Christina Warinner: Tracking ancient diseases using ... plaque

45,200 views ใƒป 2012-04-20

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืžืชืจื’ื: Ido Dekkers ืžื‘ืงืจ: eviatar edlerman
00:15
Have you ever wondered
0
15260
2000
ื”ืื ืื™ ืคืขื ืชื”ื™ืชื
00:17
what is inside your dental plaque?
1
17260
3000
ืžื” ื ืžืฆื ื‘ืชื•ืš ืคืœืืง ื“ื ื˜ืœื™?
00:20
Probably not, but people like me do.
2
20260
2000
ื›ื ืจืื” ืœื, ืื‘ืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ื›ืžื•ื ื™ ื›ืŸ.
00:22
I'm an archeological geneticist
3
22260
2000
ืื ื™ ืืจื›ื™ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช ื’ื ื˜ื™ืช
00:24
at the Center for Evolutionary Medicine
4
24260
2000
ื‘ืžืจื›ื– ืœืจืคื•ืื” ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช
00:26
at the University of Zurich,
5
26260
2000
ื‘ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืช ืฆื™ืจื™ืš,
00:28
and I study the origins and evolution of human health and disease
6
28260
3000
ื•ืื ื™ ืœื•ืžื“ืช ืืช ื”ืžืงื•ืจื•ืช ื•ื”ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื” ืฉืœ ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช ื•ืžื—ืœื•ืช ืื ื•ืฉื™ื•ืช
00:31
by conducting genetic research
7
31260
2000
ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืขืจื™ื›ืช ืžื—ืงืจ ื’ื ื˜ื™
00:33
on the skeletal and mummified remains of ancient humans.
8
33260
3000
ืขืœ ืฉืœื“ื™ื ื•ืฉืืจื™ื•ืช ื—ื ื•ื˜ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืงื“ื•ืžื™ื.
00:36
And through this work, I hope to better understand
9
36260
3000
ื•ื“ืจืš ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื”ื–ื•, ืื ื™ ืžืงื•ื” ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ื˜ื•ื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ
00:39
the evolutionary vulnerabilities of our bodies,
10
39260
2000
ืืช ื”ืจื’ื™ืฉื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื’ื•ืคื ื•,
00:41
so that we can improve
11
41260
3000
ื›ืš ืฉื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืฉืคืจ
00:44
and better manage our health in the future.
12
44260
2000
ื•ืœื ื”ืœ ื˜ื•ื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช ืฉืœื ื• ื‘ืขืชื™ื“.
00:46
There are different ways to approach evolutionary medicine,
13
46260
3000
ื™ืฉ ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ืœื’ืฉืช ืœืจืคื•ืื” ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช,
00:49
and one way is to extract human DNA
14
49260
2000
ื•ื“ืจืš ืื—ืช ื”ื™ื ืœื—ืœืฅ DNA ืื ื•ืฉื™
00:51
from ancient bones.
15
51260
2000
ืžืขืฆืžื•ืช ืขืชื™ืงื•ืช.
00:53
And from these extracts,
16
53260
2000
ื•ืžื”ืžื™ืฆื•ื™ื™ื ื”ืืœื”,
00:55
we can reconstruct the human genome at different points in time
17
55260
3000
ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืจื›ื™ื‘ ืืช ื”ื’ื ื•ื ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ ื‘ื ืงื•ื“ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ื–ืžืŸ
00:58
and look for changes that might be related to adaptations,
18
58260
3000
ื•ืœื—ืคืฉ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ืฉืื•ืœื™ ืงืฉื•ืจื™ื ืœืื“ืคื˜ืฆื™ื•ืช,
01:01
risk factors and inherited diseases.
19
61260
3000
ื’ื•ืจืžื™ ืกื™ื›ื•ืŸ ื•ืžื—ืœื•ืช ืชื•ืจืฉืชื™ื•ืช.
01:04
But this is only one half of the story.
20
64260
3000
ืื‘ืœ ื–ื• ืจืง ืžื—ืฆื™ืช ืื—ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ.
01:07
The most important health challenges today
21
67260
3000
ื”ืืชื’ืจื™ื ื”ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืชื™ื™ื ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื”ื™ื•ื
01:10
are not caused by simple mutations in our genome,
22
70260
3000
ืœื ื ื’ืจืžื™ื ืžืžื•ื˜ืฆื™ื•ืช ืคืฉื•ื˜ื•ืช ื‘ื’ื ื™ื ืฉืœื ื•,
01:13
but rather result from a complex and dynamic interplay
23
73260
3000
ืืœื ื ื•ื‘ืขื•ืช ืžื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ ื•ื“ื™ื ืžื™
01:16
between genetic variation,
24
76260
2000
ื‘ื™ืŸ ื•ืจื™ืืฆื™ื•ืช ื’ื ื˜ื™ื•ืช,
01:18
diet, microbes and parasites
25
78260
2000
ื“ื™ืื˜ื”, ืžื™ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ื ื•ื˜ืคื™ืœื™ื
01:20
and our immune response.
26
80260
2000
ื•ื”ืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ื”ื—ื™ืกื•ื ื™ืช ืฉืœื ื•.
01:22
All of these diseases
27
82260
2000
ืœื›ืœ ื”ืžื—ืœื•ืช ื”ืืœื”
01:24
have a strong evolutionary component
28
84260
2000
ื™ืฉ ืจื›ื™ื‘ ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื—ื–ืง
01:26
that directly relates to the fact
29
86260
2000
ืฉืžืชื™ื™ื—ืก ื™ืฉื™ืจื•ืช ืœืขื•ื‘ื“ื”
01:28
that we live today in a very different environment
30
88260
2000
ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื—ื™ื™ื ื›ื™ื•ื ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ืžืื•ื“ ืฉื•ื ื”
01:30
than the ones in which our bodies evolved.
31
90260
3000
ืžื–ื• ื‘ื” ื’ื•ืคื ื• ื”ืชืคืชื—.
01:33
And in order to understand these diseases,
32
93260
2000
ื•ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืช ื”ืžื—ืœื•ืช ื”ืืœื•,
01:35
we need to move past studies of the human genome alone
33
95260
3000
ืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ืชืงื“ื ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœื—ืงืจ ื”ื’ื ื•ื ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ ื‘ืœื‘ื“
01:38
and towards a more holistic approach
34
98260
2000
ืœื’ื™ืฉื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ื”ื•ืœื™ืกื˜ื™ืช
01:40
to human health in the past.
35
100260
2000
ืœื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช ื‘ืขื‘ืจ.
01:42
But there are a lot of challenges for this.
36
102260
2000
ืื‘ืœ ื™ืฉ ื”ืจื‘ื” ืืชื’ืจื™ื ื‘ื–ื”.
01:44
And first of all, what do we even study?
37
104260
3000
ื•ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉื‘ื”ื, ืžื” ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืื ื—ื ื• ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื?
01:47
Skeletons are ubiquitous; they're found all over the place.
38
107260
3000
ืฉืœื“ื™ื ื”ื ื ืคื•ืฆื™ื; ื”ื ื ืžืฆืื™ื ื‘ื›ืœ ืžืงื•ื.
01:50
But of course, all of the soft tissue has decomposed,
39
110260
3000
ืื‘ืœ ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ, ื›ืœ ื”ืจืงืžื•ืช ื”ืจื›ื•ืช ื ืจืงื‘ื•,
01:53
and the skeleton itself
40
113260
2000
ื•ื‘ืฉืœื“ ืขืฆืžื•
01:55
has limited health information.
41
115260
2000
ื™ืฉ ืžื™ื“ืข ืจืคื•ืื™ ืžื•ื’ื‘ืœ.
01:57
Mummies are a great source of information,
42
117260
2000
ืžื•ืžื™ื•ืช ื”ืŸ ืžืงื•ืจ ื ืคืœื ืœืžื™ื“ืข,
01:59
except that they're really geographically limited
43
119260
3000
ื—ื•ืฅ ืžื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ืฉื”ืŸ ืžืื•ื“ ืžื•ื’ื‘ืœื•ืช ื’ืื•ื’ืจืคื™ืช
02:02
and limited in time as well.
44
122260
2000
ื•ืžื•ื’ื‘ืœื•ืช ื’ื ื‘ื–ืžืŸ.
02:04
Coprolites are fossilized human feces,
45
124260
3000
ืงื•ืคืจื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ื ื”ื ืฆื•ืื” ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช ืžืื•ื‘ื ืช,
02:07
and they're actually extremely interesting.
46
127260
2000
ื•ื”ื™ื ืœืžืขืฉื” ืžืื•ื“ ืžืขื ื™ื™ื ืช.
02:09
You can learn a lot about ancient diet and intestinal disease,
47
129260
3000
ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืœืžื•ื“ ื”ืžื•ืŸ ืขืœ ืชื–ื•ื ื” ืขืชื™ืงื” ื•ืžื—ืœื•ืช ืžืขื™ื™ื,
02:12
but they are very rare.
48
132260
2000
ืื‘ืœ ื”ืŸ ืžืื•ื“ ื ื“ื™ืจื•ืช.
02:14
(Laughter)
49
134260
3000
(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
02:17
So to address this problem,
50
137260
2000
ืื– ื›ื“ื™ ืœื˜ืคืœ ื‘ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ื–ืืช,
02:19
I put together a team of international researchers
51
139260
2000
ื”ืจื›ื‘ืชื™ ืฆื•ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ืœืื•ืžื™ื™ื
02:21
in Switzerland, Denmark and the U.K.
52
141260
2000
ื‘ืฉื•ื•ื™ืฅ, ื“ื ืžืจืง, ื•ืื ื’ืœื™ื”.
02:23
to study a very poorly studied, little known material
53
143260
6000
ื›ื“ื™ ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ื—ื•ืžืจ ืœื ืžืื•ื“ ื™ื“ื•ืข ืฉื ื—ืงืจ ืžืขื˜
02:29
that's found on people everywhere.
54
149260
2000
ืฉื ืžืฆื ืขืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ื‘ื›ืœ ืžืงื•ื.
02:31
It's a type of fossilized dental plaque
55
151260
3000
ื–ื” ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ืคืœืืง ื“ื ื˜ืœื™ ืžืื•ื‘ืŸ
02:34
that is called officially dental calculus.
56
154260
3000
ืฉื ืงืจื ืจืฉืžื™ืช ืงืœืงื•ืœื•ืก ื“ื ื˜ืœื™.
02:37
Many of you may know it by the term tartar.
57
157260
2000
ืจื‘ื™ื ืžื›ื ืื•ืœื™ ืžื›ื™ืจื™ื ืื•ืชื• ื‘ืฉื ืื‘ื ื™ืช.
02:39
It's what the dentist cleans off your teeth
58
159260
2000
ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉืจื•ืคืื™ ื”ืฉื™ื ื™ื™ื ืžื ืงื™ื ืžื”ืฉื™ื ื™ื™ื ืฉืœื›ื
02:41
every time that you go in for a visit.
59
161260
2000
ื‘ื›ืœ ืคืขื ืฉืืชื ื‘ืื™ื ืœื‘ื™ืงื•ืจ.
02:43
And in a typical dentistry visit,
60
163260
2000
ื•ื‘ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจ ื“ื ื˜ืœื™ ืžืžื•ืฆืข,
02:45
you may have about 15 to 30 milligrams removed.
61
165260
3000
ืžืกื™ืจื™ื ืœื›ื ื‘ื™ืŸ 15 ืœ 30 ืžื™ืœื™ื’ืจื.
02:48
But in ancient times before tooth brushing,
62
168260
3000
ืื‘ืœ ื‘ื–ืžื ื™ื ื”ืงื“ื•ืžื™ื ืœืคื ื™ ืฆื™ื—ืฆื•ื— ื”ืฉื™ื ื™ื™ื,
02:51
up to 600 milligrams might have built up on the teeth
63
171260
3000
ืขื“ 600 ืžื™ืœื™ื’ืจื ื”ื™ื• ื ื‘ื ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ืฉื™ื ื™ื™ื
02:54
over a lifetime.
64
174260
2000
ื‘ืžืฉืš ื”ื—ื™ื™ื.
02:56
And what's really important about dental calculus
65
176260
3000
ื•ืžื” ืฉืžืžืฉ ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ื‘ืงืœืงื•ืœื•ืก ื“ื ื˜ืœื™
02:59
is that it fossilizes just like the rest of the skeleton,
66
179260
3000
ื”ื•ื ืฉื”ื•ื ืžืชืื‘ืŸ ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื›ืžื• ืฉืืจ ื”ืฉืœื“,
03:02
it's abundant in quantity before the present day
67
182260
3000
ื”ื•ื ื ืคื•ืฅ ืขื“ ืœื–ืžืŸ ื”ื–ื”
03:05
and it's ubiquitous worldwide.
68
185260
2000
ื•ื”ื•ื ื ืคื•ืฅ ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื.
03:07
We find it in every population around the world at all time periods
69
187260
3000
ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื•ืฆืื™ื ืื•ืชื• ื‘ื›ืœ ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื” ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื‘ื›ืœ ืชืงื•ืคื•ืช ื”ื–ืžืŸ
03:10
going back tens of thousands of years.
70
190260
2000
ืขื“ ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืืœืคื™ ืฉื ื™ื ื‘ืขื‘ืจ.
03:12
And we even find it in neanderthals and animals.
71
192260
3000
ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ืืคื™ืœื• ืžื•ืฆืื™ื ืื•ืชื• ื‘ื ืื ื“ืจื˜ืœื™ื ื•ื—ื™ื•ืช.
03:15
And so previous studies
72
195260
2000
ื•ื›ืš ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ืงื•ื“ืžื™ื
03:17
had only focused on microscopy.
73
197260
2000
ื”ืชืจื›ื–ื• ืจืง ื‘ืžื™ืงืจื•ืกืงื•ืคื™ื”.
03:19
They'd looked at dental calculus under a microscope,
74
199260
2000
ื”ื ื”ื‘ื™ื˜ื• ื‘ืงืœืงื•ืœื•ืก ื“ื ื˜ืœื™ ืžืชื—ืช ืœืžื™ืงืจื•ืกืงื•ืค,
03:21
and what they had found was things like pollen
75
201260
3000
ื•ืžื” ืฉื”ื ืžืฆืื• ื”ื™ื• ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื›ืžื• ืื‘ืงื” ืžืคืจื—ื™ื
03:24
and plant starches,
76
204260
2000
ื•ืขืžื™ืœื ื™ื ืฆืžื—ื™ื™ื,
03:26
and they'd found muscle cells from animal meats
77
206260
2000
ื•ื”ื ืžืฆืื• ืชืื™ ืฉืจื™ืจ ืžื‘ืฉืจ ื—ื™ื•ืช
03:28
and bacteria.
78
208260
2000
ื•ื‘ืงื˜ืจื™ื•ืช.
03:30
And so what my team of researchers, what we wanted to do,
79
210260
3000
ื•ืžื” ืฉื”ืฆื•ื•ืช ืฉืœื™, ืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืจืฆื™ื ื• ืœืขืฉื•ืช,
03:33
is say, can we apply
80
213260
2000
ื–ื” ืœื”ื’ื™ื“, ื”ืื ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื™ื™ืฉื
03:35
genetic and proteomic technology
81
215260
2000
ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื’ื ื˜ื™ืช ื•ืคืจื•ื˜ืื•ืžื™ืช
03:37
to go after DNA and proteins,
82
217260
2000
ื›ื“ื™ ืœืžืฆื•ืช DNA ื•ื—ืœื‘ื•ื ื™ื,
03:39
and from this can we get better taxonomic resolution
83
219260
3000
ื•ืžื–ื” ื”ืื ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืงื‘ืœ ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช ื˜ืงืกื•ื ื•ืžื™ื•ืช ื˜ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ
03:42
to really understand what's going on?
84
222260
2000
ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ื‘ืืžืช ืžื” ืงื•ืจื”?
03:44
And what we found
85
224260
2000
ื•ืžื” ืฉืžืฆืื ื•
03:46
is that we can find many commensal and pathogenic bacteria
86
226260
2000
ื–ื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืžืฆื•ื ื”ืจื‘ื” ืชืื™ื ืงื•ืžื ืกืœื™ื™ื ื•ื‘ืงื˜ืจื™ื•ืช ืคื˜ื•ื’ื ื™ื•ืช
03:48
that inhabited the nasal passages and mouth.
87
228260
3000
ืฉื”ื™ื• ื‘ืžืขื‘ืจื™ ื”ืืฃ ื•ื‘ืคื”.
03:51
We also have found immune proteins
88
231260
3000
ืžืฆืื ื• ื’ื ื—ืœื‘ื•ื ื™ ื—ื™ืกื•ืŸ
03:54
related to infection and inflammation
89
234260
3000
ืฉืงืฉื•ืจื™ื ืœื–ื™ื”ื•ืžื™ื ื•ื“ืœืงื•ืช
03:57
and proteins and DNA related to diet.
90
237260
3000
ื•ื—ืœื‘ื•ื ื™ื ื•DNA ืฉืงืฉื•ืจื™ื ืœืชื–ื•ื ื”.
04:00
But what was surprising to us, and also quite exciting,
91
240260
3000
ืื‘ืœ ืžื” ืฉื”ืคืชื™ืข ืื•ืชื ื•, ื•ื’ื ื“ื™ ืจื™ื’ืฉ,
04:03
is we also found bacteria
92
243260
2000
ื–ื” ืฉื’ื ืžืฆืื ื• ื‘ืงื˜ืจื™ื•ืช
04:05
that normally inhabit upper respiratory systems.
93
245260
2000
ืฉื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ื ืžืฆืื•ืช ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื ืฉื™ืžื” ื”ืขืœื™ื•ื ื”.
04:07
So it gives us virtual access to the lungs,
94
247260
3000
ืื– ื–ื” ื ื•ืชืŸ ืœื ื• ื’ื™ืฉื” ื•ื™ืจื˜ื•ืืœื™ืช ืœืจื™ืื•ืช,
04:10
which is where many important diseases reside.
95
250260
3000
ืฉื ืžืฉืชื›ื ื•ืช ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžื—ืœื•ืช ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื•ืช.
04:13
And we also found bacteria
96
253260
2000
ื•ื’ื ืžืฆืื ื• ื‘ืงื˜ืจื™ื•ืช
04:15
that normally inhabit the gut.
97
255260
2000
ืฉื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ืฉื•ื›ื ื•ืช ื‘ืžืขื™.
04:17
And so we can also now virtually gain access
98
257260
3000
ืื– ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืœืงื‘ืœ ื’ื™ืฉื” ื•ื™ืจื˜ื•ืืœื™ืช
04:20
to this even more distant organ system
99
260260
2000
ืืคื™ืœื• ืœืื™ื‘ืจ ื”ืžืจื•ื—ืง ื™ื•ืชืจ ื”ื–ื”
04:22
that, from the skeleton alone,
100
262260
2000
ืžื”ืฉืœื“ ื‘ืœื‘ื“,
04:24
has long decomposed.
101
264260
2000
ืฉืžื–ืžืŸ ื”ืชืคืจืง.
04:26
And so by applying ancient DNA sequencing
102
266260
2000
ืื– ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืจื™ืฆื•ืฃ DNA ืขืชื™ืง
04:28
and protein mass spectrometry technologies
103
268260
2000
ื•ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช ืžืืก ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ืกืงืคื™ื” ืœื—ืœื‘ื•ื ื™ื
04:30
to ancient dental calculus,
104
270260
2000
ืœืงืœืงื•ืœื•ืก ื“ื ื˜ืœื™ ืขืชื™ืง,
04:32
we can generate immense quantities of data
105
272260
3000
ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืงื‘ืœ ื›ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ืื“ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžื™ื“ืข
04:35
that then we can use to begin to reconstruct a detailed picture
106
275260
3000
ืฉืื– ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืจื›ื™ื‘ ืชืžื•ื ื” ืžืคื•ืจื˜ืช
04:38
of the dynamic interplay
107
278260
2000
ืฉืœ ื”ืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ื”ื“ื™ื ืžื™ืช ื”ื”ื“ื“ื™ืช
04:40
between diet, infection and immunity
108
280260
2000
ื‘ื™ืŸ ื“ื™ืื˜ื”, ื“ืœืงื•ืช ื•ื—ื™ืกื•ืŸ
04:42
thousands of years ago.
109
282260
2000
ืœืคื ื™ ืืœืคื™ ืฉื ื™ื.
04:44
So what started out as an idea,
110
284260
2000
ืื– ืžื” ืฉื”ื—ืœ ื›ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ,
04:46
is now being implemented
111
286260
2000
ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืžื™ื•ืฉื
04:48
to churn out millions of sequences
112
288260
2000
ื›ื“ื™ ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ืขืœ ืžื™ืœื™ื•ื ื™ ืจืฆืคื™ื
04:50
that we can use to investigate
113
290260
2000
ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื”ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœื—ืงื•ืจ
04:52
the long-term evolutionary history of human health and disease,
114
292260
3000
ืืช ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ื”ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ืืจื•ื›ืช ื”ื˜ื•ื•ื— ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช,
04:55
right down to the genetic code of individual pathogens.
115
295260
3000
ืžืžืฉ ืขื“ ืœืงื•ื“ ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™ ืฉืœ ืคื˜ื•ื’ื ื™ื ื‘ื•ื“ื“ื™ื.
04:58
And from this information
116
298260
2000
ื•ืžื”ืžื™ื“ืข ื”ื–ื”
05:00
we can learn about how pathogens evolve
117
300260
2000
ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืœืžื•ื“ ืื™ืš ืคื˜ื•ื’ื ื™ื ื”ืชืคืชื—ื•
05:02
and also why they continue to make us sick.
118
302260
3000
ื•ื’ื ืœืžื” ื”ื ืžืžืฉื™ื›ื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืื•ืชื ื• ื—ื•ืœื™ื.
05:05
And I hope I have convinced you
119
305260
2000
ื•ืื ื™ ืžืงื•ื•ื” ืฉืฉื›ื ืขืชื™ ืืชื›ื
05:07
of the value of dental calculus.
120
307260
2000
ื‘ืขืจืš ืฉืœ ืงืœืงื•ืœื•ืก ื“ื ื˜ืœื™.
05:09
And as a final parting thought,
121
309260
2000
ื•ื›ืžื—ืฉื‘ืช ืคืจื™ื“ื” ืื—ืจื•ื ื”,
05:11
on behalf of future archeologists,
122
311260
3000
ื‘ืฉื ืืจื›ื™ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื ืขืชื™ื“ื™ื™ื,
05:14
I would like to ask you to please think twice
123
314260
3000
ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื‘ืงืฉ ืžื›ื ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื
05:17
before you go home and brush your teeth.
124
317260
2000
ืœืคื ื™ ืฉืืชื ื”ื•ืœื›ื™ื ื”ื‘ื™ืชื” ื•ืžืฆื—ืฆื—ื™ื ืืช ื”ืฉื™ื ื™ื™ื.
05:19
(Applause)
125
319260
2000
(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
05:21
Thank you.
126
321260
2000
ืชื•ื“ื” ืœื›ื.
05:23
(Applause)
127
323260
2000
(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

https://forms.gle/WvT1wiN1qDtmnspy7