How did they build the Great Pyramid of Giza? - Soraya Field Fiorio

1,477,893 views ใƒป 2022-10-13

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: zeeva livshitz ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Ido Dekkers
00:08
As soon as Pharaoh Khufu ascended the throne circa 2575 BCE,
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ื‘ืจื’ืข ืฉืขืœื” ืคืจืขื” ื—ื•ืคื• ืœื›ืก ื”ืžืœื›ื•ืช ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื•ืช 2575 ืœืคื ื”โ€œืก,
00:13
work on his eternal resting place began.
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ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืขืœ ืžืงื•ื ืžื ื•ื—ืชื• ื”ื ืฆื—ื™ ื”ื—ืœื”.
00:17
The structureโ€™s architect, Hemiunu,
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ืื“ืจื™ื›ืœ ื”ืžื‘ื ื”, ื”ื™ืžื™ื•ื ื•,
00:20
determined he would need 20 years to finish the royal tomb.
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ืงื‘ืข ืฉื”ื•ื ื™ื–ื“ืงืง ืœ-20 ืฉื ื” ืœืกื™ื™ื ืืช ื”ืงื‘ืจ ื”ืžืœื›ื•ืชื™.
00:24
But what he could not predict was that this monument would remain
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ืื‘ืœ ืžื” ืฉื”ื•ื ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ื”ื™ื” ืœื—ื–ื•ืช ื–ื” ืฉื”ืื ื“ืจื˜ื” ื”ื–ื• ืชื™ืฉืืจ
00:28
the worldโ€™s tallest manmade structure for over 3,800 years.
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ื”ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ื’ื‘ื•ื” ื‘ืขื•ืœื ืžืขืฉื” ื™ื“ื™ ืื“ื ื‘ืžืฉืš ืœืžืขืœื” ืž-3,800 ืฉื ื™ื.
00:34
To construct the Great Pyramid,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืืช ื”ืคื™ืจืžื™ื“ื” ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื”,
00:37
Hemiunu would need to dig a 6-and-a-half-kilometer canal,
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ื”ื™ืžื™ื•ื ื• ื™ืฆื˜ืจืš ืœื—ืคื•ืจ ืชืขืœื” ืฉืœ 6 ื•ื—ืฆื™ ืงื™ืœื•ืžื˜ืจื™ื,
00:40
quarry enormous amounts of limestone and granite,
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ืœื—ืฆื•ื‘ ื›ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ืื“ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื‘ืŸ ื’ื™ืจ ื•ื’ืจื ื™ื˜,
00:44
and use kilometers of rope to pull stones into place.
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ื•ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืงื™ืœื•ืžื˜ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ื—ื‘ืœ ืœืžืฉื•ืš ืื‘ื ื™ื ืœืžืงื•ืžืŸ.
00:49
Today, there are still vigorous debates about the exact methods
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ื›ื™ื•ื, ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื™ืฉ ื•ื™ื›ื•ื—ื™ื ื ืžืจืฆื™ื ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ืฉื™ื˜ื•ืช ื”ืžื“ื•ื™ืงื•ืช
00:53
the Egyptians employed.
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ื‘ื”ืŸ ื”ืžืฆืจื™ื ื”ืฉืชืžืฉื•.
00:55
But we do know that first Hemiunu needed a construction site.
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื—ื ื• ื›ืŸ ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืฉืงื•ื“ื ื›ืœ ื”ื™ืžื™ื•ื ื• ื”ื™ื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืืชืจ ื‘ื ื™ื™ื”.
01:00
The Egyptians spoke of death as going west like the setting sun,
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ื”ืžืฆืจื™ื ื“ื™ื‘ืจื• ืขืœ ืžื•ื•ืช ื›ื”ืœื™ื›ื” ืžืขืจื‘ื” ื›ืžื• ื”ืฉืžืฉ ื”ืฉื•ืงืขืช,
01:05
and the Nileโ€™s west bank had a plateau of bedrock
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ื•ืœื’ื“ื” ื”ืžืขืจื‘ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื ื™ืœื•ืก ื”ื™ืชื” ืจืžื” ืฉืœ ืกืœืข ื™ืกื•ื“
01:08
that could support the pyramid better than shifting sand.
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ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื” ื”ื™ืชื” ืœืชืžื•ืš ื‘ืคื™ืจืžื™ื“ื” ื˜ื•ื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื—ื•ืœ ื ื•ื“ื“.
01:12
In a brilliant timesaving move,
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ื‘ืฆืขื“ ืžื‘ืจื™ืง ื—ื•ืกืš ื–ืžืŸ,
01:15
masons carved the plateau itself to look like the stones
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ื‘ื ืื™ื ื’ื™ืœืคื• ืืช ื”ืจืžื” ื›ืš ืฉืชื™ืจืื” ื›ืžื• ื”ืื‘ื ื™ื
01:18
used for the rest of the pyramid.
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ืฉืžืฉืžืฉื™ื ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืฉืืจ ื”ืคื™ืจืžื™ื“ื”.
01:21
With this level foundation in place, construction could begin.
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ืขื ื‘ืกื™ืก ืžืคื•ืœืก ื–ื” ื‘ืžืงื•ื, ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ.
01:27
The project called for a staggering 25,000 workers,
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ื”ืคืจื•ื™ืงื˜ ื“ืจืฉ ื›ืžื•ืช ืžื“ื”ื™ืžื” ืฉืœ 25,000 ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื,
01:31
but fortunately, Hemiunu had an established labor supply.
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ืื‘ืœ ืœืžืจื‘ื” ื”ืžื–ืœ, ืœื”ื™ืžื™ื•ื ื• ื”ื™ื” ื”ื™ืฆืข ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ืžื‘ื•ืกืก.
01:35
Egyptians were required to perform manual labor for the government
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ื”ืžืฆืจื™ื ื ื“ืจืฉื• ืœื‘ืฆืข ืขื‘ื•ื“ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืžืžืฉืœ
01:39
throughout the year,
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ื‘ืžืฉืš ื”ืฉื ื”,
01:41
and citizens from across the country came to contribute.
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ื•ืื–ืจื—ื™ื ืžื›ืœ ื”ืืจืฅ ื‘ืื• ืœืชืจื•ื.
01:44
Workers performed a wide range of tasks,
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ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ื‘ื™ืฆืขื• ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ืจื—ื‘ ืฉืœ ืžืฉื™ืžื•ืช,
01:47
from crafting tools and clothes to administrative work
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ืžื™ืฆื™ืจืช ื›ืœื™ื ื•ื‘ื’ื“ื™ื ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืื“ืžื™ื ื™ืกื˜ืจื˜ื™ื‘ื™ืช
01:51
to back-breaking manual labor.
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ื•ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื ืฉื•ื‘ืจืช ื’ื‘.
01:53
But contrary to popular belief, these workers were not enslaved people.
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ื ื™ื’ื•ื“ ืœืืžื•ื ื” ื”ืจื•ื•ื—ืช, ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ืœื ื”ื™ื• ืื ืฉื™ื ืžืฉื•ืขื‘ื“ื™ื.
01:59
In fact, these citizens were housed and fed with rations
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ืื–ืจื—ื™ื ืืœื” ืฉื•ื›ื ื• ื•ื”ื•ื–ื ื•
02:02
better than the average Egyptian could afford.
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ื˜ื•ื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืžื” ืฉื”ืžืฆืจื™ ื”ืžืžื•ืฆืข ื™ื›ื•ืœ ื”ื™ื” ืœื”ืจืฉื•ืช ืœืขืฆืžื•.
02:05
To complete the project in 20 years,
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ืœื”ืฉืœืžืช ื”ืคืจื•ื™ืงื˜ ืชื•ืš 20 ืฉื ื”,
02:08
one block of stone would need to be quarried, transported,
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ื’ื•ืฉ ืื‘ืŸ ืื—ื“ ื™ืฆื˜ืจืš ืœื”ื™ื—ืฆื‘, ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ื‘ืœ
02:12
and pushed into place every 3 minutes,
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ื•ื ื“ื—ืฃ ืœืžืงื•ืžื• ื›ืœ 3 ื“ืงื•ืช,
02:16
365 days a year.
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365 ื™ืžื™ื ื‘ืฉื ื”.
02:19
Workers averaged 10-hour days, hauling limestone from two different quarries.
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ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ื’ืจืจื• ืื‘ืŸ ื’ื™ืจ ื‘ืžืžื•ืฆืข ื‘ืžืฉืš 10 ืฉืขื•ืช ื‘ื™ื•ื, ืžืฉืชื™ ืžื—ืฆื‘ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช.
02:25
One was close to the site,
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ืื—ืช ื”ื™ืชื” ืงืจื•ื‘ื” ืœืืชืจ,
02:27
but its fossil-lined yellow stone was deemed suitable
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืื‘ืŸ ื”ืฆื”ื•ื‘ื” ืฉืœื” ื”ืžืจื•ืคื“ืช ื‘ืžืื•ื‘ื ื™ื ื ื—ืฉื‘ื” ืžืชืื™ืžื”
02:30
only for the pyramidโ€™s interior.
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ืจืง ืœื—ืœืง ื”ืคื ื™ืžื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืคื™ืจืžื™ื“ื”.
02:33
Stones for the outside were hauled from roughly 13 kilometers away,
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ืื‘ื ื™ื ืœื—ืœืง ื”ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ ื ื’ืจืจื• ืžืžืจื—ืง ืฉืœ ื›-13 ืงื™ืœื•ืžื˜ืจื™ื,
02:37
using 9-meter long sleds made from giant cedar trunks.
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ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืžื–ื—ืœื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืจืš 9 ืžื˜ืจ ืขืฉื•ื™ื•ืช ืžื’ื–ืขื™ ืืจื– ืขื ืงื™ื™ื.
02:43
When mined from the ground,
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ื›ืืฉืจ ืื‘ืŸ ื”ื’ื™ืจ ื ื›ืจื™ืช ืžื”ืงืจืงืข,
02:45
limestone is soft and splits easily into straight lines.
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ื”ื™ื ืจื›ื” ื•ืžืชืคืฆืœืช ื‘ืงืœื•ืช ืœืงื•ื•ื™ื ื™ืฉืจื™ื.
02:49
But after air exposure it hardens,
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ืื‘ืœ ืœืื—ืจ ื—ืฉื™ืคื” ืœืื•ื•ื™ืจ ื”ื™ื ืžืชืงืฉื”,
02:52
requiring wooden mallets and copper chisels to shape.
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ื•ื ื“ืจืฉื™ื ืคื˜ื™ืฉื™ ืขืฅ ื•ืื–ืžืœื™ ื ื—ื•ืฉืช ื›ื“ื™ ืœืขืฆื‘ื”.
02:56
The pyramid used over 2 million stones, each weighing up to 80 tons.
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ื‘ืคื™ืจืžื™ื“ื” ื”ืฉืชืžืฉื• ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืž-2 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืื‘ื ื™ื, ื›ืœ ืื—ืช ื‘ืžืฉืงืœ ืฉืœ ืขื“ 80 ื˜ื•ืŸ.
03:01
And there was no room for error in how they were shaped.
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ื•ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืžืงื•ื ืœื˜ืขื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืฉื‘ื” ื”ืŸ ืขื•ืฆื‘ื•.
03:05
Even the smallest inaccuracy at the bottom of the pyramid could result
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ืืคื™ืœื• ื—ื•ืกืจ ื”ื“ื™ื•ืง ื”ืงื˜ืŸ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืชื—ืชื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืคื™ืจืžื™ื“ื” ืขืœื•ืœ ืœื’ืจื•ื
03:10
in a catastrophic failure at the top.
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ืœื›ื™ืฉืœื•ืŸ ืงื˜ืกื˜ืจื•ืคืœื™ ื‘ื—ืœืงื” ื”ืขืœื™ื•ืŸ.
03:14
Researchers know where the materials used to build the pyramids came from
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ื”ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืžื”ื™ื›ืŸ ื”ื’ื™ืขื• ื”ื—ื•ืžืจื™ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืืช ื”ืคื™ืจืžื™ื“ื•ืช
03:18
and how they were transported,
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ื•ืื™ืš ื”ื ื”ื•ืขื‘ืจื•,
03:20
but the actual construction process remains mysterious.
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ืื‘ืœ ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ื” ื‘ืคื•ืขืœ ื ืฉืืจ ืžืกืชื•ืจื™.
03:25
Most experts agree that limestone ramps were used to move the stones into place,
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ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืžื•ืžื—ื™ื ืžืกื›ื™ืžื™ื ื›ื™ ืจืžืคื•ืช ืื‘ืŸ ื’ื™ืจ ืฉื™ืžืฉื• ืœื”ื–ื–ืช ื”ืื‘ื ื™ื ืœืžืงื•ืžืŸ,
03:30
but there are many theories on the number of ramps and their locations.
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ืื‘ืœ ื™ืฉ ื”ืจื‘ื” ืชื™ืื•ืจื™ื•ืช ืขืœ ืžืกืคืจ ื”ืจืžืคื•ืช ื•ืžื™ืงื•ืžืŸ.
03:36
And the pyramidโ€™s exterior is just half the story.
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ื•ื”ื—ืœืง ื”ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืคื™ืจืžื™ื“ื” ื–ื” ืจืง ื—ืฆื™ ืžื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ.
03:39
Since death could come for the pharaoh at any time,
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ืžืื—ืจ ืฉื”ืžื•ื•ืช ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื‘ื•ื ืœืคืจืขื” ื‘ื›ืœ ืขืช,
03:42
Hemiunu always needed an accessible burial chamber at the ready,
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ื”ื™ืžื™ื•ื ื• ืชืžื™ื“ ื”ื™ื” ืฆืจื™ืš ื—ื“ืจ ืงื‘ื•ืจื” ืžื•ื›ืŸ ื ื’ื™ืฉ,
03:47
so three separate burial chambers were built during construction.
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ืื– ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ื—ื“ืจื™ ืงื‘ื•ืจื” ื ืคืจื“ื™ื ื ื‘ื ื• ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ื”.
03:52
The last of these, known as the Kingโ€™s Chamber,
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ื”ืื—ืจื•ืŸ ืฉื‘ื”ื, ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื” ืœืฉื›ืช ื”ืžืœืš,
03:55
is a spacious granite room with a soaring ceiling,
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ื”ื•ื ื—ื“ืจ ื’ืจื ื™ื˜ ืžืจื•ื•ื— ืขื ืชืงืจื” ืžืชื ืฉืืช ืœื’ื•ื‘ื”,
03:59
located at the heart of the pyramid.
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ืฉืžืžื•ืงื ื‘ืœื‘ ื”ืคื™ืจืžื™ื“ื”.
04:01
it lay on top of an 8.5-meter high passageway called the Grand Gallery,
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ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ืžื•ื ื— ืขืœ ื’ื‘ื™ ืžืกื“ืจื•ืŸ ื‘ื’ื•ื‘ื” ืฉืœ 8.5 ืžื˜ืจ ืฉื ืงืจื ื”ื’ืœืจื™ื” ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื”,
04:07
which may have been used as an ancient freight elevator
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ืฉืื•ืœื™ ื ืขืฉื” ื‘ื• ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื›ืžืขืœื™ืช ืžืฉื ืขืชื™ืงื”
04:11
to move granite up the pyramidโ€™s interior.
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ืœื”ืขื‘ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ื’ืจื ื™ื˜ ืœื—ืœืง ื”ืคื ื™ืžื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืคื™ืจืžื™ื“ื”.
04:15
Granite was used for all the pyramidโ€™s support beams.
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ื’ืจื ื™ื˜ ืฉื™ืžืฉ ืœื›ืœ ืงื•ืจื•ืช ื”ืชืžื™ื›ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืคื™ืจืžื™ื“ื”.
04:18
Much stronger than limestone, but extremely difficult to shape,
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ื”ื•ื ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ื—ื–ืง ืžืื‘ืŸ ื’ื™ืจ, ืื‘ืœ ืงืฉื” ืžืื•ื“ ืœืขื™ืฆื•ื‘,
04:23
workers used dolerite rocks as hammers to slowly quarry the stone.
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ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ื”ืฉืชืžืฉื• ื‘ืกืœืขื™ ื“ื•ืœืจื™ื˜ ื›ื‘ืคื˜ื™ืฉื™ื ืœื—ืฆื•ื‘ ืœืื˜ ืืช ื”ืื‘ืŸ.
04:28
To ensure the granite beams would be ready when he needed them,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื— ืฉืงื•ืจื•ืช ื”ื’ืจื ื™ื˜ ื™ื”ื™ื• ืžื•ื›ื ื•ืช ื›ืฉื”ื™ื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืื•ืชื,
04:32
Hemiunu dispatched 500 workers in the projectโ€™s first year
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ื”ื™ืžื™ื•ื ื• ืฉื™ื’ืจ 500 ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ื‘ืฉื ื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืคืจื•ื™ืงื˜
04:36
so that the material would be ready 12 years later.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ื™ื”ื™ื” ืžื•ื›ืŸ 12 ืฉื ื™ื ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ.
04:40
Five stories of granite sit atop the Kingโ€™s Chamber,
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ื—ืžืฉ ืงื•ืžื•ืช ืฉืœ ื’ืจื ื™ื˜ ื™ื•ืฉื‘ื•ืช ืขืœ ืจืืฉ ืœืฉื›ืช ื”ืžืœืš,
04:44
preventing the pyramid from collapsing in on itself.
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ืžื•ื ืขื•ืช ืžืคื™ืจืžื™ื“ื” ืœืงืจื•ืก ืœืชื•ืš ืขืฆืžื”.
04:48
Once complete, the entire structure was encased with white limestone,
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ืœืื—ืจ ื”ืฉืœืžืชื•, ื”ืžื‘ื ื” ื›ื•ืœื• ื”ื™ื” ืขื˜ื•ืฃ ื‘ืื‘ืŸ ื’ื™ืจ ืœื‘ื ื”,
04:53
polished with sand and stone until it gleamed.
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ืžืœื•ื˜ืฉืช ืขื ื—ื•ืœ ื•ืื‘ืŸ ืขื“ ืฉื”ื™ื ื”ื‘ื”ื™ืงื”.
04:58
Finally, a capstone was placed on top.
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ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื”ื•ื ื—ื” ืื‘ืŸ ืขืœื™ื•ื ื” ืžืขืœ.
05:02
Covered with electrum and glimmering like gold,
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ืžื›ื•ืกื” ื‘ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ื ื•ืžื ืฆื ืฆืช ื›ืžื• ื–ื”ื‘,
05:05
this peak shined like a second sun over all of Egypt.
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ื”ืคืกื’ื” ื”ื–ื• ื–ืจื—ื” ื›ืžื• ืฉืžืฉ ืฉื ื™ื” ืขืœ ื›ืœ ืžืฆืจื™ื.
05:11
This video was made possible with support from Marriott Hotels.
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ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ื–ื” ื”ืชืืคืฉืจ ืขื ืชืžื™ื›ื” ืžืžืœื•ื ื•ืช ืžืจื™ื•ื˜.
05:15
With over 590 hotels and resorts across the globe,
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ืขื ืœืžืขืœื” ืž-590 ืžืœื•ื ื•ืช ื•ืืชืจื™ ื ื•ืคืฉ ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื,
05:19
Marriott Hotels celebrates the curiosity that propels us to travel.
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ืžืœื•ื ื•ืช ืžืจื™ื•ื˜ ื—ื•ื’ื’ื™ื ืืช ื”ืกืงืจื ื•ืช ืฉืžื ื™ืขื” ืื•ืชื ื• ืœื˜ื™ื™ืœ.
05:24
Check out some of the exciting ways TED-Ed and Marriott are working together
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ื‘ื“ืงื• ื›ืžื” ืžื”ื“ืจื›ื™ื ื”ืžืจื’ืฉื•ืช ืฉ -TED-Ed ื•ืžืจื™ื•ื˜ ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ื™ื—ื“
05:29
and book your next journey at Marriott Hotels.
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ื•ื”ื–ืžื™ื ื• ืืช ื”ืžืกืข ื”ื‘ื ืฉืœื›ื ื‘ืžืœื•ื ื•ืช ืžืจื™ื•ื˜.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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