天的故事》有一句名言
11:14
where he describes adolescence as follows:
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他是這樣描寫 青春期 的:
11:16
"I would there were no age between ten and
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"我想, 在十歲和廿三歲之間, 是沒有年齡的
11:19
three-and-twenty, or that youth would sleep out the rest;
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不然年輕應該會在其餘的時間沉睡
11:22
for there is nothing in the between but getting wenches
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因為在這段歲月中沒有什麼事值得做, 除了讓女僕懷孕、
11:25
with child, wronging the ancientry, stealing, fighting." (Laughter)
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敗壞古風、 偷竊、 打架"。(笑聲)
11:31
He then goes on to say, "Having said that, would any
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他接著說,"儘管如此,除了這些
11:35
but these boiled brains of nineteen and two-and-twenty
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十九歲到廿二歲的燒壞的腦袋, 還會有什麼人
11:38
hunt in this weather?" (Laughter)
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在這種天氣出來打獵啊?"(笑聲)
11:41
So almost 400 years ago, Shakespeare was portraying
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所以近 400 年前,莎士比亞所描繪的
11:44
adolescents in a very similar light to the light that we
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青少年的形象,跟我們現在描繪的非常相近
11:47
portray them in today, but today we try to understand
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而在今天我們試著去理解
11:50
their behavior in terms of the underlying changes
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他們的行為, 從他們身體裡的
11:53
that are going on in their brain.
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腦部發展的變化
11:55
So for example, take risk-taking. We know that adolescents
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所以, 就以冒險來當例子, 我們知道青少年
11:59
have a tendency to take risks. They do.
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有冒險的傾向。他們的確如此。
12:01
They take more risks than children or adults,
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他們比兒童或成人更願意冒險,
12:04
and they are particularly prone to taking risks
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他們特別喜歡冒險, 尤其是
12:06
when they're with their friends. There's an important drive
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當他們與他們的朋友一起的時候。這存在著一種重大的驅動力
12:09
to become independent from one's parents
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想要脫離父母親而變得獨立
12:12
and to impress one's friends in adolescence.
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並且想讓他的同齡朋友印象深刻
12:14
But now we try to understand that in terms of
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現在我們可以試著去理解這件事, 從
12:17
the development of a part of their brain called the limbic system,
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他們大腦的稱為邊緣系統一部分的發展過程來看
12:20
so I'm going to show you the limbic system in red
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我給大家展示的圖上, 紅色部分就是邊緣系統
12:22
in the slide behind me, and also on this brain.
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在我身後的投影片,還有手上的這個腦模型
12:24
So the limbic system is right deep inside the brain,
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這個邊緣系統位於大腦的深處
12:27
and it's involved in things like emotion processing
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它負責的事情包括 情感處理
12:31
and reward processing. It gives you the rewarding feeling
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獎勵處理。它會讓你感受到回饋
12:34
out of doing fun things, including taking risks.
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從做一些有趣的事情中產生, 包括冒險
12:38
It gives you the kick out of taking risks.
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他驅使你去冒險
12:40
And this region, the regions within the limbic system,
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而這個腦區, 這個包含在邊緣系統內部的區域
12:43
have been found to be hypersensitive to the rewarding
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已經被觀察到, 對於冒險所產生的回饋感覺
12:46
feeling of risk-taking in adolescents compared with adults,
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在青少年的身上, 是超級敏感, 相較於成人而言
12:50
and at the very same time, the prefrontal cortex,
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而在這個時期, 正好也是 前額葉皮層,
12:54
which you can see in blue in the slide here,
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就是在投影片中的藍色區域
12:56
which stops us taking excessive risks,
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也是阻止我們過度冒險的腦部區域
12:59
is still very much in development in adolescents.
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在青少年時期, 卻仍然還在發展中
13:02
So brain research has shown that the adolescent brain
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所以透過研究大腦,我們知道青春期的大腦
13:06
undergoes really quite profound development,
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正經歷深刻的改變
13:09
and this has implications for education, for rehabilitation,
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這對於 教育 還有 復健 與 矯正措施, 有相當的意義
13:13
and intervention. The environment, including teaching,
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整個環境,包括教學,
13:17
can and does shape the developing adolescent brain,
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可以也實際上會影響青少年大腦的發育,
13:21
and yet it's only relatively recently that we have been
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而相對來說, 西方世界也只是從最近, 才開始
13:24
routinely educating teenagers in the West.
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經常教育青少年
13:26
All four of my grandparents, for example, left school
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以我的祖父母為例,他們四個人在離開學校的時候
13:30
in their early adolescence. They had no choice.
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都是在青春期前段, 他們沒有選擇。
13:34
And that's still the case for many, many teenagers
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而還有很多很多像這樣的案例,
13:37
around the world today. Forty percent of teenagers
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今天全世界的青少年。有 40%
13:40
don't have access to secondary school education.
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沒有接受中學教育
13:44
And yet, this is a period of life where the brain is
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然而,在生命的這個階段,正是大腦
13:47
particularly adaptable and malleable.
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特別具有適應性和可塑性的期間
13:49
It's a fantastic opportunity for learning and creativity.
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也正是學習和創新的大好機會。
13:53
So what's sometimes seen as the problem
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所以有些被視為問題的事情
13:55
with adolescents — heightened risk-taking, poor impulse
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關於青少年的 — —高漲的冒險企圖,孱弱的衝動控制
13:58
control, self-consciousness — shouldn't be stigmatized.
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自我意識 — — 不應該被污名化
14:02
It actually reflects changes in the brain that provide
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這些實際上反映了大腦中的變化, 也提供了
14:05
an excellent opportunity for education
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極好的機會, 來施以教育
14:08
and social development. Thank you. (Applause)
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和社交能力的發展。謝謝。(掌聲)
14:12
(Applause)
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(掌聲)
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