The history of marriage - Alex Gendler

4,303,479 views ใƒป 2014-02-13

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: Ido Dekkers ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Tal Dekkers
00:07
There have been many different things
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื
00:09
written and said about marriage.
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ื ื›ืชื‘ื• ื•ื ืืžืจื• ืขืœ ื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ื.
00:11
From the sweetly inspirational
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ืžื ืชื™ื ืช ื”ื”ืฉืจืื” ื”ืžืชื•ืงื”
00:13
to the hilariously cynical.
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ืœืฆื™ื ื™ื™ื•ืช ื”ืžืฆื—ื™ืงื”.
00:15
But what many of them have in common
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ืื‘ืœ ืžื” ืฉื™ืฉ ืœืจื‘ื™ื ืžื”ื ื‘ืžืฉื•ืชืฃ
00:17
is that they sound like they express
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ื–ื” ืฉื”ื ื ืฉืžืขื™ื ื›ืื™ืœื• ื”ื ืžื‘ื™ืขื™ื
00:18
a universal and timeless truth,
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ืืžืช ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกืœื™ืช ื•ื—ืกืจืช ื–ืžืŸ,
00:21
when in fact nearly everything about marriage,
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ื›ืฉืœืžืขืฉื” ื›ืžืขื˜ ื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉื ื•ื’ืข ืœื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ืŸ,
00:23
from its main purpose
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ืžื”ืžื˜ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื™ืช ืฉืœื”ื
00:25
to the kinds of relationships it covers
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ืœืกื•ื’ื™ื ืฉืœ ื™ื—ืกื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื ืžื›ืกื”
00:27
to the rights and responsibilities involved,
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ืœื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ื•ืœืื—ืจื™ื•ืช ืฉืžืขื•ืจื‘ื•ืช,
00:29
has varied greatly between different eras,
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ื”ืฉืชื ื• ืžืื•ื“ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืขื™ื“ื ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื,
00:31
cultures and social classes.
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ืชืจื‘ื•ื™ื•ืช ื•ืฉื›ื‘ื•ืช ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื•ืช.
00:34
So, let's take a quick look at
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ืื–, ื‘ื•ืื• ื ื‘ื™ื˜ ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช
00:36
the evolution of marriage.
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ื‘ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ืŸ.
00:38
Pair bonding and raising children
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ื–ื™ื•ื•ื’ ื•ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ื™ืœื“ื™ื
00:39
is as old as humanity itself.
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ื”ื ืขืชื™ืงื™ื ื›ืžื• ื”ืื ื•ืฉื•ืช ืขืฆืžื”.
00:41
With the rise of sedentary agricultural societies
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ืขื ื”ืขืœื™ื” ืฉืœ ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ื—ืงืœืื™ื•ืช ืžื™ื•ืฉื‘ื•ืช
00:44
about 10,000 years ago,
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ืœืคื ื™ ื‘ืขืจืš 10,000 ืฉื ื”,
00:46
marriage was also a way
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ื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ืŸ ื”ื™ื• ื’ื ื“ืจืš
00:47
of securing rights to land and property
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ืœืฉืžื•ืจ ืขืœ ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ืœืื“ืžื” ื•ืจื›ื•ืฉ
00:50
by designating children born under certain circumstances
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื™ืขื•ื“ ื™ืœื“ื™ื ืฉื ื•ืœื“ื• ืชื—ืช ืžืฆื‘ื™ื ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžื™ื
00:53
as rightful heirs.
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ื›ื™ื•ืจืฉื™ื ื—ื•ืงื™ื™ื.
00:55
As these societies became larger and more complex,
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ื›ืฉื”ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ื”ืืœื• ื”ืคื›ื• ืœื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ื•ืžืกื•ื‘ื›ื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ,
00:57
marriage became not just a matter
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ื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ืŸ ื”ืคื›ื• ืœื ืจืง ืœืขื ื™ื™ืŸ
00:59
between individuals and families,
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ื‘ื™ืŸ ื™ื—ื™ื“ื™ื ืœืžืฉืคื—ื•ืช,
01:01
but also an official institution
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ืืœื ื’ื ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ืจืฉืžื™ื™ื
01:03
governed by religious and civil authorities.
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ืฉื ืฉืœื˜ื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื“ืช ื•ืฉืœื˜ื•ื ื•ืช ืื–ืจื—ื™ื™ื.
01:06
And it was already well established by 2100 B.C.
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ื•ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืžื™ื•ืกื“ ื”ื™ื˜ื‘ ื›ื‘ืจ ื‘ 2100 ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืกืคื™ืจื”
01:10
when the earliest surviving written laws
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ื›ืฉื”ื—ื•ืงื™ื ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉืฉืจื“ื•
01:12
in the Mesopotamian Code of Ur-Nammu
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ื‘ื—ื•ืง ื”ืžืกื•ืคื•ื˜ืžื™ ืฉืœ ืื•ืจ-ื ืžื•
01:15
provided many specifics governing marriage,
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ืกื™ืคืงื• ื”ืจื‘ื” ืคืจื˜ื™ื ืฉื”ืฉืคื™ืขื• ืขืœ ื”ื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ืŸ,
01:17
from punishments for adultery
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ืžืขื•ื ืฉื™ื ืขืœ ื‘ื’ื™ื“ื”
01:19
to the legal status of children born to slaves.
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ืœืžืขืžื“ ื”ื—ื•ืงื™ ืฉืœ ื™ืœื“ื™ื ืฉื ื•ืœื“ื• ืœืขื‘ื“ื™ื.
01:22
Many ancient civilizations allowed some form of
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ืชืจื‘ื•ื™ื•ืช ืขืชื™ืงื•ืช ืื™ืคืฉืจื• ืกื•ื’ ื›ืœืฉื”ื•
01:25
multiple simultaneous marriage.
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ืฉืœ ื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ืŸ ืžืจื•ื‘ื™ื ื‘ืื•ืชื• ื–ืžืŸ.
01:27
And even today, less than a quarter of the world's
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ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ื”ื™ื•ื, ืคื—ื•ืช ืžืจื‘ืข ืžืžืื•ืช
01:29
hundreds of different cultures prohibit it.
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ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื ืื•ืกืจื•ืช ืืช ื–ื”.
01:32
But just because something was allowed
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ืื‘ืœ ืจืง ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉืžืฉื”ื• ื”ื™ื” ืžื•ืชืจ
01:34
doesn't mean it was always possible.
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ืœื ืื•ืžืจ ืฉื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ืชืžื™ื“ ืืคืฉืจื™.
01:36
Demographic realities,
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ืžืฆื™ืื•ื™ื•ืช ื“ืžื•ื’ืจืคื™ื•ืช,
01:38
as well as the link between marriage and wealth,
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ื›ืžื• ื’ื ื”ืงืฉืจ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ืŸ ืœืื•ืฉืจ,
01:40
meant that even though rulers and elites
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ื’ืจืžื• ืœื›ืš ืฉืืคื™ืœื• ืœืฉืœื™ื˜ื™ื ื•ืœืืœื™ื˜ื•ืช
01:42
in Ancient Mesopotamia,
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ื‘ืžืกื•ืคื•ื˜ืžื™ื” ื”ืขืชื™ืงื”,
01:43
Egypt and Israel
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ืžืฆืจื™ื™ื ื•ื™ืฉืจืืœ
01:45
had multiple concubines or wives,
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ื”ื™ื• ืคื™ืœื’ืฉื™ื ื•ื ืฉื™ื ืžืจื•ื‘ื•ืช,
01:47
most commoners could only afford one or two
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ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืคืฉื•ื˜ื™ื ื™ื›ืœื• ืœื”ืจืฉื•ืช ืœืขืžื ืจืง ืื—ืช ืื• ืฉืชื™ื™ื
01:50
tending towards monogamy in practice.
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ื•ื ื˜ื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœืžื•ื ื•ื’ืžื™ื” ื‘ืคื•ืขืœ.
01:53
In other places, the tables were turned,
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ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ืื—ืจื™ื, ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื”ืคื•ืš,
01:55
and a woman could have multiple husbands
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ื•ืœืื™ืฉื” ื”ื™ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืกืคืจ ื‘ืขืœื™ื
01:57
as in the Himalayan Mountains
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ื›ืžื• ื‘ื”ืจื™ ื”ื”ื™ืžืœืื™ื”
01:59
where all brothers in a family
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ื›ืฉื›ืœ ืื—ื™ ื”ืžืฉืคื—ื”
02:00
marrying the same woman
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ื”ืชื—ืชื ื• ืขื ืื•ืชื” ืื™ืฉื”
02:02
kept the small amount of fertile land
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ื•ืฉืžืจื• ืขืœ ื›ืžื•ืช ืงื˜ื ื” ืฉืœ ืื“ืžื” ืคื•ืจื™ื”
02:03
from being constantly divided into new households.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืฉืœื ืชื—ื•ืœืง ืœืœื ื”ืคืกืง ืœื‘ืชื™ ืื‘.
02:07
Marriages could vary
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ื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืฉืชื ื•ืช
02:08
not only in the number of people they involved
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ืœื ืจืง ื‘ืžืกืคืจ ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉื ืžืฆืื™ื ื‘ื”ื
02:10
but the types of people as well.
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ืืœื ื’ื ื‘ืกื•ื’ ื”ืื ืฉื™ื.
02:12
Although the names and laws for such arrangements
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื”ืฉืžื•ืช ื•ื”ื—ื•ืงื™ื ืœื›ืœ ืกื™ื“ื•ืจ
02:14
may have differed,
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ื”ื™ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื™ื,
02:15
publicly recognized same-sex unions
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ืื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ื ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ื™ื ืžืื•ืชื• ืžื™ืŸ
02:18
have popped up
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ื”ื•ืคื™ืขื•
02:19
in various civilizations throughout history.
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ื‘ืชืจื‘ื•ื™ื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ื‘ื”ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื”.
02:21
Mesopotamian prayers included blessings for such couples,
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ืชืคื™ืœื•ืช ืžืกื•ืคื•ื˜ืžื™ื•ืช ื›ืœืœื• ื‘ืจื›ื•ืช ืœื–ื•ื’ื•ืช ื›ืืœื”,
02:25
while Native American Two-Spirit individuals
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืฉืœืืžืจื™ืงืื™ื ื™ืœื™ื“ื™ื ืขื ืฉืชื™ ื ืฉืžื•ืช
02:27
had relationships with both sexes.
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ื”ื™ื• ื™ื—ืกื™ื ืขื ืฉื ื™ ื”ืžื™ื ื™ื.
02:30
The first instances of such arrangements
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ื”ืžืงืจื™ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื›ืืœื” ืกื™ื“ื•ืจื™ื
02:32
actually being called "Marriage"
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ืฉืœืžืขืฉื” ื ืงืจืื• "ื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ืŸ"
02:33
come from Rome,
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ื‘ืื• ืžืจื•ืžื,
02:35
where the Emperors Nero and Elagabalus
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ื›ืฉื”ืฉืœื™ื˜ื™ื ื ืจื• ื•ืืœื’ื‘ืœื•ืก
02:36
both married men in public ceremonies
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ืฉื ื™ื”ื ื ืฉืื• ื’ื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ื˜ืงืกื™ื ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ื™ื
02:39
with the practice being explictly banned
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ื›ืฉื”ืžื ื”ื’ ื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืืกื•ืจ
02:41
in 342 A.D.
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ื‘ 342 ืœืกืคื™ืจื”.
02:43
But similar traditions survived
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ืื‘ืœ ืžืกื•ืจื•ืช ื“ื•ืžื•ืช ืฉืจื“ื•
02:45
well into the Christian era,
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ืœืชื•ืš ื”ืขื™ื“ืŸ ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™,
02:46
such as Adelphopoiesis,
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ื›ืžื• ืื“ืœืคื•ืคื•ืื™ืกื™ืก,
02:48
or "brother-making" in Orthodox churches,
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ืื• "ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืื—ื™ื" ื‘ื›ื ืกื™ื•ืช ืื•ืจืชื•ื“ื•ืงืกื™ื•ืช,
02:50
and even an actual marriage between two men
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ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ืŸ ืžืžืฉื™ื™ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉื ื™ ื’ื‘ืจื™ื
02:53
recorded in 1061 at a small chapel in Spain.
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ืชื•ืขื“ื• ื‘ 1061 ื‘ื›ื ืกื™ื” ืงื˜ื ื” ื‘ืกืคืจื“.
02:57
Nor was marriage even necessarily
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ืœื ืจืง ืฉื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ืŸ ืœื ื”ื™ื• ื‘ื”ื›ืจื—
02:59
between two living people.
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ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉื ื™ ืื ืฉื™ื ื—ื™ื™ื.
03:01
Ghost marriages,
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ื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ ืจื•ื—ื•ืช,
03:02
where either the bride or groom were deceased,
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ืฉื ื”ื›ืœื” ืื• ื”ื—ืชืŸ ื”ื™ื• ืžืชื™ื,
03:04
were conducted in China
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ื ืขืจื›ื• ื‘ืกื™ืŸ
03:05
to continue family lineages
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืžืฉื™ืš ืฉื•ืฉืœื•ืช ืžืฉืคื—ืชื™ื•ืช
03:07
or appease restless spirits.
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ืื• ืœืจืฆื•ืช ืจื•ื—ื•ืช ืœื ืจื’ื•ืขื•ืช.
03:09
And some tribes in Sudan maintain similar practices.
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ื•ื›ืžื” ืฉื‘ื˜ื™ื ื‘ืกื•ื“ืŸ ืฉื•ืžืจื™ื ืขืœ ื ื•ื”ื’ ื“ื•ืžื”.
03:13
Despite all these differences,
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ื›ืœ ื”ื”ื‘ื“ืœื™ื,
03:14
a lot of marriages throughout history
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ืœื”ืจื‘ื” ื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ื ื‘ื”ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื”
03:16
did have one thing in common.
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ื”ื™ื” ื”ืจื‘ื” ื‘ืžืฉื•ืชืฃ.
03:18
With crucial matters
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ืขื ืขื™ื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื
03:19
like property and reproduction at stake,
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ื›ืžื• ืจื›ื•ืฉ ื•ืจื‘ื™ื” ืขืœ ื”ืžืื–ื ื™ื™ื,
03:21
they were way too important
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ื”ื™ื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื“ื™ ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื
03:23
to depend on young love.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืชืœื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ืื”ื‘ื” ืฆืขื™ืจื”.
03:25
Especially among the upperclasses,
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ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžืขืžื“ื•ืช ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื™ื,
03:27
matches were often made by families or rulers.
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ื–ื™ื•ื•ื’ื™ื ื ืขืฉื• ืจื‘ื•ืช ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžืฉืคื—ื•ืช ืื• ืฉืœื™ื˜ื™ื.
03:30
But even for commoners, who had some degree of choice,
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ืื‘ืœ ืืคื™ืœื• ื‘ื™ืŸ ื‘ื ื™ ื”ืขื ื”ืคืฉื•ื˜ื™ื, ืฉื”ื™ืชื” ืœื”ื ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ื‘ื—ื™ืจื”,
03:33
the main concern was practicality.
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ื”ืฉื™ืงื•ืœ ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ ื”ื™ื” ืคืจืงื˜ื™ื•ืช.
03:35
The modern idea of marriage
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ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ ืฉืœ ื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ื
03:37
as being mainly about love and companionship
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ืฉื ื•ื’ืขื™ื ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืœืื”ื‘ื” ื•ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช
03:40
only emerged in the last couple of centuries.
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ืฆืฆื• ืจืง ื‘ืžืื•ืช ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช.
03:42
With industrialization,
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ืขื ื”ืชืขื•ืฉ,
03:44
urbanization
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ื”ืขื™ื•ืจ
03:45
and the growth of the middle class
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ื•ื”ื’ื“ื™ืœื” ืฉืœ ืžืขืžื“ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื
03:46
more people became independent
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ื™ื•ืชืจ ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืคื›ื• ืœืขืฆืžืื™ื
03:48
from large extended families
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ืžืžืฉืคื—ื•ืช ืžื•ืจื—ื‘ื•ืช
03:50
and were able to support
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ื•ื”ื™ื• ืžืกื•ื’ืœื™ื ืœืชืžื•ืš
03:51
a new household on their own.
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ื‘ืžืฉืง ื‘ื™ืช ื‘ืขืฆืžื.
03:53
Encouraged by new ideas
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ืžืขื•ื“ื“ื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื™ื
03:54
from the Enlightenment,
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ืžื”ื”ืืจื”,
03:55
people began to focus
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ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืชื—ื™ืœื• ืœื”ืชืžืงื“
03:56
on individual happiness and pursuits,
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ืขืœ ืจื“ื™ืคื” ืื—ืจื™ ืื•ืฉืจ ืื™ืฉื™,
03:59
rather than familial duty or wealth and status,
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ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื—ื•ื‘ื•ืช ืžืฉืคื—ืชื™ื™ื ืื• ืขื•ืฉืจ ื•ืกื˜ื˜ื•ืก,
04:02
at least some of the time.
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ืœืคื—ื•ืช ื‘ื—ืœืง ืžื”ื–ืžืŸ.
04:03
And this focus on individual happiness
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ื•ื”ืžื™ืงื•ื“ ื”ื–ื” ืขืœ ืื•ืฉืจ ืื™ืฉื™
04:05
soon led to other transformations,
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ื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ื‘ืžื”ืจื” ืœืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื,
04:08
such as easing restrictions on divorce
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ื›ืžื• ื”ืงืœืช ื”ื”ื’ื‘ืœื•ืช ืขืœ ื’ืจื•ืฉื™ืŸ
04:10
and more people marrying at a later age.
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ื•ื™ื•ืชืจ ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉืžืชื—ืชื ื™ื ื‘ื’ื™ืœ ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ.
04:12
So, as we continue to debate the role and definition
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ืื–, ื›ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžืžืฉื™ื›ื™ื ืœื“ื•ืŸ ืขืœ ื”ืชืคืงื™ื“ ื•ื”ื”ื’ื“ืจื”
04:15
of marriage in the modern world,
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ืฉืœ ื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ื ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™,
04:17
it might help to keep in mind
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ื–ื” ืื•ืœื™ ื™ืขื–ื•ืจ ืœื–ื›ื•ืจ
04:18
that marriage has always been shaped by society,
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ืฉื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ื ืฉืชืžื™ื“ ืขื•ืฆื‘ื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ื—ื‘ืจื”,
04:21
and as a society's
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ื•ื›ืฉืžื‘ื ื” ื”ื—ื‘ืจื”
04:22
structure, values and goals
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ื”ืขืจื›ื™ื ื•ื”ืžื˜ืจื•ืช
04:24
change over time,
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ืžืฉืชื ื™ื ื‘ืžืฉืš ื”ื–ืžืŸ,
04:25
its ideas of marriage will continue to change along with them.
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ื”ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœื” ืขืœ ื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ื ื™ืžืฉื™ื›ื• ืœื”ืฉืชื ื•ืช ืื™ืชืŸ.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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