How trees talk to each other | Suzanne Simard

譯者: Nan Liu 審譯者: Conway Ye

Imagine you're walking through a forest.

想像一下，你們正在一片森林中漫步。

I'm guessing you're thinking of a collection of trees,

我猜你們一定在想一叢叢樹，

what we foresters call a stand,

我們林務員把那叫作林分，

with their rugged stems and their beautiful crowns.

帶有堅挺的樹幹和美麗的樹冠。

Yes, trees are the foundation of forests,

是的，樹木是森林的基礎，

but a forest is much more than what you see,

但是一片森林遠不止你見到的那樣，

and today I want to change the way you think about forests.

今天我想要改變你們對森林的看法。

You see, underground there is this other world,

你們看，在地下 有這樣一個另外的世界，

a world of infinite biological pathways

一個有著無限生物路徑

that connect trees and allow them to communicate

聯繫著樹木，允許它們交流，

and allow the forest to behave as though it's a single organism.

允許這片森林像一個有機體 一樣運作的世界。

It might remind you of a sort of intelligence.

它可能讓你想到一種智能。

How do I know this?

我是怎麼知道這種智能的呢？

Here's my story.

這就是我的經歷。

I grew up in the forests of British Columbia.

我在不列顛哥倫比亞省的 森林中長大。

I used to lay on the forest floor and stare up at the tree crowns.

我過去常常躺在森林覆被上，

向上注視著樹冠。

They were giants.

它們像是巨人。

My grandfather was a giant, too.

我的祖父也是個巨人。

He was a horse logger,

他是一位以馬 作為運輸工具的伐木工人，

and he used to selectively cut cedar poles from the inland rainforest.

他過去常常在內陸的熱帶雨林裡 有選擇性地砍伐雪松樹。

Grandpa taught me about the quiet and cohesive ways of the woods,

祖父教會了我森林 安靜而又協調一致的生活方式，

and how my family was knit into it.

以及我的家庭是如何融合在其中的。

So I followed in grandpa's footsteps.

所以我繼承了我祖父的事業。

He and I had this curiosity about forests,

我和他對森林有著好奇心，

and my first big "aha" moment

而且我第一個恍然大悟的時刻

was at the outhouse by our lake.

是在我們湖邊的小茅房那裡。

Our poor dog Jigs had slipped and fallen into the pit.

我們可憐的小狗 Jigs 滑倒 然後掉進了茅坑裡。

So grandpa ran up with his shovel to rescue the poor dog.

所以我的祖父帶著他的鐵鏟 跑去救那隻可憐的小狗。

He was down there, swimming in the muck.

他在下面那裡，浸泡在污物中。

But as grandpa dug through that forest floor,

但是當我的祖父 翻鬆森林覆被的時候，

I became fascinated with the roots,

我被那些樹根吸引了，

and under that, what I learned later was the white mycelium

在森林覆被下面， 我後來得知，是白色菌絲，

and under that the red and yellow mineral horizons.

在菌絲下面， 是紅色和黃色的礦質層。

Eventually, grandpa and I rescued the poor dog,

最終，我和我的祖父 救了那隻可憐的小狗，

but it was at that moment that I realized

但是正是在那一刻，我意識到

that that palette of roots and soil

樹根和土壤的融合

was really the foundation of the forest.

才真正是森林的基礎。

And I wanted to know more.

而且我想更深入地了解。

So I studied forestry.

所以我攻讀了林學。

But soon I found myself working alongside the powerful people

但是很快我發現自己 和有權人士一起工作

in charge of the commercial harvest.

掌管商業收割。

The extent of the clear-cutting

皆伐的程度

was alarming,

令人擔憂，

and I soon found myself conflicted by my part in it.

而且我很快發現我因為 自己在其中扮演的角色而內心鬥爭。

Not only that, the spraying and hacking of the aspens and birches

不僅如此，噴灑藥物 以及砍伐山楊樹和樺樹

to make way for the more commercially valuable planted pines and firs

以便栽種具有更高 商業價值的松樹和冷杉

was astounding.

令人吃驚。

It seemed that nothing could stop this relentless industrial machine.

似乎沒什麼可以阻止 這個無休止的工業機器。

So I went back to school,

所以我回到了學校，

and I studied my other world.

我開始研究我的另一個世界。

You see, scientists had just discovered in the laboratory in vitro

要知道，科學家剛剛在實驗室裡 在生物體外發現了

that one pine seedling root

一條松樹苗根

could transmit carbon to another pine seedling root.

可以把碳傳送到 另一條松樹苗根那裡。

But this was in the laboratory,

但這是在實驗室裡，

and I wondered, could this happen in real forests?

我想知道，這能在 真實的森林裡發生嗎？

I thought yes.

我想是可以的。

Trees in real forests might also share information below ground.

在真實的森林裡的樹木 也許也可以在地下分享信息。

But this was really controversial,

但是這真的很有爭議，

and some people thought I was crazy,

一些人認為我發瘋了，

and I had a really hard time getting research funding.

我的確很難得到研究經費。

But I persevered,

但是我堅持不懈，

and I eventually conducted some experiments deep in the forest,

最後我在森林深處進行了一些實驗，

25 years ago.

在 25 年前。

I grew 80 replicates of three species:

我種植了 80 棵三類樹種的複本：

paper birch, Douglas fir, and western red cedar.

紙皮樺、黃杉和美西紅側柏。

I figured the birch and the fir would be connected in a belowground web,

我發現樺樹和杉樹 會在地下網中聯繫在一起，

but not the cedar.

但是柏樹不行。

It was in its own other world.

它在自己的另外的世界裡。

And I gathered my apparatus,

然後我準備好我的設備，

and I had no money, so I had to do it on the cheap.

因為我沒有錢，

所以我必須以低成本的 方式完成實驗。

So I went to Canadian Tire --

所以我去了加拿大輪胎公司──

(Laughter)

（笑聲）

and I bought some plastic bags and duct tape and shade cloth,

我買了一些塑膠袋、膠帶、遮光布，

a timer, a paper suit, a respirator.

一個計時器、一套紙質防護衣、 和一個防護面罩。

And then I borrowed some high-tech stuff from my university:

然後我從我的大學 借了一些高科技設備：

a Geiger counter, a scintillation counter, a mass spectrometer, microscopes.

一個蓋革計數器、一個閃爍計數器、 一個質譜儀，和顯微鏡。

And then I got some really dangerous stuff:

然後我拿到了一些很危險的東西：

syringes full of radioactive carbon-14 carbon dioxide gas

充滿放射性碳 14 二氧化碳氣體的注射器，

and some high pressure bottles

和一些高壓瓶子，

of the stable isotope carbon-13 carbon dioxide gas.

裝有穩定的同位素 碳 13 二氧化碳氣體。

But I was legally permitted.

但是我是合法的。

(Laughter)

（笑聲）

Oh, and I forgot some stuff,

哦，我忘了一些東西，

important stuff: the bug spray,

很重要的東西：殺蟲劑，

the bear spray, the filters for my respirator.

防熊噴霧，和我的防護面罩的過濾器。

Oh well.

好吧。

The first day of the experiment, we got out to our plot

實驗的第一天， 我們去了屬於我們的一小塊地，

and a grizzly bear and her cub chased us off.

一隻棕熊和她的小熊 在後面追趕我們。

And I had no bear spray.

我沒有防熊噴霧。

But you know, this is how forest research in Canada goes.

但是你們知道的，

在加拿大的森林裡做研究就是這樣的。

(Laughter)

（笑聲）

So I came back the next day,

所以第二天，我又來了，

and mama grizzly and her cub were gone.

棕熊媽媽和她的小熊 已經不在那裡了。

So this time, we really got started,

所以這次，我們可以真正開始了，

and I pulled on my white paper suit,

我穿上了白色的紙質防護衣，

I put on my respirator,

我戴上了防護面罩，

and then

然後，

I put the plastic bags over my trees.

我用塑膠袋包住樹。

I got my giant syringes,

我拿出巨大的注射器，

and I injected the bags

然後我向袋子中注射

with my tracer isotope carbon dioxide gases,

示蹤同位素二氧化碳氣體，

first the birch.

先注射到樺樹上。

I injected carbon-14, the radioactive gas,

我把碳 14，放射性氣體，

into the bag of birch.

注射到樺樹的袋子裡。

And then for fir,

然後是杉樹，

I injected the stable isotope carbon-13 carbon dioxide gas.

我給它注射了穩定的 同位素碳 13 二氧化碳氣體。

I used two isotopes,

我用了兩種同位素，

because I was wondering

因為我在想，

whether there was two-way communication going on between these species.

在這兩類樹種之間是否有雙向的交流。

I got to the final bag,

我進行到最後一個袋子，

the 80th replicate,

第 80 棵樹木複本，

and all of a sudden mama grizzly showed up again.

突然，棕熊媽媽又出現了。

And she started to chase me,

她開始在後面追我，

and I had my syringes above my head,

我把注射器舉過頭頂，

and I was swatting the mosquitos, and I jumped into the truck,

我拍打著蚊子，然後跳入了卡車，

and I thought,

我想：

"This is why people do lab studies."

「這就是為什麼人們做實驗室研究。」

(Laughter)

（笑聲）

I waited an hour.

我等了一個小時。

I figured it would take this long

我想樹木應該需要這麼久的時間

for the trees to suck up the CO2 through photosynthesis,

通過光合作用吸收二氧化碳，

turn it into sugars, send it down into their roots,

把它變成糖類，輸送到它們的根部，

and maybe, I hypothesized,

也許，我猜想，

shuttle that carbon belowground to their neighbors.

還會在地下把碳輸送給它們的鄰居。

After the hour was up,

一小時過去了，

I rolled down my window,

我把車窗搖下來，

and I checked for mama grizzly.

我看看棕熊媽媽在哪裡。

Oh good, she's over there eating her huckleberries.

哦，太好了，她在那邊吃她的黑漿果。

So I got out of the truck and I got to work.

然後我從卡車裡出來，開始工作。

I went to my first bag with the birch. I pulled the bag off.

我走到第一個樺樹袋子那裡。 我把袋子拿下來。

I ran my Geiger counter over its leaves.

我用我的蓋革計數器檢測它的葉子。

Kkhh!

咔！

Perfect.

完美。

The birch had taken up the radioactive gas.

樺樹已經吸收了放射性氣體。

Then the moment of truth.

然後是檢驗真理的時刻。

I went over to the fir tree.

我走到杉樹那裡。

I pulled off its bag.

我拿下它的袋子。

I ran the Geiger counter up its needles,

我用蓋革計數器檢測它的針狀葉子，

and I heard the most beautiful sound.

我聽到了最美的聲音。

Kkhh!

咔！

It was the sound of birch talking to fir,

那是樺樹和杉樹交談的聲音，

and birch was saying, "Hey, can I help you?"

樺樹在說：「嘿，我可以幫你嗎？」

And fir was saying, "Yeah, can you send me some of your carbon?

杉樹回答說：「可以， 你能給我一些碳嗎？

Because somebody threw a shade cloth over me."

因為有人用一塊遮光布罩住了我。」

I went up to cedar, and I ran the Geiger counter over its leaves,

我走到柏樹那裡， 我用蓋革計數器檢測它的葉子，

and as I suspected,

正如我猜測的那樣，

silence.

毫無聲音。

Cedar was in its own world.

柏樹在它自己的世界裡。

It was not connected into the web interlinking birch and fir.

它沒有和聯繫著樺樹和杉樹的 網絡聯繫在一起。

I was so excited,

我非常激動，

I ran from plot to plot and I checked all 80 replicates.

我從一塊地跑到另一塊地， 我檢查了所有 80 顆樹木複本。

The evidence was clear.

證據很明顯。

The C-13 and C-14 was showing me

碳 13 和碳 14 向我證明

that paper birch and Douglas fir were in a lively two-way conversation.

紙皮樺和黃杉進行著 熱鬧的雙向對話。

It turns out at that time of the year,

實際上，在那年的那個時候，

in the summer,

在夏天，

that birch was sending more carbon to fir than fir was sending back to birch,

樺樹給杉樹輸送的碳 比杉樹輸送給樺樹的要多，

especially when the fir was shaded.

尤其是當杉樹被遮住的時候。

And then in later experiments, we found the opposite,

在以後的實驗中， 我們發現了相反的結果，

that fir was sending more carbon to birch than birch was sending to fir,

杉樹給樺樹輸送的碳 比樺樹輸送給杉樹的多，

and this was because the fir was still growing while the birch was leafless.

這是因為杉樹仍然在成長， 然而樺樹已經沒有葉子了。

So it turns out the two species were interdependent,

這證明了這兩種樹是相互依靠的，

like yin and yang.

像陰和陽一樣。

And at that moment, everything came into focus for me.

在那一刻，一切對我而言都清晰了。

I knew I had found something big,

我知道我有了重大發現，

something that would change the way we look at how trees interact in forests,

一些會改變我們看待樹木 在森林中互動方式的發現，

from not just competitors

從不僅僅是競爭者，

but to cooperators.

到合作者。

And I had found solid evidence

我找到了可靠的證據

of this massive belowground communications network,

證明這龐大的地下交流系統，

the other world.

另一個世界。

Now, I truly hoped and believed

此刻，我真心希望並相信

that my discovery would change how we practice forestry,

我的發現會改變我們 實踐林學的方式，

from clear-cutting and herbiciding

從皆伐和大量使用除草劑，

to more holistic and sustainable methods,

到更全面、可持續的方法，

methods that were less expensive and more practical.

更廉價但是更實用的方法。

What was I thinking?

我那時在想什麼？

I'll come back to that.

我等一下會進行說明。

So how do we do science in complex systems like forests?

我們如何在像森林一樣 複雜的系統中做科研？

Well, as forest scientists, we have to do our research in the forests,

嗯，作為森林科學家， 我們必須在森林裡做研究，

那非常艱難， 正如我給你們展示的一樣。

and that's really tough, as I've shown you.

And we have to be really good at running from bears.

我們必須非常擅長逃離熊的追趕。

But mostly, we have to persevere

但是大部分時間， 我們必須堅持不懈，

in spite of all the stuff stacked against us.

即使所有的事情都對我們不利。

And we have to follow our intuition and our experiences

而且我們要跟隨我們的直覺和經驗

and ask really good questions.

問一些有價值的問題。

And then we've got to gather our data and then go verify.

然後我們需要收集數據，證實它們。

For me, I've conducted and published hundreds of experiments in the forest.

對我來說，我已經在樹林裡 進行並發表了數以百計的實驗。

Some of my oldest experimental plantations are now over 30 years old.

我有一些最老的實驗林地 現在已經超過 30 年了。

You can check them out.

你們可以去看看。

That's how forest science works.

那就是森林科學如何進展的。

So now I want to talk about the science.

現在我想談論一下科學。

How were paper birch and Douglas fir communicating?

紙皮樺和黃杉是怎樣交流的呢？

Well, it turns out they were conversing not only in the language of carbon

實際上，它們不僅僅用碳 作為媒介來交流，

but also nitrogen and phosphorus

而且還用氮和磷

and water and defense signals and allele chemicals and hormones --

還有水，防禦信號， 等位基因化學物質和激素──

information.

信息。

And you know, I have to tell you, before me, scientists had thought

你們知道，我必須告訴你們， 在我之前，科學家們認為

that this belowground mutualistic symbiosis called a mycorrhiza

這種地下的互惠共生，被稱作菌根，

was involved.

介入其中。

Mycorrhiza literally means "fungus root."

菌根從字面上理解是「菌類的根」。

You see their reproductive organs when you walk through the forest.

當你穿過森林的時候， 你可以看見它們的繁殖器官。

They're the mushrooms.

它們是蘑菇。

The mushrooms, though, are just the tip of the iceberg,

然而蘑菇只是冰山一角，

because coming out of those stems are fungal threads that form a mycelium,

因為從那些梗中長出來的 是形成菌絲體的真菌絲，

and that mycelium infects and colonizes the roots

那個菌絲體會影響並且侵蝕

of all the trees and plants.

所有樹木和植物的根部。

And where the fungal cells interact with the root cells,

在真菌細胞和根細胞 相互作用的地方，

there's a trade of carbon for nutrients,

會有碳和養份的交換，

and that fungus gets those nutrients by growing through the soil

而且真菌得到那些養份，

因為它在土壤中生長 並且覆蓋住每一個土壤顆粒。

and coating every soil particle.

The web is so dense that there can be hundreds of kilometers of mycelium

那個網絡非常密集，

以至可以有長達幾百公里的菌絲體

under a single footstep.

在一個單一的足跡下面。

And not only that, that mycelium connects different individuals in the forest,

而且不僅僅是那樣，

菌絲體連接著森林中不同的個體，

individuals not only of the same species but between species, like birch and fir,

不僅是同一物種的個體，

還有不同物種的個體， 比如樺樹和杉樹，

and it works kind of like the Internet.

它工作起來就像網際網路一樣。

You see, like all networks,

要知道，像所有的網絡一樣，

mycorrhizal networks have nodes and links.

菌根網絡有節點和連結線。

We made this map by examining the short sequences of DNA

我們做了這個圖， 依據的是一片黃杉森林裡

of every tree and every fungal individual in a patch of Douglas fir forest.

每棵樹的和每個真菌體的 DNA 的短序列。

In this picture, the circles represent the Douglas fir, or the nodes,

在這個圖中，圓圈， 或者是節點，代表黃杉，

and the lines represent the interlinking fungal highways, or the links.

直線，或者是連接線， 代表相互連結的真菌幹線。

The biggest, darkest nodes are the busiest nodes.

最大、顏色最深的節點 是最繁忙的節點。

We call those hub trees,

我們把那些稱作樞紐樹，

or more fondly, mother trees,

或者更深情地叫作母親樹，

because it turns out that those hub trees nurture their young,

因為事實證明那些樞紐樹 哺育它們的小樹，

the ones growing in the understory.

那些長在林下葉層的小樹。

And if you can see those yellow dots,

如果你們可以看到那些黃色的小點，

those are the young seedlings that have established within the network

那些就是在年邁的 母親樹網絡中形成的幼苗，

of the old mother trees.

In a single forest, a mother tree can be connected to hundreds of other trees.

在一片森林中，

一顆母親樹可以聯繫 數以百計其它的樹，

And using our isotope tracers,

用我們的同位素示蹤器，

we have found that mother trees

我們發現母親樹

will send their excess carbon through the mycorrhizal network

會通過真菌菌根網 把它們多餘的碳送到

to the understory seedlings,

林下葉層的幼苗那裡，

and we've associated this with increased seedling survival

我們把這個行為 和更高的幼苗存活率聯繫在一起，

by four times.

高達四倍的存活率。

Now, we know we all favor our own children,

現在，我們知道 我們都偏向自己的孩子，

and I wondered, could Douglas fir recognize its own kin,

我想知道，

黃杉能認出它自己的幼苗嗎，

like mama grizzly and her cub?

就像棕熊媽媽和她的小熊一樣？

So we set about an experiment,

所以我們開始了一個實驗，

and we grew mother trees with kin and stranger's seedlings.

我們把母親樹、它的幼苗 和其它樹種的幼苗種在一起。

And it turns out they do recognize their kin.

事實證明它們的確能 認出它們的幼苗。

Mother trees colonize their kin with bigger mycorrhizal networks.

母親樹用更大的真菌菌根網 佔據自己的幼苗。

They send them more carbon below ground.

它們在地下給自己的幼苗 輸送更多的碳。

They even reduce their own root competition

它們甚至減少它們自己的根部競爭

to make elbow room for their kids.

來為它們的幼苗創造活動的空間，

When mother trees are injured or dying,

當母親樹受傷或者快要枯萎的時候，

they also send messages of wisdom on to the next generation of seedlings.

它們也把信息智慧 傳送給下一代的幼苗。

So we've used isotope tracing

我們用了同位素示蹤

to trace carbon moving from an injured mother tree

來追蹤碳的移動， 從一棵受傷的母親樹

down her trunk into the mycorrhizal network

沿著她的樹幹到真菌菌根網

and into her neighboring seedlings,

到她附近的幼苗裡，

not only carbon but also defense signals.

不僅僅是碳，還有防禦信號。

And these two compounds

這兩個混合物

have increased the resistance of those seedlings to future stresses.

增加了那些幼苗 對未來壓力的抵抗力。

So trees talk.

所以樹木能說話。

(Applause)

（掌聲）

Thank you.

謝謝。

Through back and forth conversations,

經過反反覆覆地對話，

they increase the resilience of the whole community.

它們增強了整個團體的適應力。

It probably reminds you of our own social communities,

這可能讓你想起了 我們自己的社會群體，

and our families,

我們的家庭，

well, at least some families.

嗯，至少是一些家庭。

(Laughter)

（笑聲）

So let's come back to the initial point.

讓我們回到最初的問題。

Forests aren't simply collections of trees,

森林不僅僅是樹的集合，

they're complex systems with hubs and networks

它們是複雜的系統， 帶有樞紐和網絡，

that overlap and connect trees and allow them to communicate,

彼此覆蓋並且聯繫著樹木， 讓它們可以交流，

and they provide avenues for feedbacks and adaptation,

這些系統還提供了 反饋和適應的方式，

and this makes the forest resilient.

這讓森林變得適應能力強。

That's because there are many hub trees and many overlapping networks.

那是因為有很多的樞紐樹 和許多彼此覆蓋的網絡。

But they're also vulnerable,

但是它們也很脆弱，

vulnerable not only to natural disturbances

不僅會受到自然干擾的影響，

like bark beetles that preferentially attack big old trees

比如特別喜歡侵襲老樹的樹皮甲蟲，

but high-grade logging and clear-cut logging.

還會受到高強度伐木和皆伐的影響。

You see, you can take out one or two hub trees,

要知道，你可以砍掉 一棵或者兩顆樞紐樹，

but there comes a tipping point,

但凡事都有一個平衡點，

because hub trees are not unlike rivets in an airplane.

因為樞紐樹就像飛機上的卯釘。

You can take out one or two and the plane still flies,

你可以拿走一個或者兩個卯釘，

飛機還能飛，

but you take out one too many,

但是你拿走太多，

or maybe that one holding on the wings,

或是一個連結機翼的卯釘，

and the whole system collapses.

整個系統都會垮掉。

So now how are you thinking about forests? Differently?

那麼現在你是如何看待森林的？

(Audience) Yes.

有點不同了嗎？

（觀眾）是的。

Cool.

太棒了。

I'm glad.

我很高興。

So, remember I said earlier that I hoped that my research,

記得我之前說過我希望我的研究，

my discoveries would change the way we practice forestry.

我的發現會改變 我們實踐林學的方式。

Well, I want to take a check on that 30 years later here in western Canada.

嗯，我想在 30 年後 在加拿大西部這裡檢查一下。

This is about 100 kilometers to the west of us,

它大概在我們西方 100 千米，

just on the border of Banff National Park.

就在班夫國家公園的邊界。

That's a lot of clear-cuts.

那裡有許多皆伐。

It's not so pristine.

它不是很原始。

In 2014, the World Resources Institute reported that Canada in the past decade

在 2004 年，世界資源研究所報導 加拿大在過去十年裡

has had the highest forest disturbance rate of any country worldwide,

有世界最高的森林破壞率，

and I bet you thought it was Brazil.

我猜你們認為那個國家是巴西。

In Canada, it's 3.6 percent per year.

在加拿大，破壞率是每年 3.6%。

Now, by my estimation, that's about four times the rate that is sustainable.

嗯，據我估計， 那是可持續破壞率的四倍。

Now, massive disturbance at this scale is known to affect hydrological cycles,

這種大規模大面積的破壞 很明顯會影響水循環，

degrade wildlife habitat,

惡化野生動物的棲息地，

and emit greenhouse gases back into the atmosphere,

並且把溫室氣體釋放回大氣中，

which creates more disturbance and more tree diebacks.

這回帶來更多的破壞和更多的回枯。

Not only that, we're continuing to plant one or two species

不僅僅是那樣，我們繼續種植 一種或兩種樹木，

and weed out the aspens and birches.

不再種山楊樹和樺樹。

These simplified forests lack complexity,

這種簡化的森林缺少多樣性，

and they're really vulnerable to infections and bugs.

它們很容易受被傳染病和蟲害影響。

And as climate changes,

隨著氣候變化，

this is creating a perfect storm

這在為極端事件創造一個理想的風暴，

for extreme events, like the massive mountain pine beetle outbreak

比如大規模的 山地松樹甲蟲蟲災爆發

that just swept across North America,

蔓延了整個北美洲，

or that megafire in the last couple months in Alberta.

或者是過去幾個月在阿爾伯塔的大火。

So I want to come back to my final question:

所以我想回到最後一個問題：

instead of weakening our forests,

與其弱化我們的森林，

how can we reinforce them and help them deal with climate change?

我們可以怎樣強化它們 並且幫助它們應對氣候變化？

Well, you know, the great thing about forests as complex systems

嗯，你們知道的，

森林作為複雜的生態系統最偉大的事情

is they have enormous capacity to self-heal.

就是他們有巨大的自我修復能力。

In our recent experiments,

在我們近期的實驗中，

we found with patch-cutting and retention of hub trees

我們發現用小規模砍伐、保護樞紐樹、

and regeneration to a diversity of species and genes and genotypes

恢復物種及基因多樣性 以及基因型再生的方式，

that these mycorrhizal networks, they recover really rapidly.

這些真菌菌根網會恢復得很快。

So with this in mind, I want to leave you with four simple solutions.

有了這個想法，

我想要留給你們四個簡單的方法。

And we can't kid ourselves that these are too complicated to act on.

我們不能欺騙自己這些方法太複雜了

以至於我們沒辦法行動。

First, we all need to get out in the forest.

首先，我們都需要去森林裡。

We need to reestablish local involvement in our own forests.

我們需要讓當地人 重新融入我們的森林中。

You see, most of our forests now

要知道，我們現在大多數的森林

are managed using a one-size-fits-all approach,

被單一的方式管理著，

but good forest stewardship requires knowledge of local conditions.

但是好的森林管理 需要關於當地條件的知識。

Second, we need to save our old-growth forests.

第二，我們需要拯救我們的老齡林。

These are the repositories of genes and mother trees and mycorrhizal networks.

它們是基因、母親樹 和真菌菌根網的信息庫。

So this means less cutting.

這就意味著減少伐木。

I don't mean no cutting, but less cutting.

我不是說禁止伐木， 而是說減少伐木。

And third, when we do cut,

第三，當我們伐木的時候，

we need to save the legacies,

我們需要挽救樹木的遺存，

the mother trees and networks,

母親樹和真菌菌根網，

and the wood, the genes,

還有樹林、基因，

so they can pass their wisdom onto the next generation of trees

以便它們可以把智慧 傳遞給下一代的樹木，

so they can withstand the future stresses coming down the road.

以便它們可以應對 未來即將來臨的壓力。

We need to be conservationists.

我們需要成為自然環境保護主義者。

And finally, fourthly and finally,

最後，也是第四點，最後一點，

we need to regenerate our forests with a diversity of species

我們需要讓我們的森林再生， 擁有物種多樣性

and genotypes and structures

基因型多樣性和結構多樣性，

by planting and allowing natural regeneration.

用人工種植和自然再生的方法。

We have to give Mother Nature the tools she needs

我們必須給予大自然母親 她所需要的的工具，

to use her intelligence to self-heal.

讓她用智慧來自我治癒。

And we need to remember that forests aren't just a bunch of trees

我們也需要記住 森林不僅僅是一叢叢樹木

competing with each other,

彼此競爭著，

they're supercooperators.

它們是超級合作者。

So back to Jigs.

再回到小狗 Jigs。

Jigs's fall into the outhouse showed me this other world,

Jigs 掉進茅坑的那件事 讓我認識到這樣一個另外的世界，

and it changed my view of forests.

而且它改變了我對森林的看法。

I hope today to have changed how you think about forests.

我希望我今天改變了 你們對森林的看法。

Thank you.

謝謝。

(Applause)

（掌聲）