Ed Boyden: A light switch for neurons

145,093 views ใƒป 2011-05-17

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืžืชืจื’ื: Sigal Tifferet ืžื‘ืงืจ: Ido Dekkers
ื—ืฉื‘ื• ืจื’ืข ืขืœ ื”ื™ื•ื ืฉืœื›ื,
00:16
Think about your day for a second.
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00:17
You woke up, felt fresh air on your face as you walked out the door,
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ื”ืชืขื•ืจืจืชื, ื—ืฉืชื ืžืฉื‘ ืจื•ื— ืงืœ ื›ืฉื™ืฆืืชื ืžื”ื“ืœืช,
00:20
encountered new colleagues and had great discussions
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ืคื’ืฉืชื ืงื•ืœื’ื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ื•ื ื™ื”ืœืชื ื“ื™ื•ื ื™ื ืžืจืชืงื™ื,
ื•ื”ืจื’ืฉืชื ื ืคืœื ื›ืฉื’ื™ืœื™ืชื ืžืฉื”ื• ื—ื“ืฉ.
00:23
and felt in awe when you found something new.
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ืื‘ืœ ื™ืฉ ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉื‘ื•ื•ื“ืื™ ืœื ื—ืฉื‘ืชื ืขืœื™ื• ื”ื™ื•ื,
00:25
But I bet there's something you didn't think about today,
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ื“ื‘ืจ ื›"ื› ืงืจื•ื‘
00:28
something so close to home,
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ืฉืืชื ื•ื“ืื™ ืœื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืขืœื™ื• ืœืขื™ืชื™ื ืงืจื•ื‘ื•ืช.
00:29
you probably don't think about it very often at all.
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ื•ื–ื” ืฉื›ืœ ื”ืชื—ื•ืฉื•ืช, ื”ืจื’ืฉื•ืช,
00:32
And that's that all those sensations, feelings, decisions and actions
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ื”ื”ื—ืœื˜ื•ืช ื•ื”ืคืขื•ืœื•ืช
ืžืชื•ื•ื›ื•ืช ืข"ื™ ื”ืžื—ืฉื‘ ืฉื‘ืจืืฉื›ื
00:35
are mediated by the computer in your head
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ืฉื ืงืจื ื”ืžื•ื—.
00:37
called your brain.
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00:38
Now, the brain may not look like much from the outside --
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื”ืžื•ื— ืœื ื ืจืื” ื›ืžื• ืžืฉื”ื• ืžื‘ื—ื•ืฅ,
ืงื™ืœื• ื•ื—ืฆื™ ืฉืœ ืจืงืžื” ืืคื•ืจื”-ื•ืจื•ื“ื”,
00:41
a couple pounds of pinkish-gray flesh,
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ืืžื•ืจืคื™ืช,
00:43
amorphous.
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00:44
But the last 100 years of neuroscience have allowed us to zoom in on the brain
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ืื‘ืœ ืžืื” ืฉื ื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื“ืขื™ ื”ืžื•ื—
ืืคืฉืจื• ืœื ื• ืœื”ืชืžืงื“ ื‘ืžื•ื—,
00:48
and to see the intricacy of what lies within.
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ื•ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ื”ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื•ืช ืฉื‘ืชื•ื›ื•.
00:50
And they've told us that this brain is an incredibly complicated circuit
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ื•ื”ืŸ ื’ื™ืœื• ืœื ื• ืฉื”ืžื•ื—
ื”ื•ื ืžืขื’ืœ ื—ืฉืžืœื™ ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ
00:54
made out of hundreds of billions of cells called neurons.
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ื”ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ ืžืžืื•ืช ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ื™ื ืฉืœ ืชืื™ื ื”ื ืงืจืื™ื ื ื•ื™ืจื•ื ื™ื.
00:58
Now, unlike a human-designed computer,
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื‘ืฉื•ื ื” ืžืžื—ืฉื‘ ืฉืชื•ื›ื ืŸ ื‘ื™ื“ื™ ืื“ื,
01:01
where there's a fairly small number of different parts,
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ื‘ื• ื™ืฉ ืžืกืคืจ ืงื˜ืŸ ื™ื—ืกื™ืช ืฉืœ ื—ืœืงื™ื,
ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืื™ืš ื”ื ืคื•ืขืœื™ื, ื›ื™ ืื ื—ื ื• ืชื›ื ื ื• ืื•ืชื,
01:04
and we know how they work because we humans designed them,
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01:06
the brain is made out of thousands of different kinds of cells,
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ื”ืžื•ื— ื‘ื ื•ื™ ืžืืœืคื™ ืกื•ื’ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ืชืื™ื,
ืื•ืœื™ ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืืœืคื™ื.
01:10
maybe tens of thousands.
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01:11
They come in different shapes; they're made out of different molecules;
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ื™ืฉ ืœื”ื ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช, ื”ื ื‘ื ื•ื™ื™ื ืžืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช,
ื•ื”ื ืžืชืงืฉืจื™ื ืขื ื—ืœืงื™ ืžื•ื— ืฉื•ื ื™ื.
01:14
they project and connect to different brain regions.
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ื•ื”ื ื’ื ืžืฉืชื ื™ื ื‘ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ืžื—ืœื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช.
01:17
They also change in different ways in different disease states.
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ื‘ื•ืื• ื ืžื—ื™ืฉ ืืช ื–ื”.
01:20
Let's make it concrete.
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01:21
There's a class of cells,
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ื”ื ื” ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ืชื,
01:23
a fairly small cell, an inhibitory cell, that quiets its neighbors.
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ืชื ืงื˜ืŸ ื™ื—ืกื™ืช, ืชื ืžืขื›ื‘ ืฉืžืฉืชื™ืง ืืช ืฉื›ื ื™ื•.
ื ืจืื” ืฉื–ื” ืื—ื“ ื”ืชืื™ื ืฉืžืชื ื•ื•ืŸ ื‘ืžืฆื‘ื™ื ื›ืžื• ืกื›ื™ื–ื•ืคืจื ื™ื”.
01:27
It's one of the cells that seems to be atrophied
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01:29
in disorders like schizophrenia.
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01:30
It's called the basket cell.
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ื”ื•ื ื ืงืจื "ืชื ืกืœ".
01:32
And this cell is one of the thousands of kinds of cell
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ื•ื”ืชื ื”ื–ื” ื”ื•ื ืื—ื“ ืžืืœืคื™ ืกื•ื’ื™ ืชืื™ื
ืื•ืชื ืื ื• ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื.
01:35
that we're learning about.
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01:36
New ones are being discovered every day.
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ื›ืœ ื™ื•ื ืžื’ืœื™ื ืกื•ื’ื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื.
ื›ื“ื•ื’ืžื” ื ื•ืกืคืช,
01:39
As just a second example:
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01:40
these pyramidal cells, large cells, can span a significant fraction
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ืืœื” ืชืื™ื ืคื™ืจืžื™ื“ืœื™ื™ื, ืชืื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื,
ื”ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืฉืชืจืข ืขืœ ื—ืœืง ื ื™ื›ืจ ืฉืœ ื‘ืžื•ื—.
01:44
of the brain.
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ื”ื ืžืขื•ืจืจื™ื.
01:46
They're excitatory.
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ื•ืืœื” ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืชืื™ื
01:47
And these are some of the cells that might be overactive
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ืฉืขืœื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืคืขื™ืœื™ื ืžื“ื™ ื‘ื”ืคืจืขื•ืช ื›ืžื• ืืคื™ืœืคืกื™ื”.
01:50
in disorders such as epilepsy.
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ื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ืžื”ืชืื™ื ื”ืืœื”
01:52
Every one of these cells is an incredible electrical device.
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ื”ื•ื ืžื ื’ื ื•ืŸ ื—ืฉืžืœื™ ืžื“ื”ื™ื.
01:56
They receive inputs from thousands of upstream partners
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ื”ื ืžืงื‘ืœื™ื ืงืœื˜ ืžืืœืคื™ ืฉื•ืชืคื™ื ื‘ืžืขืœื” ื”ื–ืจื
ื•ืžื—ืฉื‘ื™ื ืืช ื”ืคืœื˜ ื”ื—ืฉืžืœื™ ืฉืœื”ื,
01:59
and compute their own electrical outputs,
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02:01
which then, if they pass a certain threshold,
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ื•ืื–, ืื ื”ื•ื ืขื•ื‘ืจ ืกืฃ ืžืกื•ื™ื,
ื”ื ื™ืขื‘ื™ืจื• ืžืกืจ ืœืืœืคื™ ืฉื•ืชืคื™ื ื‘ืžื•ืจื“ ื”ื–ืจื.
02:04
will go to thousands of downstream partners.
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ื•ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ื–ื”, ืฉืœื•ืงื— ื‘ืขืจืš ืžื™ืœื™-ืฉื ื™ื”,
02:06
And this process, which takes just a millisecond or so,
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02:08
happens thousands of times a minute in every one of your 100 billion cells,
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ืžืชืจื—ืฉ ืืœืคื™ ืคืขืžื™ื ื‘ื“ืงื”
ื‘ื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ืžืžืื” ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื”ืชืื™ื ืฉืœื›ื,
02:12
as long as you live and think and feel.
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ื›ืœ ืขื•ื“ ืืชื ื—ื™ื™ื
ื•ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ื•ืžืจื’ื™ืฉื™ื.
02:17
So how are we going to figure out what this circuit does?
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ืื– ืื™ืš ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื” ื”ืžืขื’ืœ ื”ื–ื” ืขื•ืฉื”?
ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืื™ื“ืืœื™, ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ื‘ืžืกืœื•ืœ ื”ื–ื”
02:21
Ideally, we could go through this circuit
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ื•ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ื•ืœื›ื‘ื•ืช ืืช ื”ืชืื™ื ื”ืฉื•ื ื™ื
02:23
and turn these different kinds of cell on and off
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02:25
and see whether we could figure out
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ื•ืœืจืื•ืช ืื ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ
02:27
which ones contribute to certain functions
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ืžื™ ืชื•ืจื ืœืชืคืงื•ื“ ืžืกื•ื™ื,
02:29
and which ones go wrong in certain pathologies.
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ื•ืžื™ ื ืคื’ืข ื‘ืคืชื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžื•ืช.
ืื ื™ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืชืื™ื, ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื’ืœื•ืช ืื™ืœื• ื›ื•ื—ื•ืช ื—ื‘ื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ื”ื,
02:32
If we could activate cells, we could see what powers they can unleash,
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ืžื” ื”ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ื•ืœืฉืžืจ.
02:35
what they can initiate and sustain.
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ืื ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื›ื‘ื•ืช ืื•ืชื,
02:37
If we could turn them off,
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02:38
then we could try and figure out what they're necessary for.
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ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื’ืœื•ืช ืžื” ื”ืฆื•ืจืš ื‘ื”ื.
ื•ื–ื” ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืขืœื™ื• ืืกืคืจ ื”ื™ื•ื.
02:41
And that's the story I'm going to tell you about today.
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ื•ืœืžืขืŸ ื”ืืžืช, ืžื” ืขืฉื™ื ื• ื‘-11 ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช,
02:44
And honestly, where we've gone through over the last 11 years,
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ื‘ื ืกื™ื•ืŸ ืœืžืฆื•ื ื“ืจื›ื™ื
02:47
through an attempt to find ways
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02:48
of turning circuits and cells and parts and pathways of the brain
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ืœื”ื“ืœื™ืง ื•ืœื›ื‘ื•ืช ืžืกืœื•ืœื™ื, ืชืื™ื,
ื•ื—ืœืงื™ื ื‘ืžื•ื—,
02:51
on and off,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžื“ืขื™,
02:53
both to understand the science
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02:54
and also to confront some of the issues that face us all as humans.
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ื•ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ ืขื ื—ืœืง ืžื”ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช
ืžื•ืœืŸ ืื ื• ื ื™ืฆื‘ื™ื.
03:00
Now, before I tell you about the technology,
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ืื‘ืœ ืœืคื ื™ ืฉืืกืคืจ ืœื›ื ืขืœ ื”ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”,
03:03
the bad news is that a significant fraction of us in this room,
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ื”ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ื”ืจืขื•ืช ื”ืŸ ืฉื—ืœืง ื ื™ื›ืจ ืžืื™ืชื ื•,
ืื ื ื—ื™ื” ืžืกืคื™ืง ืฉื ื™ื,
03:07
if we live long enough,
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03:08
will encounter, perhaps, a brain disorder.
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ื ื™ืคื’ืฉ, ืื•ืœื™, ื‘ื”ืคืจืขื” ืžื•ื—ื™ืช.
ื›ื‘ืจ ื›ื™ื•ื, ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ืื ืฉื™ื
03:11
Already, a billion people have had some kind of brain disorder
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ืกื•ื‘ืœื™ื ืžื”ืคืจืขื” ืžื•ื—ื™ืช ื›ืœืฉื”ื™
ืฉืžื’ื‘ื™ืœื” ืื•ืชื.
03:15
that incapacitates them.
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03:16
The numbers don't do it justice, though.
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ื•ื”ืžืกืคืจื™ื ืœื ืžืžื—ื™ืฉื™ื ืžืกืคื™ืง ืืช ื”ื‘ืขื™ื”.
03:18
These disorders -- schizophrenia, Alzheimer's,
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ื”ื”ืคืจืขื•ืช ื”ืืœื” - ืกื›ื™ื–ื•ืคืจื ื™ื”, ืืœืฆื”ื™ื™ืžืจ,
ื“ื›ืื•ืŸ, ื”ืชืžื›ืจื•ืช -
03:21
depression, addiction --
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03:22
they not only steal away our time to live,
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ืœื ืจืง ืžืงืฆืจื•ืช ืืช ื—ื™ื™ื ื•, ื”ืŸ ืžืฉื ื•ืช ืืช ืื•ืคื™ื™ื ื•,
03:24
they change who we are.
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03:25
They take our identity and change our emotions
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ื”ืŸ ืœื•ืงื—ื•ืช ืืช ื–ื”ื•ืชื ื• ื•ืžืฉื ื•ืช ืืช ืจื’ืฉื•ืชื™ื ื•,
03:27
and change who we are as people.
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ื•ืžืฉื ื•ืช ืื•ืชื ื• ื›ืื ืฉื™ื.
03:30
Now, in the 20th century,
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื‘ืžืื” ื”-20
ื ื•ืฆืจื” ืชืงื•ื” ื›ืœืฉื”ื™
03:34
there was some hope that was generated
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03:36
through the development of pharmaceuticals for treating brain disorders.
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ื‘ืฉืœ ื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ืช ื”ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ืœื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ื‘ื”ืคืจืขื•ืช ืžื•ื—ื™ื•ืช.
ืืš ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืฉืคื•ืชื—ื• ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช
03:40
And while many drugs have been developed
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03:42
that can alleviate symptoms of brain disorders,
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ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœื”ืงืœ ืืช ื”ืกื™ืžืคื˜ื•ืžื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืคืจืขื•ืช ืžื•ื—ื™ื•ืช,
ื›ืžืขื˜ ืืฃ ืื—ืช ืžื”ืŸ ืœื ืจื•ืคืื”.
03:45
practically none of them can be considered to be cured.
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03:47
In part, that's because, if you think about it,
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ื•ืื—ืช ื”ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ืœื›ืš ื”ื™ื ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื˜ื•ื‘ืœื™ื ืืช ื”ืžื•ื— ื‘ื›ื™ืžื™ืงืœ.
03:49
we're bathing the brain in a chemical --
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ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ืช ื”ื–ื•
03:51
this elaborate circuit, made of thousands of different kinds of cell --
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ื”ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ืช ืžืืœืคื™ ืกื•ื’ื™ ืชืื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื
ื ื˜ื‘ืœืช ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ืชืจื•ืคื”.
03:55
is being bathed in a substance.
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03:56
That's also why most of the drugs, not all, on the market
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ื–ื•ื”ื™ ื’ื ื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ืœื›ืš ืฉืœืžืจื‘ื™ืช ื”ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื‘ืฉื•ืง
ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืชื•ืคืขื•ืช ืœื•ื•ืื™ ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ื•ืช.
03:59
can present some kind of serious side effect too.
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื™ืฉ ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉืงื™ื‘ืœื• ื”ืงืœื” ื›ืœืฉื”ื™
04:02
Now some people have gotten some solace from electrical stimulators
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ืžืงื•ืฆื‘ื™ื ื—ืฉืžืœื™ื™ื ืฉื”ื•ืฉืชืœื• ื‘ืžื•ื—.
04:05
that are implanted in the brain,
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04:07
for Parkinson's disease or cochlear implants.
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ื•ื‘ืžืงืจื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื—ืœืช ืคืจืงื™ื ืกื•ืŸ,
ืฉืชืœื™ื ืฉื‘ืœื•ืœื™ื™ื,
04:11
These have indeed been able to bring some kind of remedy
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ื‘ื”ื—ืœื˜ ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื”ื‘ื™ื
ืจื™ืคื•ื™ ื›ืœืฉื”ื•
04:14
to people with certain kinds of disorders.
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ืœืื ืฉื™ื ืขื ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ืžืกื•ื™ืžื•ืช.
04:16
But electricity also will go in all directions --
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ืื‘ืœ ื’ื ื”ื—ืฉืžืœ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื–ืจื•ื ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ื›ื™ื•ื•ื ื™ื,
04:19
the path of least resistance --
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ื‘ืžืกืœื•ืœ ืขื ื”ื”ืชื ื’ื“ื•ืช ื”ื ืžื•ื›ื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ,
04:21
which is where that phrase, in part, comes from,
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ื›ืคื™ ืฉืื•ืžืจ ื”ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช.
04:23
and will also affect normal circuits,
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ื•ื”ื•ื ื™ืฉืคื™ืข ืœื ืจืง ืขืœ ื”ืžืขื’ืœื™ื ื”ืื‘ื ื•ืจืžืœื™ื™ื, ืืœื ื’ื ืขืœ ื”ืžืขื’ืœื™ื ื”ื ื•ืจืžืœื™ื™ื.
04:25
as well as the abnormal ones you want to fix.
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ืื– ืฉื•ื‘, ืื ื• ื—ื•ื–ืจื™ื ืœืจืขื™ื•ืŸ
04:27
So again, we're sent back to the idea of ultraprecise control:
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ืฉืœ ืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ืกื•ืคืจ-ืžื“ื•ื™ื™ืงืช.
04:30
Could we dial in information precisely where we want it to go?
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ื”ืื ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืฉืชื™ืœ ืžื™ื“ืข ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื”ื™ื›ืŸ ืฉืื ื• ืจื•ืฆื™ื?
ืื– ื›ืฉืื ื™ ื”ืชื—ืœืชื™ ืœืขืกื•ืง ื‘ืžื“ืขื™ ื”ืžื•ื—, ืœืคื™ 11 ืฉื ื”,
04:35
So, when I started in neuroscience 11 years ago --
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04:38
I had trained as an electrical engineer and a physicist --
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ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ื›ื‘ืจ ืžื”ื ื“ืก ื—ืฉืžืœ ื•ืคื™ื–ื™ืงืื™,
04:41
the first thing I thought about was,
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ื•ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉื—ืฉื‘ืชื™ ืขืœื™ื•
04:43
if these neurons are electrical devices,
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ื”ื™ื” ืฉืื ื”ื ื•ื™ืจื•ื ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื”ื ืžืชืงื ื™ื ื—ืฉืžืœื™ื™ื,
04:45
all we need to do is to find some way of driving those electrical changes
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ืื– ื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉืฆืจื™ืš ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื–ื” ืœืžืฆื•ื ื“ืจืš
ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื—ืฉืžืœื™ื™ื ืžืžืจื—ืง.
04:49
at a distance.
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ืื ื™ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ื—ืฉืžืœ ื‘ืชื ืื—ื“,
04:50
If we could turn on the electricity in one cell but not its neighbors,
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ืืš ืœื ื‘ืฉื›ื ื™ื•,
04:53
that'd give us the tool to activate and shut down these different cells
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ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืžืงื‘ืœื™ื ื›ืœื™ ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืœื”ืคืขืœื” ื•ื›ื™ื‘ื•ื™ ืฉืœ ืชืื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื,
ืœื’ืœื•ืช ืžื” ื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื ืขื•ืฉื™ื ื•ืื™ืš ื”ื ืชื•ืจืžื™ื
04:57
to figure out what they do
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04:58
and how they contribute to the networks in which they're embedded.
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ืœืจืฉืชื•ืช ื‘ื”ืŸ ื”ื ื ืžืฆืื™ื.
ื•ื–ื” ื’ื ื”ื™ื” ื ื•ืชืŸ ืœื ื• ืืช ื”ืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ื”ืกื•ืคืจ-ืžื“ื•ื™ื™ืงืช ืฉืื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื
05:01
It would also allow us to have the ultraprecise control we need
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืชืงืŸ ื—ื™ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ืžืขื’ืœื™ื™ื
05:04
to fix the circuit computations that have gone awry.
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ืฉื ืคื’ืขื•.
05:07
Now, how are we going to do that?
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืื™ืš ื ืขืฉื” ืืช ื–ื”?
05:09
Well, there are many molecules that exist in nature
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ืื– ืงื™ื™ืžื•ืช ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช ื‘ื˜ื‘ืข,
ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœื”ืกื‘ ืื•ืจ ืœื—ืฉืžืœ.
05:12
which are able to convert light into electricity.
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ืชื—ืฉื‘ื• ืขืœื™ื”ื ื›ืžื• ืขืœ ื—ืœื‘ื•ื ื™ื ืงื˜ื ื™ื
05:15
You can think of them as little proteins that are like solar cells.
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ืฉืคื•ืขืœื™ื ื›ืžื• ืชืื™ื ืกื•ืœืจื™ื™ื.
05:18
If we install these molecules in neurons somehow,
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ืื ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืชืงื™ืŸ ืืช ื”ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืืœื” ื‘ืชื•ืš ื ื•ื™ืจื•ื ื™ื ืื™ืš ืฉื”ื•ื,
05:21
then these neurons would become electrically drivable with light,
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ืื– ื”ื ื•ื™ืจื•ื ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื™ื•ืคืขืœื• ืข"ื™ ืื•ืจ.
05:24
and their neighbors, which don't have this molecule, would not.
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ื•ื”ืฉื›ื ื™ื ืฉืœื”ื, ืœืœื ื”ืžื•ืœื•ืงื•ืœื”, ืœื ื™ื•ืคืขืœื•.
05:27
There's one other magic trick you need to make this happen:
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ื™ืฉ ืขื•ื“ ืชื›ืกื™ืก ืื—ื“ ืฉื ื“ืจืฉ ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื›ืœ ื–ื” ื™ืคืขืœ,
ื•ื–ื” ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืœื”ื›ื ื™ืก ืื•ืจ ืœืžื•ื—.
05:30
the ability to get light into the brain.
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05:32
The brain doesn't feel pain.
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ื•ื›ื“ื™ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื–ืืช - ื”ืžื•ื— ืœื ื—ืฉ ื›ืื‘ - ืืคืฉืจ ืœืฉื™ื -
05:35
Taking advantage of all the effort
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ืืคืฉืจ ืœื ืฆืœ ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืžืืžืฆื™ื
05:36
that's gone into the internet, telecommunications, etc.,
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ืฉื”ื•ื›ื ืกื• ืœืชืขืฉื™ื™ืช ื”ืื™ื ื˜ืจื ื˜ ื•ื”ืชืงืฉื•ืจืช -
05:39
you can put optical fibers connected to lasers
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ืกื™ื‘ื™ื ืื•ืคื˜ื™ื™ื ื”ืžื—ื•ื‘ืจื™ื ืœืœื™ื™ื–ืจ
05:41
to activate -- in animal models, for example, in preclinical studies --
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ืื™ืชื ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ, ืœืžืฉืœ ื‘ื‘ืข"ื—
ื‘ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ืงื“ื-ืงืœื™ื ื™ื™ื,
05:45
these neurons and see what they do.
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ืืช ื”ื ื•ื™ืจื•ื ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื•ืœืจืื•ืช ืžื” ื”ื ืขื•ืฉื™ื.
ืื– ืื™ืš ืขื•ืฉื™ื ืืช ื–ื”?
05:48
So how do we do this?
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05:49
Around 2004, in collaboration with Georg Nagel and Karl Deisseroth,
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ืกื‘ื™ื‘ 2004,
ื‘ืฉืช"ืค ืขื ื’ืจื”ืืจื“ ื ื™ื™ื’'ืœ ื•ืงืจืœ ื“ื™ืกืจื•ืช',
05:53
this vision came to fruition.
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ื”ื—ื–ื•ืŸ ื”ื‘ืฉื™ืœ.
05:55
There's a certain alga that swims in the wild,
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ื™ืฉ ืืฆื” ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžืช ืฉืฉื•ื—ื” ื‘ื˜ื‘ืข,
05:58
and it needs to navigate towards light in order to photosynthesize optimally.
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ื•ื”ื™ื ืฆืจื™ื›ื” ืœื ื•ื•ื˜ ืœื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ืื•ืจ
ื›ื“ื™ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืคื•ื˜ื•ืกื™ื ืชื™ื–ื” ืื•ืคื˜ื™ืžืœื™ืช.
06:02
And it senses light with a little eyespot,
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ื•ื”ื™ื ื—ืฉื” ืืช ื”ืื•ืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื ืงื•ื“ืช ืขื™ืŸ ืงื˜ื ื”,
06:04
which works not unlike how our eye works.
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ื”ืคื•ืขืœืช ื“ื™ ื“ื•ืžื” ืœืขื™ืŸ ืฉืœื ื•.
06:07
In its membrane, or its boundary,
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ื‘ืžืžื‘ืจื ื” ืฉืœื”, ืื• ื‘ื’ื‘ื•ืœ ืฉืœื”,
06:09
it contains little proteins
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ื™ืฉ ื—ืœื‘ื•ื ื™ื ืงื˜ื ื™ื
ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืกื‘ ืื•ืจ ืœื—ืฉืžืœ.
06:13
that indeed can convert light into electricity.
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ื•ื”ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื” ื”ืงื˜ื ื” ื”ื–ื• ื ืงืจืืช ืฆ'ื ืœืจื•ื“ื•ืคืกื™ืŸ.
06:16
These molecules are called channelrhodopsins.
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06:18
And each of these proteins acts just like that solar cell
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ื•ื›ืœ ื—ืœื‘ื•ืŸ ื›ื–ื” ืคื•ืขืœ ื›ืžื• ืชื ื—ืฉืžืœื™, ื›ืคื™ ืฉื”ืกื‘ืจืชื™ ืงื•ื“ื.
06:21
that I told you about.
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ื›ืฉืื•ืจ ื›ื—ื•ืœ ืคื•ื’ืข ื‘ื•, ื”ื•ื ืคื•ืชื— ืชืขืœื” ืงื˜ื ื”
06:22
When blue light hits it,
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06:23
it opens a little hole and allows charged particles to enter the eyespot;
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ื•ืžืืคืฉืจ ืœื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ื ื˜ืขื•ื ื™ื ืœื”ื™ื›ื ืก ืœื ืงื•ื“ืช ื”ืขื™ืŸ.
ื•ื–ื” ื’ื•ืจื ืœื ืงื•ื“ืช ื”ืขื™ืŸ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืžืกืจ ื—ืฉืžืœื™
06:27
that allows this eyespot to have an electrical signal,
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ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื›ืžื• ืชื ืกื•ืœืจื™ ืฉื˜ื•ืขืŸ ืกื•ืœืœื”.
06:29
just like a solar cell charging a battery.
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06:31
So what we need to do is take these molecules
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ืื– ืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื”ื•ื ืœืงื—ืช ืืช ื”ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืืœื”
ื•ืœื”ืชืงื™ืŸ ืื•ืชืŸ ื‘ืชื•ืš ื ื•ื™ืจื•ื ื™ื.
06:34
and somehow install them in neurons.
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06:35
And because it's a protein,
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ื•ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ืŸ ื—ืœื‘ื•ื ื™ื,
06:37
it's encoded for in the DNA of this organism.
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ื”ืŸ ืžืงื•ื“ื“ื•ืช ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”DNA ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื”ื–ื”.
06:40
So all we've got to do is take that DNA,
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ืื– ื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉืฆืจื™ืš ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื–ื” ืœืงื—ืช ืืช ื” DNA ื”ื–ื”,
06:42
put it into a gene therapy vector, like a virus,
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ืœื”ื›ื ื™ืก ืื•ืชื• ืœื ืฉื ืฉืœ ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ื’ื ื˜ื™ ื›ืžื• ื•ื™ืจื•ืก,
06:45
and put it into neurons.
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ื•ืœื”ื—ื“ื™ืจ ืื•ืชื• ืœื ื•ื™ืจื•ื ื™ื.
06:48
And this was a very productive time in gene therapy,
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ื•ืื•ืชื” ืชืงื•ืคื” ื”ื™ืชื” ืžืื•ื“ ืคื•ืจื™ื” ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ื”ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™,
06:51
and lots of viruses were coming along,
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ืขื ืžื‘ื—ืจ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืฉืœ ื•ื™ืจื•ืกื™ื.
06:53
so this turned out to be fairly simple.
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ืื– ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื“ื™ ืคืฉื•ื˜.
06:55
Early in the morning one day in the summer of 2004,
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ื•ื‘ื‘ื•ืงืจ ืื—ื“ ืฉืœ ืงื™ืฅ 2004
06:58
we gave it a try, and it worked on the first try.
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ื ื™ืกื™ื ื• ื•ื”ืฆืœื—ื ื• ื‘ื ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ.
ืœื•ืงื—ื™ื ืืช ื” DNA ื”ื–ื” ื•ืžื›ื ื™ืกื™ื ืื•ืชื• ืœื ื•ื™ืจื•ืŸ.
07:01
You take this DNA and put it into the neuron.
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07:03
The neuron uses its natural protein-making machinery
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ื”ื ื•ื™ืจื•ืŸ ืžืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืžื ื’ื ื•ื ื™ื ื”ื˜ื‘ืขื™ื™ื ืฉืœื• ืœื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื—ืœื‘ื•ื ื™ื
07:06
to fabricate these little light-sensitive proteins
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ืืช ื”ื—ืœื‘ื•ื ื™ื ื”ืงื˜ื ื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ื”ืจื’ื™ืฉื™ื ืœืื•ืจ
ื•ืœื”ืชืงื™ืŸ ืื•ืชื ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืชื,
07:09
and install them all over the cell, like putting solar panels on a roof.
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ื›ืžื• ืฉืžืชืงื™ื ื™ื ืœื•ื—ื•ืช ืกื•ืœืืจื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื’ื’.
07:12
And the next thing you know,
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ื•ืžื” ืฉืงื•ืจื”
07:14
you have a neuron which can be activated with light.
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ื”ื•ื ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ื ื•ื™ืจื•ืŸ ืฉืžื•ืคืขืœ ืข"ื™ ืื•ืจ.
ืื– ื–ื” ืžื ื’ื ื•ืŸ ืขื•ืฆืžืชื™.
07:17
So this is very powerful.
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07:18
One of the tricks you have to do is figure out how to deliver these genes
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ืื—ื“ ื”ื˜ืจื™ืงื™ื ืฉืฆืจื™ืš ืœืขืฉื•ืช
ื”ื•ื ืœื’ืœื•ืช ืื™ืš ืœื”ืขื‘ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ื’ื ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ืœืชืื™ื ืฉืืชื ืจื•ืฆื™ื
07:22
to the cells you want and not all the other neighbors.
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ื•ืœื ืœืฉืืจ ื”ืฉื›ื ื™ื.
ื•ืืคืฉืจ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืืช ื–ื”. ืžืฉื—ืงื™ื ืขื ื”ื•ื™ืจื•ืกื™ื
07:25
And you can do that;
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07:26
you can tweak the viruses so they hit some cells and not others.
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ื›ืš ืฉื”ื ื™ืคื’ืขื• ืจืง ื‘ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืชืื™ื.
ื•ื™ืฉ ืขื•ื“ ื˜ืจื™ืงื™ื ื’ื ื˜ื™ื™ื ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืœืขืฉื•ืช
07:29
And there's other genetic tricks you can play
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืงื‘ืœ ืชืื™ื ื”ืžื•ืคืขืœื™ื ืข"ื™ ืื•ืจ.
07:31
in order to get light-activated cells.
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ื”ืชื—ื•ื ื”ื–ื” ื ืงืจื ื›ื™ื•ื ืื•ืคื˜ื•ื’ื ื˜ื™ืงื”.
07:34
This field has now come to be known as "optogenetics."
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07:37
And just as one example of the kind of thing you can do,
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ื•ื”ื ื” ื“ื•ื’ืžื ืื—ืช ืœืกื•ื’ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืœืขืฉื•ืช,
ืืคืฉืจ ืœืงื—ืช ืžืขืจื›ืช ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ืช,
07:40
you can take a complex network,
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07:41
use one of these viruses to deliver the gene
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ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืื—ื“ ื”ื•ื™ืจื•ืกื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืขื‘ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ื’ืŸ
ืจืง ืœืกื•ื’ ืชื ืื—ื“ ื‘ืจืฉืช ื”ืกื‘ื•ื›ื” ื”ื–ื•.
07:44
just to one kind of cell in this dense network.
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07:46
And then when you shine light on the entire network,
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ื•ืื– ื›ืฉืžืื™ืจื™ื ืื•ืจ ืขืœ ื›ืœ ื”ืจืฉืช,
07:48
just that cell type will be activated.
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ืจืง ืกื•ื’ ื”ืชื ื”ื–ื” ื™ื•ืคืขืœ.
07:50
For example, let's consider that basket cell I told you about earlier,
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ืื– ืื ื ื™ืงื— ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื ืืช ืชืื™ ื”ืกืœ ืขืœื™ื”ื ื“ื™ื‘ืจืชื™ ืžืงื•ื“ื,
ืืœื” ืฉืžืชื ื•ื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืกื›ื™ื–ื•ืคืจื ื™ื”,
07:54
the one that's atrophied in schizophrenia
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ื•ื”ื ืžืขื›ื‘ื™ื.
07:56
and the one that is inhibitory.
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ืื ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ื—ื“ื™ืจ ืœืชืื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื’ืŸ,
07:58
If we can deliver that gene to these cells --
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ื•ื”ื ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ืœื ื™ื•ืฉืคืขื• ืžื”ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื’ืŸ ื”ื–ื”,
08:00
they won't be altered by the expression of the gene, of course --
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ื•ืื– ืœื”ื‘ื–ื™ืง ืื•ืจ ื›ื—ื•ืœ ืขืœ ื›ืœ ื”ืจืฉืช ื”ืžื•ื—ื™ืช,
08:03
then flash blue light over the entire brain network,
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08:05
just these cells are going to be driven.
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ืื– ื”ืชืื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื™ื•ืคืขืœื•.
ื•ื›ืฉื”ืื•ืจ ื™ื™ื›ื‘ื”, ื”ืชืื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื™ื—ื–ืจื• ืœืžืฆื‘ ื ื•ืจืžืœื™,
08:08
And when the light turns off, these cells go back to normal;
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ืื– ืœื ื ืจืื” ืฉื”ื ืžืชื ื’ื“ื™ื ืœื›ืš.
08:10
there don't seem to be adverse events.
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08:12
Not only can you study what these cells do,
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ืืคืฉืจ ืœืœืžื•ื“ ืžื” ื”ืชืื™ื ื”ืืœื” ืขื•ืฉื™ื,
08:14
what their power is in computing in the brain,
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ืžื” ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ื”ื—ื™ืฉื•ื‘ื™ืช ืฉืœื”ื ื‘ืžื•ื—,
ืื‘ืœ ืืคืฉืจ ื’ื ืœื ืกื•ืช ื•ืœื’ืœื•ืช -
08:17
you can also use this to try to figure out
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืืคืฉืจ ืื•ืœื™ ืœื”ื’ื‘ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื,
08:19
if we could jazz up the activity of these cells
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ืื ื”ื ืื›ืŸ ืžื ื•ื•ื ื™ื.
08:21
if indeed, they're atrophied.
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08:22
I want to tell you some short stories about how we're using this
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ืื– ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ืจืื•ืช ืœื›ื ื›ืžื” ืกื™ืคื•ืจื™ื ืงืฆืจื™ื
ืขืœ ืื™ืš ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ื–ื”,
08:25
both at the scientific clinical and preclinical levels.
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ื‘ืจืžื” ื”ืžื“ืขื™ืช, ื”ืงืœื™ื ื™ืช, ื•ื‘ืจืžื” ื”ืงื“ื-ืงืœื™ื ื™ืช.
08:29
One of the questions that we've confronted is:
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ืื—ืช ื”ืฉืืœื•ืช ืžื•ืœืŸ ื ื™ืฆื‘ื ื•
08:31
What signals in the brain mediate the sensation of reward?
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ื”ื™ื ืžื”ื ื”ืกื™ืžื ื™ื ื‘ืžื•ื— ืฉืžืชื•ื•ื›ื™ื ืืช ืชื—ื•ืฉืช ื”ืชื’ืžื•ืœ?
08:34
Because if you could find those,
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ื›ื™ ืื ื ืžืฆื ืื•ืชื,
08:36
those would be some of the signals that could drive learning;
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ื”ื ื™ื”ื™ื• ืกื™ืžื ื™ื ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืงื“ื ืœืžื™ื“ื”.
ื”ืžื•ื— ื™ืขืฉื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื›ืœ ืคืขื•ืœื” ืฉืงื™ื‘ืœื” ืืช ื”ืชื’ืžื•ืœ.
08:39
the brain will do more of what got that reward.
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ื•ื”ืกื™ืžื ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื’ื ืžืฉืชื‘ืฉื™ื ื‘ื”ืคืจืขื•ืช ื›ืžื• ื”ืชืžื›ืจื•ื™ื•ืช.
08:41
These are also signals that go awry in disorders such as addiction.
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ืื– ืื ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื’ืœื•ืช ืžื” ื”ืชืื™ื ื”ืืœื”,
08:44
So if we could figure out what cells they are, we could maybe find new targets
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ืื•ืœื™ ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืžืฆื•ื ืžื˜ืจื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช
ืœื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช,
08:48
for which drugs can be designed or screened against
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ืื• ืืชืจื™ื ืœืžื™ืงื•ื ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ื“ื•ืช
08:50
or maybe places where electrodes could be put in
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ืืฆืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ื‘ืขืœื™ ืคื’ื™ืขื” ื—ืžื•ืจื”.
08:52
for people who have severe disability.
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08:54
To do that, we came up with a very simple paradigm
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ืื– ื›ื“ื™ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื–ืืช, ื™ืฆืจื ื• ืคืจื“ื™ื’ืžื” ืคืฉื•ื˜ื” ืžืื•ื“
ื‘ืฉืช"ืค ืขื ืงื‘ื•ืฆืช ืคื™ื•ืจืœื”,
08:57
in collaboration with the Fiorillo group,
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ืื ื”ื—ื™ื” ืชืœืš ืœืฆื“ ืื—ื“ ืฉืœ ื”ืงื•ืคืกื
08:59
where, if the animal goes to one side of this little box,
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ื”ื™ื ืชืงื‘ืœ ื”ื‘ื–ืง ืื•ืจ,
09:01
it gets a pulse of light.
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ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœืชืื™ื ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžื™ื ืจื’ื™ืฉื•ืช ืœืื•ืจ.
09:03
And we'll make different cells in the brain sensitive to light.
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ืื– ืื ื”ืชืื™ื ื”ืืœื” ืžื•ื•ืกืชื™ื ืชื’ืžื•ืœ,
09:06
If these cells can mediate reward, the animal should go there more and more.
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ืื– ื”ื—ื™ื” ืฆืจื™ื›ื” ืœืœื›ืช ืœืฉื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื•ื™ื•ืชืจ.
ื•ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉืงื•ืจื”.
09:09
And that's what happens.
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09:10
The animal goes to the right-hand side and pokes his nose there
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ื”ื—ื™ื” ืชืœืš ืœืฆื“ ื”ื™ืžื ื™ ื•ืœื“ื—ื•ืฃ ืืช ืืคื” ืœืฉื,
ื•ื”ื™ื ืชืงื‘ืœ ื”ื‘ื–ืง ืื•ืจ ื›ื—ื•ืœ ื‘ื›ืœ ืคืขื ืฉื”ื™ื ืขื•ืฉื” ื–ืืช.
09:13
and gets a flash of blue light every time he does it.
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ื•ื”ื™ื ืชืขืฉื” ื–ืืช ืžืื•ืช ืคืขืžื™ื.
09:16
He'll do that hundreds of times.
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ืืœื” ื ื•ื™ืจื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื“ื•ืคืžื™ืŸ,
09:17
These are the dopamine neurons,
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ืฉืื•ืœื™ ืฉืžืขืชื ืขืœื™ื”ื ื‘ื”ืงืฉืจ ืฉืœ ื—ืœืง ืžืžืจื›ื–ื™ ื”ืขื•ื ื’ ื‘ืžื•ื—.
09:19
in some of the pleasure centers in the brain.
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ืžืฆืื ื• ืฉื”ืคืขืœื” ืงืฆืจื” ืฉืœื”ื
09:21
We've shown that a brief activation of these is enough to drive learning.
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ืžืกืคื™ืงื” ื‘ื”ื—ืœื˜ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื ื™ืข ืœืžื™ื“ื”.
ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืจื—ื™ื‘ ืืช ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ.
09:25
Now we can generalize the idea.
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ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืœื”ืชืžืงื“ ื‘ื ืงื•ื“ื” ืื—ืช ื‘ืžื•ื—,
09:27
Instead of one point in the brain, we can devise devices that span the brain,
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ืืคืฉืจ ืœืชื›ื ืŸ ื”ืชืงื ื” ื‘ื—ืœืงื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ื—,
ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ื—ื“ื™ืจ ืื•ืจ ื‘ื“ืคื•ืกื™ื ืชืœืช-ืžื™ืžื“ื™ื™ื -
09:31
that can deliver light into three-dimensional patterns --
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ืงืฉืช ืฉืœ ืกื™ื‘ื™ื ืื•ืคื˜ื™ื™ื,
09:33
arrays of optical fibers,
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ื›"ื ืงืฉื•ืจ ืœืžืงื•ืจ ืื•ืจ ืžื™ื ื™ืื˜ื•ืจื™ ื•ืขืฆืžืื™.
09:35
each coupled to its own independent miniature light source.
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ื•ืื– ืืคืฉืจ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ื—ื™ื” ื”ื—ื™ื”
09:37
Then we can try to do things in vivo
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ืฉืขื“ ื›ื” ื ืขืฉื• ืจืง ื‘ืฆืœื—ืช ืคื˜ืจื™,
09:39
that have only been done to date in a dish,
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09:41
like high-throughput screening throughout the entire brain
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ื›ืžื• ื—ื™ืคื•ืฉ ื‘ืžื•ื— ื›ื•ืœื•
ืฉืœ ืื•ืชื•ืช ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœืชื•ืคืขื•ืช ืžืกื•ื™ืžื•ืช.
09:44
for the signals that can cause certain things to happen
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ืื• ืฉื”ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื˜ืจื•ืช ืงืœื™ื ื™ื•ืช ื˜ื•ื‘ื•ืช
09:47
or that could be good clinical targets for treating brain disorders.
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ืœื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ื‘ื”ืคืจืขื•ืช ืžื•ื—ื™ื•ืช.
ื•ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืื—ื“ ืฉืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœืกืคืจ ืœื›ื
09:50
One story I want to tell you about is:
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ื”ื•ื ืื™ืš ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื•ืฆืื™ื ืžื˜ืจื•ืช ืœื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ื‘ื”ืคืจืขื” ืคื•ืกื˜-ื˜ืจืื•ืžื˜ื™ืช (PTSD)
09:52
How can we find targets for treating post-traumatic stress disorder,
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ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ืคื—ื“ ื•ื—ืจื“ื” ื‘ืœืชื™ ื ืฉืœื˜ื™ื.
09:55
a form of uncontrolled anxiety and fear?
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ื•ืื—ื“ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืขืฉื™ื ื•
09:58
One of the things that we did was to adopt a very classical model of fear.
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ื”ื™ื” ืœืืžืฅ ืžื•ื“ืœ ืงืœืืกื™ ืฉืœ ืคื—ื“.
10:02
This goes back to the Pavlovian days.
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ืขื•ื“ ืžืชืงื•ืคืช ืคืื‘ืœื•ื‘.
10:05
It's called Pavlovian fear conditioning, where a tone ends with a brief shock.
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ื”ื•ื ื ืงืจื ื”ืชื ื™ื™ืช ืคื—ื“ ืคืื‘ืœื•ื‘ื™ืช,
ื•ื‘ื• ืื—ืจื™ ืฆืœื™ืœ ืžื•ืคื™ืข ืฉื•ืง ื—ืฉืžืœื™ ืงืฆืจ.
10:09
The shock isn't painful, but it's a little annoying.
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ื”ืฉื•ืง ืœื ื›ื•ืื‘, ืื‘ืœ ื”ื•ื ืžืฆื™ืง.
ื•ืื—ืจื™ ื–ืžืŸ ื”ืขื›ื‘ืจ, ื‘ืžืงืจื” ื”ื–ื”,
10:12
And over time -- in this case, a mouse,
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ื•ื”ื•ื ื—ื™ื™ืช ืžืขื‘ื“ื” ื˜ื•ื‘ื” ืฉืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ื” ื”ืจื‘ื” ื‘ื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื ื›ืืœื”,
10:14
which is a good animal model, commonly used in such experiments --
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ื”ื—ื™ื” ืœื•ืžื“ืช ืœืคื—ื“ ืžื”ืฆืœื™ืœ.
10:17
the animal learns to fear the tone.
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ื”ื—ื™ื” ืชื’ื™ื‘ ื‘ืงืคื™ืื”,
10:18
It will react by freezing, sort of like a deer in the headlights.
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ื‘ื“ื•ืžื” ืœืื™ืœ ืฉื ืชืงืœ ื‘ืื•ืจ ืคื ืก ื‘ืœื™ืœื”.
10:21
Now the question is: What targets in the brain can we find
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื”ืฉืืœื” ื”ื™ื, ืื™ืœื• ื™ืขื“ื™ื ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืžืฆื•ื ื‘ืžื•ื—
10:24
that allow us to overcome this fear?
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ืฉื™ืืคืฉืจื• ืœื ื• ืœื”ืชื’ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ื”ืคื—ื“ ื”ื–ื”?
ืžื” ื™ืงืจื” ืื ื ืฉืžื™ืข ืืช ื”ืฆืœื™ืœ ืฉื•ื‘
10:27
So we play that tone again, after it's been associated with fear.
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ืื—ืจื™ ืฉื ืงืฉืจ ืœืคื—ื“.
ืื‘ืœ ื ืคืขื™ืœ ื™ืขื“ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืžื•ื—,
10:31
But we activate different targets in the brain,
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ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ื”ืกื™ื‘ื™ื ื”ืื•ืคื˜ื™ื™ื ืฉื”ืจืื™ืชื™ ืงื•ื“ื,
10:33
using that optical fiber array I showed on the previous slide,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื ืกื•ืช ื•ืœืจืื•ืช ืื™ืœื• ื™ืขื“ื™ื
10:36
in order to try and figure out
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10:37
which targets can cause the brain to overcome that memory of fear.
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœืžื•ื— ืœื”ืชื’ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ื–ื›ืจื•ืŸ ื”ืคื—ื“.
ืื– ื”ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื”ืงืฆืจ ื”ื–ื”
10:41
This brief video shows you one of these targets
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ืžืจืื” ืืช ืื—ื“ ื”ื™ืขื“ื™ื ืขืœื™ื”ื ืื ื• ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ื›ืจื’ืข.
10:43
that we're working on now.
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10:44
This is an area in the prefrontal cortex, a region where we can use cognition
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ื–ื”ื• ืื™ื–ื•ืจ ื‘ืงื•ืจื˜ืงืก ื”ืคืจื”-ืคืจื•ื ื˜ืœื™,
ืื™ื–ื•ืจ ื‘ื• ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืชื’ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ืžืฆื‘ื™ื ืจื’ืฉื™ื ืฉืœื™ืœื™ื™ื.
10:48
to try to overcome aversive emotional states.
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ื•ื”ื—ื™ื” ืชืฉืžืข ืฆืœื™ืœ, ื•ื”ื ื” ื”ื‘ื–ืง ืื•ืจ.
10:50
The animal hears a tone. A flash of light occurs.
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ืื™ืŸ ื›ืืŸ ืงื•ืœ, ืื‘ืœ ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ื”ื—ื™ื” ืงื•ืคืืช.
10:52
There's no audio, but you see that the animal freezes --
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ื”ืฆืœื™ืœ ื”ื–ื” ื ืงืฉืจ ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืจืขื™ื ื‘ืขื‘ืจ.
10:55
the tone used to mean bad news.
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ื•ื™ืฉ ืฉืขื•ืŸ ืงื˜ืŸ ื‘ืคื™ื ื” ื”ืฉืžืืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื”,
10:56
There's a little clock in the lower left-hand corner.
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ืื– ืืชื ืจื•ืื™ื ืฉื—ืœืคื• ืฉืชื™ ื“ืงื•ืช.
10:59
You can see the animal is about two minutes into this.
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ื•ื”ื ื” ื‘ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื”ื‘ื,
11:02
This next clip is just eight minutes later.
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ืื—ืจื™ 8 ื“ืงื•ืช.
11:04
And the same tone is going to play, and the light is going to flash again.
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ื•ืื•ืชื• ื”ืฆืœื™ืœ ื™ื•ืฉืžืข, ื•ื”ืื•ืจ ืฉื•ื‘ ื™ื•ื‘ื–ืง.
ืื•ืงื™ื™, ื”ื ื”, ืขื›ืฉื™ื•.
11:08
OK, there it goes. Right ... now.
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ื•ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช, ืขื‘ืจื• ืจืง 10 ื“ืงื•ืช ืžืชื—ื™ืœืช ื”ื ื™ืกื•ื™,
11:11
And now you can see, just 10 minutes into the experiment,
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ื‘ื• ื”ืคืขืœื ื• ืืช ื”ืื™ื–ื•ืจ ื”ื–ื” ื‘ืžื•ื— ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ืื•ืจ,
11:14
that we've equipped the brain, by photoactivating this area,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืชื’ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™
11:17
to overcome the expression of this fear memory.
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ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ื”ืคื—ื“.
ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื‘ืฉื ืชื™ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช, ื—ื–ืจื ื• ืœืขืฅ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื,
11:21
Over the last couple years, we've gone back to the tree of life,
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ื›ื™ ืจืฆื™ื ื• ืœืžืฆื•ื ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืœื›ื‘ื•ืช ืืช ืžืขื’ืœื™ ื”ืžื•ื—.
11:24
because we wanted to find ways to turn circuits in the brain off.
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ืื ื™ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื–ืืช, ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื›ืœื™ ื—ื–ืง ืžืื•ื“.
11:27
If we could do that, this could be extremely powerful.
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11:29
If you can delete cells for a few milliseconds or seconds,
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ืื ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืžื—ื•ืง ืชืื™ื ืœืฉื‘ืจื™ืจื™ ืฉื ื™ื” ืื• ืฉื ื™ื•ืช,
11:32
you can figure out what role they play in the circuits in which they're embedded.
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ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื” ื”ืชืคืงื™ื“ ืฉืœื”ื
ื‘ืžืขื’ืœื™ื ื”ืžื•ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ื”ื ื”ื ื ืžืฆืื™ื.
11:36
We surveyed organisms from all over the tree of life --
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ื•ื‘ื“ืงื ื• ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื ื‘ื›ืœ ืขืฅ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื -
ื›ืœ ืžืžืœื›ื” ืคืจื˜ ืœื—ื™ื•ืช ื ืจืื™ืช ืžืขื˜ ืฉื•ื ื”.
11:39
every kingdom of life but animals; we see slightly differently.
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ื•ืžืฆืื ื• ื›ืœ ืžื™ื ื™ ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช, ืฉื ืงืจืื•ืช ื”ืืœื•ืจื•ื“ื•ืคืกื™ืŸ ืื• ืืจื›ื™ืื•ืจื•ื“ื•ืคืกื™ืŸ,
11:42
We found molecules called halorhodopsins or archaerhodopsins,
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ืฉืžื’ื™ื‘ื•ืช ืœืื•ืจ ื™ืจื•ืง ื•ืฆื”ื•ื‘.
11:45
that respond to green and yellow light.
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11:46
And they do the opposite of the molecule I told you about before,
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ื•ื”ืŸ ืขื•ืฉื•ืช ืืช ื”ื”ื™ืคืš ืžื”ืžื•ืœื•ืงื•ืœื” ืขืœื™ื” ืกื™ืคืจืชื™ ืงื•ื“ื ืœื›ืŸ,
ืขื ื”ืื•ืจ ื”ื›ื—ื•ืœ ื”ืžืคืขื™ืœ ืฆ'ื ืœืจื•ื“ื•ืคืกื™ืŸ.
11:50
with the blue light activator, channelrhodopsin.
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11:52
Let's give an example of where we think this is going to go.
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ืืชืŸ ืœื›ื ื“ื•ื’ืžื ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ืžืฉืžืขื•ืช ืฉืœ ื–ื”.
11:55
Consider, for example, a condition like epilepsy,
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ืงื—ื• ืœืžืฉืœ ืžืฆื‘ ื›ืžื• ืืคื™ืœืคืกื™ื”,
11:58
where the brain is overactive.
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ื‘ื• ื”ืžื•ื— ืคืขื™ืœ ื™ืชืจ ืขืœ ื”ืžื™ื“ื”.
12:00
Now, if drugs fail in epileptic treatment,
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ื”ื™ื•ื, ืื ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ืœื ืžืฆืœื™ื—ื•ืช ืœื˜ืคืœ ื‘ืืคื™ืœืคืกื™ื”,
12:02
one of the strategies is to remove part of the brain,
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ืื—ืช ื”ืืกื˜ืจื˜ื’ื™ื•ืช ื”ื™ื ืœื”ืกื™ืจ ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืžื•ื—.
ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ื‘ืœืชื™-ื”ืคื™ืš, ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ, ื•ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืชื•ืคืขื•ืช ืœื•ื•ืื™.
12:05
but that's irreversible, and there could be side effects.
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ืžื” ืื ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื›ื‘ื•ืช ืืช ื”ืื™ื–ื•ืจ ื”ื–ื” ืจืง ืœื–ืžืŸ ืงืฆืจ,
12:07
What if we could just turn off that brain for the brief amount of time
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ืขื“ ืฉื”ื”ืชืงืฃ ื™ืขื‘ื•ืจ,
12:11
until the seizure dies away,
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12:12
and cause the brain to be restored to its initial state,
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ื•ื ืืคืฉืจ ืœืžื•ื— ืœื—ื–ื•ืจ ืœืžืฆื‘ื• ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™,
12:15
like a dynamical system that's being coaxed down into a stable state?
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ื›ืžื• ืžืขืจื›ืช ื“ื™ื ืžื™ืช ืฉืžืจื’ื™ืขื™ื ืื•ืชื” ื—ื–ืจื” ืœืžืฆื‘ ื™ืฆื™ื‘.
ืื– ื”ืื ื™ืžืฆื™ื” ื”ื–ื• ืžื ืกื” ืœื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืžื•ืฉื’ ื”ื–ื”
12:19
This animation tries to explain this concept
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12:21
where we made these cells sensitive to being turned off with light,
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ื‘ื• ื’ืจืžื ื• ืœืชืื™ื ืœื”ื™ื›ื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ืื•ืจ,
ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ืฉื•ืœื—ื™ื ืืœื•ืžืช ืื•ืจ,
12:24
and we beam light in,
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12:25
and just for the time it takes to shut down a seizure,
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ื•ืจืง ืœืคืจืง ื”ื–ืžืŸ ื”ื ื“ืจืฉ ืœืขืฆื•ืจ ืืช ื”ื”ืชืงืฃ,
ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืงื•ื•ื™ื ืœื›ื‘ื•ืช ืื•ืชื.
12:28
we're hoping to be able to turn it off.
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ืื– ืื™ืŸ ืœื ื• ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื ืชื•ื ื™ื ืœื”ืจืื•ืช ืœื›ื,
12:30
We don't have data to show you on this front,
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื—ื ื• ื ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืžื”ื ื•ืฉื.
12:32
but we're very excited about this.
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12:33
I want to close on one story, which we think is another possibility,
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ืชืžืงื“ ื‘ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืื—ื“,
ืฉืžืจืื” ืืคืฉืจื•ืช ืื—ืจืช,
12:37
which is that maybe these molecules, if you can do ultraprecise control,
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ื•ื”ื™ื ืฉืื•ืœื™ ื”ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืืœื”, ืื ื™ืฉ ืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ืกื•ืคืจ-ืžื“ื•ื™ืงืช,
ื ื™ืชื ื•ืช ืœืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืžื•ื— ืขืฆืžื•,
12:40
can be used in the brain itself to make a new kind of prosthetic,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืคืจื•ืชื–ื” ื—ื“ืฉื”, ืคืจื•ืชื–ื” ืื•ืคื˜ื™ืช.
12:43
an optical prosthetic.
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ืกื™ืคืจืชื™ ืœื›ื ื›ื‘ืจ ืฉืงื•ืฆื‘ื™ื ื—ืฉืžืœื™ื™ื ื”ื ืฉื›ื™ื—ื™ื.
12:45
I already told you that electrical stimulators are not uncommon.
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ืœ 75,000 ื—ื•ืœื™ ืคืจืงื™ื ืกื•ืŸ ื™ืฉ ืงื•ืฆื‘ื™ื ืžื•ืฉืชืœื™ื ื‘ืžื•ื—.
12:48
Seventy-five thousand people
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12:49
have Parkinson's deep-brain stimulators implanted,
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ืœ 100,000 ื‘ืขืจืš ื™ืฉ ืฉืชืœื™ื ืฉื‘ืœื•ืœื™ื™ื,
12:51
maybe 100,000 people have cochlear implants, which allow them to hear.
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ืฉืžืืคืฉืจื™ื ืœื”ื ืœืฉืžื•ืข.
ืขื•ื“ ื“ื‘ืจ, ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ื›ื ื™ืก ืืช ื”ื’ื ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ืœืชื•ืš ื”ืชืื™ื.
12:55
Another thing -- you've got to get these genes into cells.
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ื•ื™ืฉ ืชืงื•ื•ื” ื—ื“ืฉื” ื‘ืจื™ืคื•ื™ ื’ื ื˜ื™
12:58
A new hope in gene therapy has been developed,
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13:00
because viruses like the adeno-associated virus --
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ื›ื™ ื•ื™ืจื•ืกื™ื ื›ืžื• adeno-associated virus
ืฉื™ืฉ ื›ื ืจืื” ืœื›ืœ ืžื™ ืฉื™ื•ืฉื‘ ื›ืืŸ,
13:03
which probably most of us around this room have;
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ื•ืื™ื ื ื’ื•ืจืžื™ื ืœืกื™ืžืคื˜ื•ืžื™ื,
13:05
it doesn't have any symptoms --
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ื•ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ืฉืชืžืฉื• ื‘ื”ื ื‘ืžืื•ืช ืคืฆื™ื™ื ื˜ื™ื
13:07
have been used in hundreds of patients
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13:08
to deliver genes into the brain or the body.
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ืœื”ืขื‘ืจืช ื’ื ื™ื ืœืชื•ืš ื”ืžื•ื— ืื• ืœื’ื•ืฃ.
13:10
And so far, there have not been serious adverse events
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ื•ืขื“ ื›ื” ืœื ื ืชื’ืœื• ืชื•ืคืขื•ืช ืœื•ื•ืื™ ื—ืžื•ืจื•ืช
ืฉื ืงืฉืจื• ืœื•ื™ืจื•ืก.
13:13
associated with the virus.
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13:14
There's one last elephant in the room: the proteins themselves,
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ื™ืฉ ืขื•ื“ ืคื™ืœ ืื—ืจื•ืŸ ื‘ื—ื“ืจ, ื”ื—ืœื‘ื•ื ื™ื ืขืฆืžื,
13:17
which come from algae, bacteria and funguses
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ื”ืžื’ื™ืขื™ื ืžืืฆื•ืช, ื‘ืงื˜ืจื™ื•ืช ื•ืคื˜ืจื™ื•ืช,
13:19
and all over the tree of life.
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ื•ืžื›ืœ ืขืฅ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื.
13:21
Most of us don't have funguses or algae in our brains,
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ืœืจื•ื‘ื ื• ืื™ืŸ ืืฆื•ืช ืื• ืคื˜ืจื™ื•ืช ื‘ืžื•ื—,
ืื– ืžื” ื”ืžื•ื— ื™ืขืฉื” ืื ื ื›ื ื™ืก ืื•ืชื?
13:24
so what will our brain do if we put that in?
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ื”ืื ื”ืชืื™ื ื™ืกื‘ืœื• ืื•ืชื? ื”ืื ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื—ื™ืกื•ืŸ ืชื’ื™ื‘?
13:26
Will the cells tolerate it? Will the immune system react?
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ื‘ื”ืชื—ืœื” - ื”ื ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื ื ื•ืกื• ืขืœ ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื -
13:28
It's early -- these haven't been done in humans yet --
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ืขืœ ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืžื—ืงืจื™ื
13:31
but we're working on a variety of studies to examine this.
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ื‘ื ืกื™ื•ืŸ ืœื‘ื—ื•ืŸ ืืช ื–ื”.
ื•ืขื“ ื›ื” ืœื ื’ื™ืœื™ื ื• ืชื’ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื›ืœืฉื”ืŸ
13:34
So far, we haven't seen overt reactions of any severity
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ืœืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืืœื”
13:37
to these molecules
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13:38
or to the illumination of the brain with light.
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ืื• ืœื”ืืจื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ื—.
ืื– ื–ื• ืจืง ื”ื”ืชื—ืœื”, ืื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื›ื ื™ื, ืื‘ืœ ืื ื—ื ื• ื ืœื”ื‘ื™ื.
13:42
So it's early days, to be upfront, but we're excited about it.
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ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœืกื™ื™ื ืขื ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืื—ื“,
13:45
I wanted to close with one story,
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13:46
which we think could potentially be a clinical application.
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ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื• ืคื•ื˜ื ืฆื™ืืœ
ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืขืœ ื™ื™ืฉื•ื ืงืœื™ื ื™.
13:50
Now, there are many forms of blindness
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื™ืฉื ื ืกื•ื’ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ืฉืœ ืขื™ื•ื•ืจื•ืŸ
ื‘ื”ื ื”ืคื•ื˜ื•ืจืฆืคื˜ื•ืจื™ื,
13:53
where the photoreceptors -- light sensors in the back of our eye --
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ื—ื™ื™ืฉื ื™ ื”ืื•ืจ ื‘ืื—ื•ืจื™ ื”ืขื™ืŸ, ื—ืกืจื™ื.
13:56
are gone.
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13:57
And the retina is a complex structure.
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ื•ื”ืจืฉืชื™ืช, ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ, ื”ื™ื ืื™ื‘ืจ ืžื•ืจื›ื‘.
13:59
Let's zoom in on it so we can see it in more detail.
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ืื– ื‘ื•ืื• ื ืชืžืงื“ ืขืœื™ื” ื›ืืŸ, ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื ืจืื” ื‘ืคื™ืจื•ื˜ ืจื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ.
ืชืื™ ื”ืคื•ื˜ื•ืจืฆืคื˜ื•ืจื™ื ื ืจืื™ื ื›ืืŸ ืœืžืขืœื”,
14:02
The photoreceptor cells are shown here at the top.
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14:04
The signals that are detected by the photoreceptors are transformed
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ื•ื”ืื•ืชื•ืช ืฉื ืงืœื˜ื™ื ืข"ื™ ื”ืงื•ืœื˜ื ื™ื ื”ืœืœื•
ืžื•ืžืจื™ื ืข"ื™ ื—ื™ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื,
14:08
via various computations
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ืขื“ ืฉืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ ืฉื›ื‘ืช ื”ืชืื™ื ืฉืœืžื˜ื”, ืชืื™ ื”ื’ื ื’ืœื™ื”,
14:09
until finally, the layer of cells at the bottom, the ganglion cells,
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ืžืขื‘ื™ืจื” ืืช ื”ืžื™ื“ืข ืืœ ื”ืžื•ื—,
14:12
relay the information to the brain,
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ื‘ื• ืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ืืช ื–ื” ื‘ืชืคื™ืกื”.
14:14
where we see that as perception.
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ื‘ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืขื™ื•ื•ืจื•ืŸ, ื›ืžื• ืจื˜ื™ื ื™ื˜ื™ืก ืคื™ื’ืžื ื˜ื•ื–ื”,
14:16
In many forms of blindness, like retinitis pigmentosa
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14:18
or macular degeneration,
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ืื• ื ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืžืงื•ืœืจื™,
14:20
the photoreceptor cells have atrophied or been destroyed.
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ืชืื™ ื”ืคื•ื˜ื•ืจืฆืคื˜ื•ืจื™ื ื”ืชื ื•ื•ื ื• ืื• ื ื”ืจืกื•.
14:23
Now, how could you repair this?
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืื™ืš ืืคืฉืจ ืœืชืงืŸ ืืช ื–ื”?
14:25
It's not even clear that a drug could cause this to be restored,
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ื›ืœืœ ืœื ื‘ืจื•ืจ ืื ืชืจื•ืคื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœืฉืงื ืื•ืชื,
14:28
since there's nothing for the drug to bind to.
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ื›ื™ ืื™ืŸ ืœื” ืœืืŸ ืœื”ืชื—ื‘ืจ.
14:30
On the other hand, light can still get into the eye.
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ืžืฆื“ ืฉื ื™, ืื•ืจ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื”ื™ื›ื ืก ืœืขื™ืŸ.
ืื– ื”ืขื™ืŸ ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืฉืงื•ืคื” ื•ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื”ื›ื ื™ืก ืœืชื•ื›ื” ืื•ืจ.
14:33
The eye is still transparent and you can get light in.
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ืื– ืžื” ืื ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ื›ื ื™ืก ืืช ื”ืฆ'ื ืœืจื•ื“ื•ืคืกื™ื ื™ื ื•ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช
14:36
So what if we could take these channelrhodopsins and other molecules
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ื•ืœื”ืชืงื™ืŸ ืื•ืชื ืขืœ ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืชืื™ื ื”ืจื–ืจื‘ื™ื™ื
14:39
and install them on some of these other spared cells
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ื•ืœื”ืกื‘ ืื•ืชื ืœืžืฆืœืžื•ืช ืงื˜ื ื•ืช.
14:41
and convert them into little cameras?
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ื•ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื™ืฉ ื›"ื› ื”ืจื‘ื” ืชืื™ื ื›ืืœื” ื‘ืขื™ืŸ,
14:43
And because there are so many of these cells in the eye,
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ื‘ืคื•ื˜ื ืฆื™ื”, ืืœื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืฆืœืžื•ืช ื‘ืจื–ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื” ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื”.
14:46
potentially, they could be very high-resolution cameras.
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ืื– ื–ื” ืื—ื“ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืขื•ืฉื™ื.
14:48
This is some work that we're doing,
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ื•ื”ืคืจื•ื™ื™ืงื˜ ื”ื•ื ื‘ื”ื ื”ื’ืช ืื—ื“ ื”ืฉื•ืชืคื™ื ืฉืœื ื•,
14:50
led by one of our collaborators, Alan Horsager at USC,
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ืืœืŸ ื”ื•ืจืกื’ืจ ืžืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืช ื“ืจื•ื ืงืœื™ืคื•ืจื ื™ื” (USC),
14:53
and being sought to be commercialized by a start-up company, Eos Neuroscience,
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ื•ื—ื‘ืจืช ื”ืกื˜ืืจื˜-ืืค Eos Neuroscience ืžืชืขื ื™ื™ื ืช ื‘ื•,
ืคืจื•ื™ื™ืงื˜ ื”ืžืžื•ืžืŸ ืข"ื™ ืžื›ื•ืŸ ื”ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ (NIH).
14:57
which is funded by the NIH.
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14:58
What you see here is a mouse trying to solve a six-arm maze.
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ื•ืžื” ืฉืจื•ืื™ื ื›ืืŸ ื”ื•ื ืขื›ื‘ืจ ืฉืžื ืกื” ืœืคืชื•ืจ ืžื‘ื•ืš.
ื–ื” ืžื‘ื•ืš ื‘ืŸ 6 ื–ืจื•ืขื•ืช, ื•ื™ืฉ ื‘ื• ืงืฆืช ืžื™ื
15:01
There's a bit of water to motivate the mouse to move or he'll just sit there.
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ืฉื ื•ืขื“ื• ืœื”ื ื™ืข ืืช ื”ืขื›ื‘ืจ ืœื–ื•ื–, ืื—ืจืช ื”ื•ื ืจืง ื™ืฉื‘ ืฉื.
ื•ื”ืžื˜ืจื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžื‘ื•ืš ื”ื–ื”
15:05
The goal of this maze is to get out of the water
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ื”ื™ื ืœืฆืืช ืžื”ืžื™ื ื•ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœื‘ืžื” ืงื˜ื ื”
15:07
and go to a little platform that's under the lit top port.
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ืฉืžืชื—ืช ืœื™ืฆื™ืื” ื”ืžื•ืืจืช ื”ืขืœื™ื•ื ื”.
ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืขื›ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ื ื—ื›ืžื™ื, ื›ืš ืฉื”ืขื›ื‘ืจ ื™ืคืชื•ืจ ืืช ื”ืžื‘ื•ืš ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ,
15:11
Mice are smart, so this one solves the maze eventually,
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15:13
but he does a brute-force search.
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ื—ื™ืคื•ืฉ ืฉืœ ื›ื•ื— ื’ืก.
15:15
He's swimming down every avenue until he finally gets to the platform.
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ื”ื•ื ืฉื•ื—ื” ื‘ืžื•ืจื“ ื›ืœ ื–ืจื•ืข, ืขื“ ืฉืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื”ื•ื ืžื’ื™ืข ืœื‘ืžื”.
15:18
He's not using vision to do it.
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ืื– ื”ื•ื ืœื ืžืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืจืื™ื™ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืฆืœื™ื—.
15:20
These different mice are different mutations
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ื”ืขื›ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืฉื•ื ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื”ื ืžื•ื˜ืฆื™ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช
ืฉืžื™ื™ืฆื’ื•ืช ืกื•ื’ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ืขื™ื•ื•ืจื•ืŸ ื”ืคื•ื’ืขื™ื ื‘ืื ืฉื™ื.
15:23
that recapitulate different kinds of blindness that affect humans.
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ืื– ืื ื—ื ื• ื ื–ื”ืจื™ื ื•ืžื ืกื™ื ืœื‘ื—ื•ืŸ ืืช ื”ืžื•ื“ืœื™ื ื”ืฉื•ื ื™ื ื”ืœืœื•,
15:26
So we're being careful in trying to look at these different models
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ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื ื’ื™ืข ืœืคืชืจื•ืŸ ื‘ื’ื™ืฉื” ื›ืœืœื™ืช.
15:29
so we come up with a generalized approach.
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ืื– ืื™ืš ืื ื—ื ื• ื ืคืชื•ืจ ืืช ื–ื”?
15:31
So how can we solve this?
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ื ืขืฉื” ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืžื” ืฉื”ืจืื™ื ื• ื‘ืฉืงืฃ ื”ืงื•ื“ื.
15:33
We'll do exactly what we outlined in the previous slide.
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ื ื™ืงื— ืืช ื—ื™ื™ืฉื ื™ ื”ืื•ืจ ื”ื›ื—ื•ืœ
15:35
We'll take these blue light photo sensors
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ื•ื ืชืงื™ืŸ ืื•ืชื ืขืœ ืฉื›ื‘ืช ืชืื™ื
15:37
and install them onto a layer of cells
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ื‘ืืžืฆืข ื”ืจืฉืชื™ืช ื‘ืื—ื•ืจื™ ื”ืขื™ืŸ
15:39
in the middle of the retina in the back of the eye
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15:41
and convert them into a camera --
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ื•ื ืกื‘ ืื•ืชื ืœืžืฆืœืžื”.
15:43
just like installing solar cells all over those neurons
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ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื›ืžื• ื”ืชืงื ื” ืฉืœ ืชืื™ื ืกื•ืœืืจื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื’ื‘ื™ ื”ื ื•ื™ืจื•ื ื™ื
ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคื•ืš ืื•ืชื ืœืจื’ื™ืฉื™-ืื•ืจ.
15:46
to make them light-sensitive.
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15:47
Light is converted to electricity on them.
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ื”ืื•ืจ ืžื•ืกื‘ ืœื—ืฉืžืœ ืขืœื™ื”ื.
15:49
So this mouse was blind a couple weeks before this experiment
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ืื– ื”ืขื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืขื™ื•ื•ืจ ื›ืžื” ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช ืœืคื ื™ ื”ื ื™ืกื•ื™ ื”ื–ื”
15:52
and received one dose of this photosensitive molecule on a virus.
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืงื™ื‘ืœ ืžื ื” ืื—ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื” ืจื’ื™ืฉืช ื”ืื•ืจ ื‘ื•ื™ืจื•ืก.
ื•ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช, ื”ื•ื ืื›ืŸ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ืžื ืข ืžื”ืงื™ืจื•ืช
15:56
And now you can see, the animal can indeed avoid walls
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ื•ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœื‘ืžื” ื”ืงื˜ื ื” ื”ื–ื•
15:58
and go to this little platform
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ื•ืœื—ื–ื•ืจ ื•ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ืžื—ื•ืฉื‘ ื‘ืขื™ื ื™ื•.
16:00
and make cognitive use of its eyes again.
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ื•ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืจืื•ืช ืืช ื”ืขื•ืฆืžื” ืฉื‘ื–ื”:
16:03
And to point out the power of this:
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ื”ื—ื™ื•ืช ื”ืืœื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœื‘ืžื” ื”ื–ื•
16:05
these animals can get to that platform
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16:06
just as fast as animals that have seen their entire lives.
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ื‘ืื•ืชื” ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ื›ืžื• ื—ื™ื•ืช ืฉืจืื• ื›ืœ ื—ื™ื™ื”ืŸ.
ืื– ื”ืžื—ืงืจ ื”ืงื“ื-ืงืœื™ื ื™ ื”ื–ื”, ืœื“ืขืชื™,
16:09
So this preclinical study, I think, bodes hope
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ื˜ื•ืžืŸ ื‘ื—ื•ื‘ื• ืชืงื•ื•ื” ืœืกื•ื’ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื
16:11
for the kinds of things we're hoping to do in the future.
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ืฉื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื‘ืขืชื™ื“.
ืœืกื™ื•ื, ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœืฆื™ื™ืŸ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ื’ื
16:15
We're also exploring new business models for this new field of neurotechnology.
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ืžื•ื“ืœื™ื ืขืกืงื™ื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ื”ื—ื“ืฉ ืฉืœ ื ื•ื™ืจื•ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”.
ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืคืชื—ื™ื ืืช ื”ื›ืœื™ื ื”ืืœื”,
16:20
We're developing tools and sharing them freely
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืฉืชืคื™ื ืื•ืชื ื—ื™ื ื ืขื ืžืื•ืช ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืžื›ืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื,
16:22
with hundreds of groups all over the world
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ื›ืš ืฉืื ืฉื™ื ื™ื•ื›ืœื• ืœืœืžื•ื“ ื•ืœื ืกื•ืช ืœื˜ืคืœ ื‘ื”ืคืจืขื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช.
16:24
for them to study and try to treat different disorders.
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ื”ืชืงื•ื” ืฉืœื ื• ื”ื™ื ืฉืข"ื™ ื”ื›ืจื” ืฉืœ ืžืขื’ืœื™ื ืขืฆื‘ื™ื™ื ื‘ืžื•ื—
16:26
Our hope is that by figuring out brain circuits
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ื‘ืจืžืช ื”ืคืฉื˜ื” ืฉืžืืคืฉืจืช ืœื ื• ืœืชืงืŸ ื•ืœื”ื ื“ืก ืื•ืชื,
16:29
at a level of abstraction that lets us repair them and engineer them,
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ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืงื—ืช ืืช ื—ืœืง ืžื”ื”ืคืจืขื•ืช ื”ืงืฉื•ืช ืขืœื™ื”ืŸ ื“ื™ื‘ืจืชื™ ืงื•ื“ื,
16:32
we can take some of these intractable disorders I mentioned earlier,
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ืฉื”ืŸ ื›ืจื’ืข ื›ืžืขื˜ ืœืœื ืจื™ืคื•ื™,
16:35
practically none of which are cured,
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ื•ืœื”ืคื•ืš ืื•ืชืŸ ืœื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ื‘ืžืื” ื”-21.
16:37
and in the 21st century, make them history.
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ืชื•ื“ื” ืจื‘ื”.
16:39
Thank you.
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16:40
(Applause)
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
16:53
Juan Enriquez: So some of this stuff is a little dense.
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ื—ื•ืืŸ ืื ืจื™ืงื–: ืื– ื–ื” ื—ื•ืžืจ ืœื ืงืœ.
16:56
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
ืื‘ืœ ื”ื”ืฉืœื›ื•ืช
16:59
But the implications of being able to control seizures or epilepsy
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ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืœืฉืœื•ื˜ ื‘ื”ืชืงืคื™ื ืื• ื‘ืืคื™ืœืคืกื™ื”
17:03
with light instead of drugs
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ืขื ืื•ืจ ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช,
17:05
and being able to target those specifically
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ื•ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืœืคื’ื•ืข ื‘ื”ืŸ ื ืงื•ื“ืชื™ืช,
17:08
is a first step.
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ื–ื” ื”ืฆืขื“ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ.
17:10
The second thing that I think I heard you say
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ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ืฉื ื™ ืฉืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉืฉืžืขืชื™ ืžืžืš
17:12
is you can now control the brain in two colors,
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ื”ื•ื ืฉืืชื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ื›ืจื’ืข ืœืฉืœื•ื˜ ื‘ืžื•ื— ื‘ืฉื ื™ ืฆื‘ืขื™ื.
ื›ืžื• ืžืชื’ ื”ืคืขืœ/ื›ื‘ื”.
17:17
like an on-off switch.
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ืื“ ื‘ื•ื™ื“ืŸ: ื–ื” ื ื›ื•ืŸ.
17:18
Ed Boyden: That's right.
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ืื ืจื™ืงื–: ื•ื–ื” ื”ื•ืคืš ื›ืœ ืคืขื™ืžื” ื—ืฉืžืœื™ืช ื‘ืžื•ื— ืœืงื•ื“ ื‘ื™ื ืืจื™.
17:20
JE: Which makes every impulse going through the brain a binary code.
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ื‘ื•ื™ื“ืŸ: ื ื›ื•ืŸ.
17:23
EB: Right.
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17:24
With blue light, we can drive information, and it's in the form of a one.
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ืื– ืขื ืื•ืจ ื›ื—ื•ืœ ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืขื‘ื™ืจ ืžื™ื“ืข, ื•ื”ื•ื ืžืกื•ื’ 1.
ื•ืข"ื™ ื›ื™ื‘ื•ื™, ื–ื” ื‘ืขืจืš 0.
17:28
And by turning things off, it's more or less a zero.
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ืื– ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืงื•ื•ื™ื ื‘ื”ืžืฉืš ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืžืขื‘ื“ื™ื ืžื•ื—ื™ื™ื
17:30
Our hope is to eventually build brain coprocessors that work with the brain
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ืฉื™ืขื‘ื“ื• ื™ื—ื“ ืขื ื”ืžื•ื—,
ื›ืš ืฉื ื™ืชืŸ ื™ื”ื™ื” ืœืฉื ื•ืช ืชืคืงื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ืื ืฉื™ื ืขื ื”ืคืจืขื•ืช.
17:34
so we can augment functions in people with disabilities.
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17:36
JE: And in theory, that means that, as a mouse feels, smells, hears, touches,
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ืื ืจื™ืงื–: ื•ื‘ืชื™ืื•ืจื™ื”, ื–ื” ืื•ืžืจ
ืฉื›ืฉื”ืขื›ื‘ืจ ื—ืฉ, ืžืจื™ื—,
ืฉื•ืžืข, ื ื•ื’ืข,
17:42
you can model it out as a string of ones and zeros.
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ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืžื“ืœ ืืช ื–ื” ื›ืจืฆืฃ ืฉืœ 1 ื• 0.
17:45
EB: Yeah. We're hoping to use this as a way of testing
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ื‘ื•ื™ื“ืŸ: ื‘ื˜ื—, ื›ืŸ. ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืงื•ื•ื™ื ืœื ืฆืœ ืืช ื–ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื‘ื“ื•ืง
ืื™ืœื• ืงื•ื“ื™ื ืขืฆื‘ื™ื™ื ืžื ื™ืขื™ื ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ื™ื•ืช ืžืกื•ื™ืžื•ืช,
17:48
what neural codes can drive certain behaviors
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ืžื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช ืžืกื•ื™ืžื•ืช, ืจื’ืฉื•ืช ืžืกื•ื™ืžื™ื,
17:50
and certain thoughts and certain feelings
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ื•ื›ืš ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืืช ื”ืžื•ื—.
17:52
and use that to understand more about the brain.
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17:54
JE: Does that mean that someday you could download memories
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ืื ืจื™ืงื–: ื”ืื ื–ื” ืื•ืžืจ ืฉื‘ื™ื•ื ืžืŸ ื”ื™ืžื™ื ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœื”ื•ืจื™ื“ ื–ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืช
17:57
and maybe upload them?
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ื•ืื•ืœื™ ืœื”ืขืœื•ืช ืื•ืชื?
17:59
EB: That's something we're starting to work on very hard.
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ื‘ื•ื™ื“ืŸ: ื”ืชื—ืœื ื• ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ ืขืœ ื–ื” ืžืื•ื“ ื‘ืจืฆื™ื ื•ืช.
ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืขืœ ืžื—ืงืจ
18:02
We're now working on trying to tile the brain with recording elements, too,
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ื‘ื• ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื ืกื™ื ืœืจืฆืฃ ืืช ื”ืžื•ื— ืขื ืžื ื’ื ื•ื ื™ ื”ืงืœื˜ื”.
18:05
so we can record information and then drive information back in --
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ื›ืš ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืงืœื™ื˜ ืžื™ื“ืข ื•ืœื”ื–ื™ืŸ ืžื™ื“ืข ื—ื–ืจื”
18:08
sort of computing what the brain needs
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ื•ื‘ืขืฆื ืœื—ืฉื‘ ืžื” ื”ืžื•ื— ืฆืจื™ืš
18:10
in order to augment its information processing.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืฉื ื•ืช ืืช ื”ื“ืจืš ื‘ื” ื”ื•ื ืžืขื‘ื“ ืžื™ื“ืข.
18:12
JE: Well, that might change a couple things. Thank you.
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ืื ืจื™ืงื–: ื˜ื•ื‘, ื–ื” ืื•ืœื™ ื™ืฉื ื” ื›ืžื” ื“ื‘ืจื™ื. ืชื•ื“ื”. (ื‘ื•ื™ื“ืŸ: ืชื•ื“ื”)
18:15
EB: Thank you.
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
18:16
(Applause)
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ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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