Steven Pinker: What our language habits reveal

443,437 views ใƒป 2007-09-11

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืžืชืจื’ื: Eyal Ronel ืžื‘ืงืจ: Sigal Tifferet
00:26
This is a picture of Maurice Druon,
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ื–ืืช ืชืžื•ื ื” ืฉืœ ืžื•ืจื™ืก ื“ืจื•ืื•ืŸ -
00:28
the Honorary Perpetual Secretary of L'Academie francaise,
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ื”ืžื–ื›ื™ืจ ื”ืื’ื“ื™ ื”ืžื›ื•ื‘ื“ ืฉืœ
00:32
the French Academy.
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ื”ืืงื“ืžื™ื” ื”ืฆืจืคืชื™ืช.
00:34
He is splendidly attired in his 68,000-dollar uniform,
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ื”ื•ื ืœื‘ื•ืฉ ื‘ื”ื™ื“ื•ืจ ื‘ื—ืœื™ืคื” ืฉืœ 68 ืืœืฃ ื“ื•ืœืจ
00:39
befitting the role of the French Academy
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ื›ื™ืื” ืœืžืขืžื“ื• ื‘ืืงื“ืžื™ื” ื”ืฆืจืคืชื™ืช
00:42
as legislating the
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ืฉืงื•ื‘ืขืช ืืช ืชื• ื”ืชืงืŸ ืขื‘ื•ืจ
00:45
correct usage in French
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ื”ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื”ืชืงื™ืŸ ื‘ืฆืจืคืชื™ืช
00:47
and perpetuating the language.
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ื•ืฉื™ืžื•ืจ ื”ืฉืคื”.
00:49
The French Academy has two main tasks:
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ืœืืงื“ืžื™ื” ื”ืฆืจืคืชื™ืช ืฉื ื™ ืชืคืงื™ื“ื™ื ืขื™ืงืจื™ื™ื:
00:52
it compiles a dictionary of official French.
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ืœื”ืจื›ื™ื‘ ืžื™ืœื•ืŸ ืœืฆืจืคืชื™ืช ื”ืจืฉืžื™ืช -
00:55
They're now working on their ninth edition,
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ื”ื ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ื›ืจื’ืข ืขืœ ื”ื’ืจืกื” ื”ืชืฉื™ืขื™ืช
00:58
which they began in 1930, and they've reached the letter P.
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ืฉื”ืชื—ื™ืœื• ื‘ืฉื ืช 1930 ื•ื”ื’ื™ืขื• ืœืื•ืช P.
01:02
They also legislate on correct usage,
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ื”ื ื’ื ืงื•ื‘ืขื™ื ื—ื•ืงื™ื ืœืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ืชืงื™ืŸ ื‘ืฉืคื”,
01:05
such as the proper term for what the French call "email,"
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ื›ืžื• ื”ืžื•ื ื— ื”ื™ืื•ืช ืœืžื™ืœื” ืื™-ืžื™ื™ืœ ื‘ืฆืจืคืชื™ืช,
01:09
which ought to be "courriel."
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ืฉืฆืจื™ื›ื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืงื•ืจื™ื™ืœ.
01:11
The World Wide Web, the French are told,
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ื ืืžืจ ืœืฆืจืคืชื™ื ืฉื”ื•ื•ืจืœื“ ื•ื™ื™ื“ ื•ื‘
01:13
ought to be referred to as
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ื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ื•ืชื• ื‘ืฉื
01:15
"la toile d'araignee mondiale" -- the Global Spider Web --
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"ืœื” ื˜ื•ืืœ ื“'ืจืื ื™ื™ื” ืžื•ื ื“ื™ืืœ" โ€“ ืจืฉืช ื”ืขื›ื‘ื™ืฉ ื”ื’ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ืช -
01:19
recommendations that the French gaily ignore.
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ื”ืžืœืฆื•ืช ืฉื”ืฆืจืคืชื™ื ืžืชืขืœืžื™ื ืžื”ืŸ ื‘ืฉืžื—ื”.
01:24
Now, this is one model of how language comes to be:
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ื–ื”ื• ืื—ื“ ื”ืžื•ื“ืœื™ื ืœื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืฉืคื”,
01:28
namely, it's legislated by an academy.
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ื›ืœื•ืžืจ, ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืชืงื™ื ื” ืืงื“ืžื™ืช.
01:31
But anyone who looks at language realizes
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืœ ืžื™ ืฉืžื‘ื™ื˜ ื‘ืฉืคื” ืžื‘ื™ืŸ
01:34
that this is a rather silly conceit,
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ืฉื–ื•ื”ื™ ื™ื•ืžืจื ื•ืช ืžื’ื•ื—ื›ืช ืœืžื“ื™,
01:38
that language, rather, emerges from human minds interacting from one another.
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ื•ืฉืฉืคื” ืฆื•ืžื—ืช ืžืžื•ื—ื•ืช ืื ื•ืฉื™ื™ื ืฉืžื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ื.
01:41
And this is visible in the unstoppable change in language --
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ื•ื–ื” ื‘ื•ืœื˜ ื‘ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื”ื‘ืœืชื™ ืคื•ืกืงื™ื ืฉื™ืฉ ื‘ืฉืคื”;
01:45
the fact that by the time the Academy finishes their dictionary,
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ื‘ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ืฉื›ืืฉืจ ื”ืืงื“ืžื™ื” ืชืกื™ื™ื ืืช ื”ืžื™ืœื•ืŸ ืฉืœื”,
01:48
it will already be well out of date.
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ื”ื•ื ื›ื‘ืจ ื™ื”ื™ื” ืžื™ื•ืฉืŸ.
01:50
We see it in the
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ื–ืืช
01:52
constant appearance of slang and jargon,
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ื‘ื”ื•ืคืขื” ื”ืžืชืžื“ืช ืฉืœ ืžื™ืœื•ืช ืกืœื ื’ ื•ื–'ืจื’ื•ืŸ,
01:56
of the historical change in languages,
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ื‘ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ ืฉืขื‘ืจื• ื”ืฉืคื•ืช,
01:58
in divergence of dialects
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ื‘ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ืฉื‘ื™ืŸ ื ื™ื‘ื™ื
02:00
and the formation of new languages.
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ื•ื‘ื”ื™ื•ื•ืฆืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ืฉืคื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช.
02:03
So language is not so much a creator or shaper of human nature,
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ืœื›ืŸ ืฉืคื” ืœื ืžืžืฉ ื™ื•ืฆืจืช ืื• ืžืขืฆื‘ืช ื˜ื‘ืข ืื ื•ืฉื™
02:06
so much as a window onto human nature.
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ืืœื ื”ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื›ืžื• ื—ืœื•ืŸ ืืœ ื”ื˜ื‘ืข ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™.
02:09
In a book that I'm currently working on,
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ื‘ืกืคืจ ืฉืื ื™ ื›ื•ืชื‘ ื›ืจื’ืข,
02:12
I hope to use language to shed light on
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ืื ื™ ืžืงื•ื•ื” ื“ืจืš ื”ืฉืคื” ืœืฉืคื•ืš ืื•ืจ
02:15
a number of aspects of human nature,
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ืขืœ ื›ืžื” ืคื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื˜ื‘ืข ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™,
02:17
including the cognitive machinery
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ื•ื‘ื›ืœืœ ื–ื” ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื” ื”ืงื•ื’ื ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ืช
02:19
with which humans conceptualize the world
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ืฉืื™ืชื” ื‘ื ื™ ืื ื•ืฉ ืชื•ืคืกื™ื ืืช ื”ืขื•ืœื,
02:22
and the relationship types that govern human interaction.
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ื•ืกื•ื’ื™ ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ื”ื™ื—ืกื™ื ืฉืฉื•ืœื˜ื™ื ื‘ื”ื™ื“ื‘ืจื•ืช ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช.
02:25
And I'm going to say a few words about each one this morning.
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ื•ืื ื™ ืžืชื›ื ืŸ ืœื”ื’ื™ื“ ื›ืžื” ืžื™ืœื™ื ืขืœ ื›ืœ ืื—ืช ืžื”ืŸ ื”ื‘ื•ืงืจ.
02:28
Let me start off with a technical problem in language
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ื‘ื•ืื• ื ืชื—ื™ืœ ื‘ื‘ืขื™ื” ื˜ื›ื ื™ืช ื‘ืฉืคื”
02:30
that I've worried about for quite some time --
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ืฉืžื˜ืจื™ื“ื” ืื•ืชื™ ืžื–ื” ื–ืžืŸ ืžื” -
02:32
and indulge me
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ื•ืื ื™ ืžืงื•ื•ื” ืฉืชื—ืœืงื• ืื™ืชื™ ืืช ื”ืชืฉื•ืงื”
02:36
in my passion for verbs and how they're used.
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ืœืคืขืœื™ื ื•ืื•ืคืŸ ื”ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ื”ื.
02:39
The problem is, which verbs go in which constructions?
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ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ื™ื ืืœื• ืคืขืœื™ื ืžืฉืžืฉื™ื ื‘ืืœื• ืžื‘ื ื™ื?
02:42
The verb is the chassis of the sentence.
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ื”ืคื•ืขืœ ื”ื•ื ื”ืฉื™ืœื“ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžืฉืคื˜.
02:45
It's the framework onto which the other parts are bolted.
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ื”ื™ื ื”ืชื•ืฉื‘ืช ืฉืขืœื™ื” ืžืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ื ื—ืœืงื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื.
02:49
Let me give you a quick reminder
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ื”ืจืฉื• ืœื™ ืœื”ื–ื›ื™ืจ ืœื›ื ื‘ืงืฆืจื”
02:51
of something that you've long forgotten.
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ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉืžื–ืžืŸ ืฉื›ื—ืชื:
02:53
An intransitive verb, such as "dine," for example,
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ืคื•ืขืœ ืขื•ืžื“, ื›ืžื• "ืœืกืขื•ื“",
02:56
can't take a direct object.
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ืœื ืžืงื‘ืœ ืžื•ืฉื ื™ืฉื™ืจ.
02:58
You have to say, "Sam dined," not, "Sam dined the pizza."
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ืื•ืžืจื™ื "ืกื ืกืขื“", ืื‘ืœ ืœื "ืกื ืกืขื“ ืืช ื”ืคื™ืฆื”".
03:01
A transitive verb mandates
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ื•ืื™ืœื• ืœืคื•ืขืœ ื™ื•ืฆื
03:03
that there has to be an object there:
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ื—ื™ื™ื‘ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ืฉื:
03:05
"Sam devoured the pizza." You can't just say, "Sam devoured."
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"ืกื ื˜ืจืฃ ืืช ื”ืคื™ืฆื”." ืื™ ืืคืฉืจ ืœื•ืžืจ ืกืชื "ืกื ื˜ืจืฃ."
03:08
There are dozens or scores of verbs of this type,
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ื™ืฉ ืขืฉืจื•ืช ื•ืžืื•ืช ืฉืœ ืคืขืœื™ื ื›ืืœื”,
03:12
each of which shapes its sentence.
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ื•ื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ืžืขืฆื‘ ืกื•ื’ ืžืฉืคื˜.
03:14
So, a problem in explaining how children learn language,
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ืœื›ืŸ ื‘ืขื™ื” ื‘ืœื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืื™ืš ื™ืœื“ื™ื ืœื•ืžื“ื™ื ืฉืคื”,
03:18
a problem in teaching language to adults so that they don't make grammatical errors,
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ื•ื‘ืขื™ื” ื‘ืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืžื‘ื•ื’ืจื™ื ืฉืคื” ื ื˜ื•ืœืช ืฉื’ื™ืื•ืช ื‘ื“ืงื“ื•ืง
03:23
and a problem in programming computers to use language is
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ื•ื‘ืขื™ื” ื‘ืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืžื—ืฉื‘ื™ื ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืฉืคื” ื”ื™ื
03:26
which verbs go in which constructions.
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ืืœื• ืคืขืœื™ื ืžืฉืžืฉื™ื ื‘ืืœื• ืžื‘ื ื™ื.
03:29
For example, the dative construction in English.
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ืœืžืฉืœ, ืฆื•ืจืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื•ื™:
03:31
You can say, "Give a muffin to a mouse," the prepositional dative.
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ืืคืฉืจ ืœื•ืžืจ, "ืชืŸ ืขื•ื’ื™ื™ื” ืœืขื›ื‘ืจ," ื›ืฉื”ืžื•ืฉื ื”ื™ืฉื™ืจ ื‘ื”ืชื—ืœื”
03:34
Or, "Give a mouse a muffin," the double-object dative.
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ืื• "ืชืŸ ืœืขื›ื‘ืจ ืขื•ื’ื™ื™ื”," ื›ืฉื”ืžื•ืฉื ื”ืขืงื™ืฃ ื‘ื ืงื•ื“ื.
03:37
"Promise anything to her," "Promise her anything," and so on.
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"ื”ื‘ื˜ื— ืœื” ื”ื›ื•ืœ" ืื• "ื”ื‘ื˜ื— ื”ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”" ื•ื›ื•ืœื™.
03:41
Hundreds of verbs can go both ways.
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ืžืื•ืช ืคืขืœื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ ื‘ืฉื ื™ ื”ื›ื™ื•ื•ื ื™ื.
03:43
So a tempting generalization for a child,
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ื”ื›ืœืœื” ืžืคืชื” ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื™ืœื“
03:45
for an adult, for a computer
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ืื• ืžื‘ื•ื’ืจ ืื• ืžื—ืฉื‘
03:47
is that any verb that can appear in the construction,
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ื”ื™ื ืฉื›ืœ ืคื•ืขืœ ืžื”ืžื‘ื ื”
03:49
"subject-verb-thing-to-a-recipient"
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"ื ื•ืฉื ื ืฉื•ื ืžืฉื”ื• ืœืžื™ืฉื”ื•"
03:52
can also be expressed as "subject-verb-recipient-thing."
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ืืคืฉืจ ืœื‘ื˜ื ื’ื ื›"ื ื•ืฉื ื ืฉื•ื ืœืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืžืฉื”ื•"
03:55
A handy thing to have,
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ืžืื•ื“ ื ื•ื— ืฉื–ื” ืงื™ื™ื,
03:57
because language is infinite,
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ื›ื™ ื”ืฉืคื” ื”ื™ื ืื™ื ืกื•ืคื™ืช
03:59
and you can't just parrot back the sentences that you've heard.
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ื•ืื™ ืืคืฉืจ ืจืง ืœื“ืงืœื ื›ืžื• ืชื•ื›ื™ ืžืฉืคื˜ื™ื ืฉืฉืžืขืช.
04:02
You've got to extract generalizations
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ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื—ืœืฅ ื”ื›ืœืœื•ืช
04:04
so you can produce and understand new sentences.
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ืฉืื™ืชืŸ ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืคื™ืง ื•ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžืฉืคื˜ื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื.
04:07
This would be an example of how to do that.
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ื•ื–ืืช ื“ื•ื’ืžื” ืื—ืช ืœื›ืš.
04:09
Unfortunately, there appear to be idiosyncratic exceptions.
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ืœืฆืขืจื ื•, ื™ืฉ ื—ืจื™ื’ื™ื ืฉื™ื•ืฆืื™ื ืžืŸ ื”ื›ืœืœ.
04:12
You can say, "Biff drove the car to Chicago,"
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ืืคืฉืจ ืœื•ืžืจ, "ื‘ื™ืฃ ืขืฉื” ืืช ื“ืจื›ื• ืœืฉื™ืงื’ื•"
04:15
but not, "Biff drove Chicago the car."
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ืื‘ืœ ืœื "ื‘ื™ืฃ ืขืฉื” ืœืฉื™ืงื’ื• ืืช ื”ื“ืจืš."
04:18
You can say, "Sal gave Jason a headache,"
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ืืคืฉืจ ืœื•ืžืจ "ืกืืœ ื”ืขื‘ื™ืจื” ืืช ื’'ื™ื™ืกื•ืŸ ืขืœ ื“ืขืชื•",
04:21
but it's a bit odd to say, "Sal gave a headache to Jason."
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ืื‘ืœ ืงืฆืช ืžื•ื–ืจ ืœื•ืžืจ "ืกืืœ ื”ืขื‘ื™ืจื” ืืช ื”ื“ืขืช ืœื’'ื™ื™ืกื•ืŸ".
04:24
The solution is that these constructions, despite initial appearance,
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ื”ืชื•ืฆืื” ื”ื™ื ืฉื”ืžื‘ื ื™ื ื”ืืœื”, ืœืžืจื•ืช ื”ืจื•ืฉื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™,
04:27
are not synonymous,
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ืื™ื ื ื ืจื“ืคื™ื.
04:29
that when you crank up the microscope
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ื›ืฉืžื›ื•ื•ื ื™ื ืืช ื”ืžื™ืงืจื•ืกืงื•ืค
04:31
on human cognition, you see that there's a subtle difference
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ืœื”ื‘ื ื” ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช, ืจื•ืื™ื ืฉื™ืฉ
04:33
in meaning between them.
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ืฉื•ื ื™ ืงืœ ื‘ืžืฉืžืขื•ืช.
04:35
So, "give the X to the Y,"
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ืื– "ืชืŸ ืืช ื”ื' ืœื‘'" -
04:37
that construction corresponds to the thought
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ื”ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ื–ื” ืžืชืื™ื ืœืžื—ืฉื‘ื”:
04:40
"cause X to go to Y." Whereas "give the Y the X"
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"ื’ืจื•ื ืœื' ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืืœ ื‘'", ื•ืื™ืœื• "ืชืŸ ืœื‘' ื'"
04:43
corresponds to the thought "cause Y to have X."
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ืžืชืื™ื ืœืžื—ืฉื‘ื” "ื’ืจื•ื ืœื‘' ืฉื™ื”ื™ื” ื'".
04:47
Now, many events can be subject to either construal,
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ื‘ืžืงืจื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ืฉืชื™ ื”ืคืจืฉื ื•ื™ื•ืช ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœื”ืชืื™ื
04:51
kind of like the classic figure-ground reversal illusions,
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ื›ืžื• ื‘ืืฉืœื™ื” ื”ืื•ืคื˜ื™ืช ื”ืงืœืืกื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืคื•ืš ื”ื“ืžื•ืช ื•ื”ืจืงืข,
04:54
in which you can either pay attention
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ืฉื‘ื” ืืคืฉืจ ืื• ืœืฉื™ื ืœื‘
04:57
to the particular object,
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ืœืขืฆื ืžืกื•ื™ื,
04:59
in which case the space around it recedes from attention,
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ื•ืื– ื”ืจืงืข ืฉืžืกื‘ื™ื‘ื• ื ืกื•ื’ ืžืชืฉื•ืžืช ื”ืœื‘,
05:03
or you can see the faces in the empty space,
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ืื• ืฉืจื•ืื™ื ืืช ื”ืคื ื™ื ื‘ื—ืœืœ ื”ืจื™ืง,
05:05
in which case the object recedes out of consciousness.
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ื•ืื– ื”ืขืฆื ื ืกื•ื’ ืžื—ื•ืฅ ืœืชื•ื“ืขื”.
05:09
How are these construals reflected in language?
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ืื™ืš ื”ืคืจืฉื ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืœืœื• ืžืฉืชืงืคื•ืช ื‘ืฉืคื”?
05:11
Well, in both cases, the thing that is construed as being affected
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ื‘ืฉื ื™ ื”ืžืงืจื™ื, ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉื”ืคืจืฉื ื•ืช ื’ื•ืจืกืช ืฉื”ื•ื ื”ื•ืฉืคืข
05:15
is expressed as the direct object,
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ืžืชื•ืืจ ื‘ืชื•ืจ ื”ืžื•ืฉื ื”ื™ืฉื™ืจ:
05:17
the noun after the verb.
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ืฉื ื”ืขืฆื ืฉืื—ืจื™ ื”ืคื•ืขืœ.
05:19
So, when you think of the event as causing the muffin to go somewhere --
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ืื– ื›ืฉื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ืื™ืจื•ืข ื›ื’ืจื™ืžื” ืœืขื•ื’ื™ื™ื” ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœืื ืฉื”ื• -
05:23
where you're doing something to the muffin --
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ื›ืฉืขื•ืฉื™ื ืžืฉื”ื• ืœืขื•ื’ื™ื™ื” -
05:25
you say, "Give the muffin to the mouse."
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ืื•ืžืจื™ื, "ืชืŸ ืขื•ื’ื™ื™ื” ืœืขื›ื‘ืจ".
05:27
When you construe it as "cause the mouse to have something,"
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ื›ืฉืžืคืจืฉื™ื ื–ืืช ื›ืžื• "ื’ืจื•ื ืœืขื›ื‘ืจ ืฉื™ื”ื™ื” ืžืฉื”ื•",
05:30
you're doing something to the mouse,
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ืืชื ืขื•ืฉื™ื ืžืฉื”ื• ืœืขื›ื‘ืจ,
05:32
and therefore you express it as, "Give the mouse the muffin."
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ื•ืœื›ืŸ ืžื‘ื˜ืื™ื ื–ืืช ื›"ืชืŸ ืœืขื›ื‘ืจ ืขื•ื’ื™ื™ื”."
05:35
So which verbs go in which construction --
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ืื– ืืœื• ืคืขืœื™ื ืžืชืื™ืžื™ื ืœืืœื• ืžื‘ื ื™ื -
05:37
the problem with which I began --
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ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ืžืงื•ืจื™ืช ืฉื”ืชื—ืœืชื™ ืื™ืชื” -
05:39
depends on whether the verb specifies a kind of motion
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ืชืœื•ื™ื” ื”ืื ื”ืคื•ืขืœ ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ืชื ื•ืขื”
05:43
or a kind of possession change.
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ืื• ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื‘ืงื ื™ื™ืŸ.
05:45
To give something involves both causing something to go
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ืœืชืช ืžืฉื”ื• ื’ื•ืจื ื’ื ืœืžืฉื”ื• ืœื–ื•ื–
05:48
and causing someone to have.
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ื•ื’ื ืฉืœืžื™ืฉื”ื• ื™ื”ื™ื”.
05:50
To drive the car only causes something to go,
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"ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืืช ื”ื“ืจืš" ืจืง ื’ื•ืจื ืœื‘ื™ืฃ ืœื ื•ืข,
05:53
because Chicago's not the kind of thing that can possess something.
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ื›ื™ ืœืฉื™ืงืื’ื• ืื™ืŸ ื“ืจืš.
05:55
Only humans can possess things.
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ืจืง ืœืื ืฉื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื "ืœื”ื™ื•ืช" ื“ื‘ืจื™ื.
05:58
And to give someone a headache causes them to have the headache,
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ื•ื›ืฉืžืขื‘ื™ืจื™ื ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืขืœ ื“ืขืชื•, ื™ืฉ ืœื• ื“ืขืช ืžืฉื•ื‘ืฉืช,
06:00
but it's not as if you're taking the headache out of your head
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ืœื ืื•ืžืจ ืœืงื—ืช ืืช ื”ื“ืขืช ืžืืฆืœืš
06:03
and causing it to go to the other person,
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ื•ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœื” ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืืœื™ื•
06:05
and implanting it in them.
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ื•ืื– ืœืฉืชื•ืœ ืื•ืชื” ื‘ืชื•ื›ื•.
06:07
You may just be loud or obnoxious,
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ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืงื•ืœื ื™ ืื• ืžื’ืขื™ืœ,
06:09
or some other way causing them to have the headache.
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ื•ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœื• ืœื”ืชืขืจืขืจ.
06:11
So, that's
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ืื– ื–ืืช ื“ื•ื’ืžื” ืœืกื•ื’ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืื ื™ ืขื•ืฉื”
06:15
an example of the kind of thing that I do in my day job.
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ื‘ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืฉืœื™.
06:17
So why should anyone care?
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ืœืžื” ืœืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืื›ืคืช?
06:19
Well, there are a number of interesting conclusions, I think,
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ื™ืฉ ื›ืžื” ืžืกืงื ื•ืช ืžืขื ื™ื™ื ื•ืช, ืœื“ืขืชื™,
06:22
from this and many similar kinds of analyses
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ืžื”ื ื™ืชื•ื— ื”ื–ื” ื•ืžืจื‘ื™ื ืฉื›ืžื•ืชื•
06:26
of hundreds of English verbs.
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ื‘ืžืื•ืช ืคืขืœื™ื ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช.
06:28
First, there's a level of fine-grained conceptual structure,
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ืจืืฉื™ืช, ื™ืฉ ืจืžื” ืฉืœ ืžื‘ื ื” ืชืคื™ืกืชื™ ืžืขื•ื“ืŸ,
06:31
which we automatically and unconsciously compute
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ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžื—ืฉื‘ื™ื ืื•ื˜ื•ืžื˜ื™ืช ืžื‘ืœื™ ื”ื›ืจื”
06:34
every time we produce or utter a sentence, that governs our use of language.
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ื‘ื›ืœ ืžืฉืคื˜ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืคื•ืœื˜ื™ื, ืืฉืจ ืฉื•ืœื˜ ื‘ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ืฉืœื ื• ื‘ืฉืคื”.
06:38
You can think of this as the language of thought, or "mentalese."
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ืืคืฉืจ ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ื–ื” ื›ืขืœ ื”ืฉืคื” ืฉืœ ื”ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื”, ืื• "ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื™ืช".
06:42
It seems to be based on a fixed set of concepts,
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ื”ื™ื ื›ื ืจืื” ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ืช ืžืงื‘ื•ืฆื” ืงื‘ื•ืขื” ืฉืœ ืชืคื™ืกื•ืช
06:45
which govern dozens of constructions and thousands of verbs --
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ืฉืคื•ืจืฉืช ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืžื‘ื ื™ื ื•ืืœืคื™ ืคืขืœื™ื -
06:48
not only in English, but in all other languages --
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ืœื ืจืง ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืืœื ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืฉืคื•ืช -
06:51
fundamental concepts such as space,
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ืชืคื™ืกื•ืช ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ื•ืช ื›ืžื• ืžืงื•ื,
06:53
time, causation and human intention,
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ื–ืžืŸ, ืกื™ื‘ื” ื•ืชื›ืœื™ืช ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช -
06:56
such as, what is the means and what is the ends?
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ื›ืžื•, ืžื” ื”ืืžืฆืขื™ ื•ืžื” ื”ืžื˜ืจื”?
06:59
These are reminiscent of the kinds of categories
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ื–ื” ืžื–ื›ื™ืจ ืืช ืกื•ื’ื™ ื”ืงื˜ื’ื•ืจื™ื•ืช
07:01
that Immanuel Kant argued
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ืฉืœื˜ืขื ืช ืขืžื ื•ืืœ ืงืื ื˜
07:03
are the basic framework for human thought,
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ื”ืŸ ื”ืžืืจื’ ื”ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืžื—ืฉื‘ื” ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช,
07:06
and it's interesting that our unconscious use of language
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ื•ืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื”ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื”ื‘ืœืชื™ ืžื•ื“ืข ืฉืœื ื• ื‘ืฉืคื”
07:09
seems to reflect these Kantian categories.
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ื“ื•ืžื” ืฉืžืฉืงืฃ ืืช ื”ืงื˜ื’ื•ืจื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืงืื ื˜ -
07:12
Doesn't care about perceptual qualities,
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ืœื ืžืชื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืื™ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ื—ื•ืฉื™ื•ืช,
07:14
such as color, texture, weight and speed,
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ื›ืžื• ืฆื‘ืข, ืžืจืงื, ืžืฉืงืœ ื•ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช,
07:16
which virtually never differentiate
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ืฉืœืขื•ืœื ืœื ืžืฉื ื•ืช
07:18
the use of verbs in different constructions.
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ืืช ื”ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืคืขืœื™ื ื‘ืžื‘ื ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื.
07:21
An additional twist is that all of the constructions in English
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ืชืคื ื™ืช ื ื•ืกืคืช ื”ื™ื ืฉื›ืœ ื”ืžื‘ื ื™ื ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช
07:24
are used not only literally,
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ืžืฉืžืฉื™ื ืœื ืจืง ื›ืคืฉื•ื˜ื
07:26
but in a quasi-metaphorical way.
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ืืœื ื’ื ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื—ืฆื™-ืžื˜ืืคื•ืจื™.
07:29
For example, this construction, the dative,
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ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”, ื”ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ื–ื” ืฉืœ ืฆื™ื•ื•ื™
07:31
is used not only to transfer things,
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ืžืฉืžืฉ ืœื ืจืง ืœื”ืขื‘ื™ืจ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื
07:33
but also for the metaphorical transfer of ideas,
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ืืœื ื’ื ืœื”ืขื‘ืจื” ืžื˜ืืคื•ืจื™ืช ืฉืœ ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช,
07:36
as when we say, "She told a story to me"
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ื›ืžื• ื›ืฉืื•ืžืจื™ื, "ื”ื™ื ืกื™ืคืจื” ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืœื™ืœื“"
07:38
or "told me a story,"
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ืื• "ืกื™ืคืจื” ืœื™ืœื“ ืกื™ืคื•ืจ,"
07:40
"Max taught Spanish to the students" or "taught the students Spanish."
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"ืžืงืก ืœื™ืžื“ ืกืคืจื“ื™ืช ืืช ื”ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื" ืื• "ืžืงืก ืœื™ืžื“ ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ืกืคืจื“ื™ืช."
07:43
It's exactly the same construction,
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ื–ื” ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืื•ืชื• ืžื‘ื ื”,
07:45
but no muffins, no mice, nothing moving at all.
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืœื™ ืขื•ื’ื™ื•ืช ืื• ืขื›ื‘ืจื™ื. ืฉื•ื ื“ื‘ืจ ืœื ื–ื–.
07:49
It evokes the container metaphor of communication,
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ื–ื” ืžืคืขื™ืœ ืืช "ืžื˜ืืคื•ืจืช ื”ืžื™ื›ืœ" ืœืชืงืฉื•ืจืช:
07:52
in which we conceive of ideas as objects,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ื‘ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืขืฆืžื™ื
07:54
sentences as containers,
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ื‘ืžืฉืคื˜ื™ื ืžื™ื›ืœื™ื
07:56
and communication as a kind of sending.
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ื•ืชืงืฉื•ืจืช ื”ื™ื ืžืขื™ืŸ ืฉืœื™ื—ื”,
07:58
As when we say we "gather" our ideas, to "put" them "into" words,
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ื›ืžื• ื›ืืฉืจ ืื ื—ื ื• "ืžื’ื‘ืฉื™ื" ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื•"ืžื‘ื™ืื™ื" ืื•ืชื ืœ"ื›ื“ื™" ืžื™ืœื™ื
08:01
and if our words aren't "empty" or "hollow,"
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ื•ืื ื”ืžื™ืœื™ื ืฉืœื ื• ืื™ื ืŸ "ืจื™ืงื•ืช" ืื• "ื—ืœื•ืœื•ืช"
08:03
we might get these ideas "across" to a listener,
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ืื•ืœื™ ื ืฆืœื™ื— "ืœื”ืขื‘ื™ืจ" ืืช ื”ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืœืžืื–ื™ืŸ
08:06
who can "unpack" our words to "extract" their "content."
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ืฉื™ื•ื›ืœ "ืœืฉืœื•ืฃ" ืืช ื”ืžื™ืœื™ื ื›ื“ื™ "ืœื—ืœืฅ" ืืช ื”"ืชื•ื›ืŸ."
08:09
And indeed, this kind of verbiage is not the exception, but the rule.
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ื”ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืื•ืฆืจ ื”ืžื™ืœื™ื ื”ื–ื” ืื™ื ื• ื”ื™ื•ืฆื ืžืŸ ื”ื›ืœืœ, ืืœื ื”ื›ืœืœ.
08:12
It's very hard to find any example of abstract language
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ืงืฉื” ืžืื•ื“ ืœืžืฆื•ื ื“ื•ื’ืžื” ืœืฉืคื” ืžื•ืคืฉื˜ืช
08:15
that is not based on some concrete metaphor.
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ืฉืœื ื ืกืžื›ืช ืขืœ ืžื˜ืืคื•ืจื” ืžื•ื—ืฉื™ืช.
08:18
For example, you can use the verb "go"
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ืœืžืฉืœ, ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืคื•ืขืœ "ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ"
08:21
and the prepositions "to" and "from"
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ื•ื‘ืžื™ืœื•ืช ื”ื™ื—ืก "ืž-" ื•"ืืœ"
08:23
in a literal, spatial sense.
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ื‘ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ืžื™ืœื•ืœื™ ืฉืœ ืžื™ืงื•ื:
08:25
"The messenger went from Paris to Istanbul."
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"ื”ืฉืœื™ื— ืขื‘ืจ ืžืคืจื™ืก ืœืื™ืกื˜ื ื‘ื•ืœ"
08:27
You can also say, "Biff went from sick to well."
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ืืคืฉืจ ื’ื ืœื•ืžืจ, "ื‘ื™ืฃ ืขื‘ืจ ืžื—ื•ืœื™ ืœื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช."
08:30
He needn't go anywhere. He could have been in bed the whole time,
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ื”ื•ื ืœื ืขื‘ืจ ืœืฉื•ื ืžืงื•ื ื•ืฉื›ื‘ ื‘ืžื™ื˜ื” ื›ืœ ื”ื–ืžืŸ,
08:33
but it's as if his health is a point in state space
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช ื›ืžื• ืฉื•ื›ื ืช ื‘ื—ืœืœ
08:35
that you conceptualize as moving.
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ื•ื‘ืชืคื™ืกืชื›ื ื”ื™ื ื ืขื”.
08:37
Or, "The meeting went from three to four,"
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ืื•, "ื”ืคื’ื™ืฉื” ืขื‘ืจื” ืžืฉืœื•ืฉ ืœืืจื‘ืข,"
08:39
in which we conceive of time as stretched along a line.
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ืฉื›ืืŸ ืื ื—ื ื• ืชื•ืคืกื™ื ืืช ื”ื–ืžืŸ ื›ืžืชื•ื— ืœืื•ืจืš ืงื•.
08:42
Likewise, we use "force" to indicate
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ื‘ืื•ืชื• ืื•ืคืŸ ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ื›ื•ื— ืœืฆื™ื™ืŸ
08:45
not only physical force,
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ืœื ืจืง ื›ื•ื— ืคื™ื–ื™
08:47
as in, "Rose forced the door to open,"
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ื›ืžื• ื‘"ืจื•ื– ื“ื—ืงื” ืืช ื”ื“ืœืช ืœื”ื™ืคืชื—,"
08:49
but also interpersonal force,
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ืืœื ื’ื ื›ื›ื•ื— ื‘ื™ืŸ-ืื™ืฉื™,
08:51
as in, "Rose forced Sadie to go," not necessarily by manhandling her,
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ื›ืžื• ื‘"ืจื•ื– ื“ื—ืงื” ื‘ืกื™ื™ื“ื™ ืœืœื›ืช," ื•ืœื ื‘ื”ื›ืจื— ื’ืจืจื” ืื•ืชื” ื‘ื™ื“
08:55
but by issuing a threat.
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ืืœื ื“ืจืš ืื™ื•ื;
08:57
Or, "Rose forced herself to go,"
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ืื• "ืจื•ื– ื“ื—ืงื” ื‘ืขืฆืžื” ืœืœื›ืช,"
08:59
as if there were two entities inside Rose's head,
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ื›ืžื• ื”ื™ื• ืฉืชื™ ื™ืฉื•ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืจืืฉ ืฉืœ ืจื•ื–
09:02
engaged in a tug of a war.
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ื‘ืžืœื—ืžื” ื–ื• ืขื ื–ื•.
09:04
Second conclusion is that the ability to conceive
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ื”ืžืกืงื ื” ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื” ื”ื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืœืชืคื•ืก ืื™ืจื•ืข
09:07
of a given event in two different ways,
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ื‘ืฉืชื™ ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื•ืช, ื›ืžื•
09:10
such as "cause something to go to someone"
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"ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœืžืฉื”ื• ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืืœ ืžื™ืฉื”ื•"
09:12
and "causing someone to have something,"
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ื•"ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืฉื™ื”ื™ื” ืœื• ืžืฉื”ื•"
09:14
I think is a fundamental feature of human thought,
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ื”ื™ื ืœื“ืขืชื™ ืชื›ื•ื ื” ืžื›ื•ื ื ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื” ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช,
09:18
and it's the basis for much human argumentation,
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ื•ื”ื™ื ื”ื‘ืกื™ืก ืœื•ื•ื™ื›ื•ื—ื™ื ืื ื•ืฉื™ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื,
09:21
in which people don't differ so much on the facts
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ืฉื”ืฉื•ืชืคื™ื ื‘ื”ื ืœื ื—ืœื•ืงื™ื ื›ืœ ื›ืš ื‘ืขื•ื‘ื“ื•ืช
09:24
as on how they ought to be construed.
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ื›ืžื• ื‘ืคืจืฉื ื•ืชืŸ.
09:26
Just to give you a few examples:
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ื›ืžื” ื“ื•ื’ืžืื•ืช:
09:28
"ending a pregnancy" versus "killing a fetus;"
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"ืœืกื™ื™ื ื”ืจื™ื•ืŸ" ืœืขื•ืžืช "ืœื”ืจื•ื’ ืขื•ื‘ืจ,"
09:30
"a ball of cells" versus "an unborn child;"
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"ื›ื“ื•ืจ ืฉืœ ืชืื™ื" ืœืขื•ืžืช "ื™ืœื“ ืฉืœื ื ื•ืœื“,"
09:33
"invading Iraq" versus "liberating Iraq;"
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"ืคืœื™ืฉื” ืœืขื™ืจืืง" ืœืขื•ืžืช "ืฉื—ืจื•ืจ ืขื™ืจืืง,"
09:35
"redistributing wealth" versus "confiscating earnings."
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"ื—ืœื•ืงืช ืขื•ืฉืจ" ืœืขื•ืžืช "ื”ื—ืจืžืช ืจื›ื•ืฉ."
09:39
And I think the biggest picture of all
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ื•ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ
09:41
would take seriously the fact
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ืชื™ืงื— ื‘ื—ืฉื‘ื•ืŸ ืืช ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื”
09:44
that so much of our verbiage about abstract events
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ืฉืจื‘ื•ืช ืžื”ืžื™ืœื™ื ืฉืœื ื• ืœืชื™ืื•ืจ ืžื•ืฉื’ื™ื ืžื•ืคืฉื˜ื™ื
09:47
is based on a concrete metaphor
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ืžื‘ื•ืกืกื•ืช ืขืœ ืžื˜ืืคื•ืจื•ืช ืžื•ื—ืฉื™ื•ืช.
09:49
and see human intelligence itself
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ื”ื™ื ืชื‘ื—ื™ืŸ ืฉื›ืœ ื”ืื™ื ื˜ืœื™ื’ื ืฆื™ื” ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช
09:51
as consisting of a repertoire of concepts --
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ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ืช ืžืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืชืคื™ืกื•ืช -
09:54
such as objects, space, time, causation and intention --
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ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ืขืฆืžื™ื, ืžืงื•ื, ื–ืžืŸ, ืกื™ื‘ื” ื•ืชื›ืœื™ืช -
09:57
which are useful in a social, knowledge-intensive species,
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ืฉื”ืŸ ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉื™ื•ืช ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžื™ืŸ ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ ื•ื—ื•ื‘ืง-ื™ื“ืข,
10:01
whose evolution you can well imagine,
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ืฉืืช ื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ืชื• ืงืœ ืœื“ืžื™ื™ืŸ,
10:03
and a process of metaphorical abstraction
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ื•ืชื”ืœื™ืš ืฉืœ ื”ืคืฉื˜ื” ืžื˜ืืคื•ืจื™ืช
10:06
that allows us to bleach these concepts
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ืฉืžืืคืฉืจืช ืœื ื• ืœื”ืฉื™ืœ ืžื”ืŸ
10:08
of their original conceptual content --
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ืืช ื”ืชื•ื›ืŸ ื”ืชืคื™ืกืชื™ ื”ืžืงื•ืจื™ ืฉืœื”ืŸ -
10:11
space, time and force --
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ืžืงื•ื, ื–ืžืŸ ื•ื›ื•ื— -
10:14
and apply them to new abstract domains,
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ื•ืœื”ื—ื™ืœ ืื•ืชื ืขืœ ืชื—ื•ืžื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื ื•ืžื•ืคืฉื˜ื™ื,
10:16
therefore allowing a species that evolved
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ื•ื‘ื›ืš ืžืืคืฉืจืช ืœืžื™ืŸ ืœื”ืชืคืชื—
10:19
to deal with rocks and tools and animals,
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ืžืขื™ืกื•ืง ื‘ืกืœืขื™ื ื•ื›ืœื™ื ื•ื—ื™ื•ืช
10:21
to conceptualize mathematics, physics, law
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ืœืชืคื™ืกื” ืฉืœ ืžืชืžื˜ื™ืงื”, ืคื™ื–ื™ืงื”, ืžืฉืคื˜
10:24
and other abstract domains.
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ื•ืชื—ื•ืžื™ื ืžื•ืคืฉื˜ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื.
10:27
Well, I said I'd talk about two windows on human nature --
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ืืžืจืชื™ ืฉืื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ืฉื ื™ ื—ืœื•ื ื•ืช ืืœ ื”ื˜ื‘ืข ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™,
10:30
the cognitive machinery with which we conceptualize the world,
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ืžื›ื•ื ืช ื”ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื” ืฉืื™ืชื” ืื ื—ื ื• ืชื•ืคืกื™ื ืืช ื”ืขื•ืœื,
10:33
and now I'm going to say a few words about the relationship types
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ื•ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ืกื•ื’ื™ ื”ื™ื—ืกื™ื
10:35
that govern human social interaction,
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ืฉืฉื•ืœื˜ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื™ื“ื‘ืจื•ืช ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ืช ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช
10:37
again, as reflected in language.
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ืฉื•ื‘, ื›ืคื™ ืฉื”ื ืžืฉืชืงืคื™ื ื‘ืฉืคื”.
10:40
And I'll start out with a puzzle, the puzzle of indirect speech acts.
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ืืชื—ื™ืœ ื‘ื—ื™ื“ื”, ื”ื—ื™ื“ื” ืฉืœ ืคืขื•ืœื•ืช ื‘ื“ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ืขืงื™ืฃ.
10:44
Now, I'm sure most of you have seen the movie "Fargo."
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ื›ืžื” ืžื›ื ื•ื“ืื™ ืฆืคื• ื‘ืกืจื˜ "ืคืืจื’ื•,"
10:46
And you might remember the scene in which
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ื•ืื•ืœื™ ื–ื•ื›ืจื™ื ืืช ื”ืกืฆื ื” ืฉื‘ื”
10:48
the kidnapper is pulled over by a police officer,
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ื”ื—ื•ื˜ืฃ ื ืขืฆืจ ืขืœ-ื™ื“ื™ ืฉื•ื˜ืจ,
10:51
is asked to show his driver's license
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ื•ืžืชื‘ืงืฉ ืœื”ืฆื™ื’ ืจื™ืฉื™ื•ืŸ ื ื”ื™ื’ื”
10:53
and holds his wallet out
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืžื’ื™ืฉ ืืช ื”ืืจื ืง
10:55
with a 50-dollar bill extending
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ื›ืฉืฉื˜ืจ ืฉืœ 50 ื“ื•ืœืจ ืžื‘ืฆื‘ืฅ
10:58
at a slight angle out of the wallet.
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ื‘ื–ื•ื•ื™ืช ืžื” ืžืชื•ืš ื”ืืจื ืง.
11:00
And he says, "I was just thinking
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืื•ืžืจ, "ืจืง ื—ืฉื‘ืชื™
11:02
that maybe we could take care of it here in Fargo,"
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ืฉืื•ืœื™ ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื˜ืคืœ ื‘ื–ื” ื›ืืŸ ื‘ืคืืจื’ื•" -
11:04
which everyone, including the audience,
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ื•ื›ื•ืœื, ื›ื•ืœืœ ืงื”ืœ ื”ืฆื•ืคื™ื
11:07
interprets as a veiled bribe.
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ืžืคืจืฉ ื–ืืช ื›ื”ืฆืขืช ืฉื•ื—ื“ ืžืจื•ืžื–ืช.
11:10
This kind of indirect speech is rampant in language.
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ื”ืฆื•ืจื” ื”ื–ื• ืฉืœ ื“ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ืขืงื™ืฃ ืฉื›ื™ื—ื” ื‘ืฉืคื”.
11:14
For example, in polite requests,
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ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”, ื‘ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช ืžื ื•ืžืกื•ืช,
11:16
if someone says, "If you could pass the guacamole,
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ืื ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืื•ืžืจ, "ืื ืชื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืขื‘ื™ืจ
11:18
that would be awesome,"
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ืืช ืžืžืจื— ื”ืื‘ื•ืงื“ื•, ื–ื” ื™ื”ื™ื” ื ื”ื“ืจ,"
11:20
we know exactly what he means,
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ื‘ืจื•ืจ ืœื ื• ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืœืžื” ื”ืชื›ื•ื•ืŸ
11:22
even though that's a rather bizarre
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืžื‘ื•ื˜ื
11:24
concept being expressed.
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ื”ื•ื ื“ื™ ืžื•ื–ืจ.
11:26
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
11:29
"Would you like to come up and see my etchings?"
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"ืจื•ืฆื” ืœืขืœื•ืช ืืœื™ื™ ืœืฆืคื•ืช ื‘ืชื—ืจื™ื˜ื™ื ืฉืœื™?"
11:31
I think most people
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ืื ื™ ืžื ื™ื— ืฉืจื•ื‘ ื”ืื ืฉื™ื
11:33
understand the intent behind that.
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ืžื‘ื™ื ื™ื ืืช ื”ื›ื•ื•ื ื” ืžืื—ื•ืจื™ ื–ื”.
11:36
And likewise, if someone says,
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ื•ื‘ืื•ืชื• ืื•ืคืŸ, ื›ืฉืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืื•ืžืจ,
11:38
"Nice store you've got there. It would be a real shame if something happened to it" --
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"ื—ื ื•ืช ื ื—ืžื“ื” ื™ืฉ ืœืš. ื™ื”ื™ื” ื—ื‘ืœ ืื ืžืฉื”ื• ื™ืงืจื” ืœื”" -
11:41
(Laughter) --
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
11:42
we understand that as a veiled threat,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื‘ื™ื ื™ื ืฉื–ื” ืื™ื•ื ืžื•ืกื•ื•ื”,
11:44
rather than a musing of hypothetical possibilities.
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ื•ืœื ื”ืจื”ื•ืจ ื‘ืืคืฉืจื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ื™ืคื•ืชื˜ื™ื•ืช.
11:47
So the puzzle is, why are bribes,
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ืื– ื”ื—ื™ื“ื” ื”ื™ื, ืœืžื” ื”ืฆืขื•ืช ืฉื•ื—ื“,
11:50
polite requests, solicitations and threats so often veiled?
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ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช ืžื ื•ืžืกื•ืช, ืฉื™ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื•ืื™ื•ืžื™ื ื”ื ืชื“ื™ืจื•ืช ืžื•ืกื•ื•ื™ื?
11:53
No one's fooled.
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ื”ืŸ ืœื ืžืจืžื•ืช ืืฃ ืื—ื“ -
11:55
Both parties know exactly what the speaker means,
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ืฉื ื™ ื”ืฆื“ื“ื™ื ืžื‘ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืœืžื” ื”ื“ื•ื‘ืจ ืžืชื›ื•ื•ืŸ,
11:58
and the speaker knows the listener knows
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ื•ื”ื“ื•ื‘ืจ ื™ื•ื“ืข ืฉื”ืฉื•ืžืข ื™ื•ื“ืข
12:00
that the speaker knows that the listener knows, etc., etc.
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ืฉื”ื“ื•ื‘ืจ ื™ื•ื“ืข ืฉื”ืฉื•ืžืข ื™ื•ื“ืข ื•ื›ื•ืœื™ ื•ื›ื•ืœื™.
12:03
So what's going on?
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ืื– ืžื” ืงื•ืจื” ื›ืืŸ?
12:05
I think the key idea is that language
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ืœื“ืขืชื™ ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืžืคืชื— ื”ื•ื ืฉืฉืคื”
12:07
is a way of negotiating relationships,
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ื”ื™ื ื“ืจืš ืœืžื™ืงื•ื— ื‘ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ื™ื—ืกื™ื,
12:09
and human relationships fall into a number of types.
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ื•ืœืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ื™ื—ืกื™ื ืื ื•ืฉื™ื•ืช ื™ืฉ ื›ืžื” ืกื•ื’ื™ื.
12:12
There's an influential taxonomy by the anthropologist Alan Fiske,
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ืงื™ื™ืžืช ื˜ืงืกื•ื ื•ืžื™ื” ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื” ืฉื‘ื ื” ื”ืื ืชืจื•ืคื•ืœื•ื’ ืืœืŸ ืคื™ืกืง,
12:16
in which relationships can be categorized, more or less,
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ืฉืžืžื™ื™ื ืช ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ื™ื—ืกื™ื, ืคื—ื•ืช ืื• ื™ื•ืชืจ,
12:19
into communality, which works on the principle
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ืœื—ื‘ืจื•ืชื, ืฉืขื•ื‘ื“ืช ืขืœ ื”ืขื™ืงืจื•ืŸ ืฉืœ
12:21
"what's mine is thine, what's thine is mine,"
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"ืžื” ืฉืฉืœื™ ืฉืœืš, ืžื” ืฉืฉืœืš ืฉืœื™" -
12:24
the kind of mindset that operates within a family, for example;
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ื”ืœืš ื”ืจื•ื— ืฉืคื•ืขืœ ื‘ืžืกื’ืจืช ืžืฉืคื—ื”, ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื” -
12:28
dominance, whose principle is "don't mess with me;"
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ืื“ื ื•ืช, ืขื ื”ืขื™ืงืจื•ืŸ ืฉืœ "ืืœ ืชืชืขืกืงื• ืื™ืชื™,"
12:31
reciprocity, "you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours;"
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ื”ื“ื“ื™ื•ืช โ€“ "ื™ื“ ืจื•ื—ืฆืช ื™ื“"
12:35
and sexuality, in the immortal words of Cole Porter, "Let's do it."
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ื•ืžื™ื ื™ื•ืช, ื‘ืžื™ืœื•ืชื™ื• ื”ืืœืžื•ืชื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืงื•ืœ ืคื•ืจื˜ืจ: "ื”ื‘ื” ื ืขืฉื” ื–ืืช."
12:40
Now, relationship types can be negotiated.
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ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืชืžืงื— ื‘ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ื™ื—ืกื™ื.
12:43
Even though there are default situations
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื”ืกื™ื˜ื•ืืฆื™ื•ืช ืžื’ื“ื™ืจื•ืช ื›ื‘ืจื™ืจืช ืžื—ื“ืœ
12:46
in which one of these mindsets can be applied,
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ืืช ื”ืœืš ื”ืจื•ื— ืฉื ื•ื‘ืข ืžื”ืŸ,
12:48
they can be stretched and extended.
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ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืžืชื•ื— ื•ืœื”ืจื—ื™ื‘ ืื•ืชืŸ.
12:51
For example, communality applies most naturally
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ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื, ื—ื‘ืจื•ืชื ืชืงืคื” ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื˜ื‘ืขื™
12:54
within family or friends,
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ืœืกื‘ื™ื‘ืช ืžืฉืคื—ื” ืื• ื—ื‘ืจื™ื,
12:56
but it can be used to try to transfer
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ืื‘ืœ ืืคืฉืจ ืœื ืกื•ืช ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื”
12:58
the mentality of sharing
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ืœื”ืคื™ื— ืื—ื•ื•ื” ื•ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ
13:00
to groups that ordinarily would not be disposed to exercise it.
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ื‘ืงืจื‘ ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืฉื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืจื’ื™ืœ ืœื ื”ื™ื• ื‘ื•ื—ืจื•ืช ื‘ื›ืš -
13:04
For example, in brotherhoods, fraternal organizations,
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ืœืžืฉืœ ื‘ืื—ื•ื•ืช, ืžื•ืขื“ื•ื ื™ ื—ื‘ืจื™ื,
13:08
sororities, locutions like "the family of man,"
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ืื’ื•ื“ื•ืช, ื‘ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ื™ื ื›ืžื• "ืžืฉืคื—ืช ื”ืื“ื,"
13:11
you try to get people who are not related
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ืžื ืกื™ื ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœืื ืฉื™ื ืฉืื™ื ื ืžืงื•ืจื‘ื™ื
13:13
to use the relationship type that would ordinarily
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ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื™ื—ืกื™ื ืžืกื•ื’
13:17
be appropriate to close kin.
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ืฉื”ื•ืœื ืงืจื‘ืช ื“ื.
13:19
Now, mismatches -- when one person assumes one relationship type,
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืฉื™ืฉ ื—ื•ืกืจ ื”ืชืืžื” โ€“ ื›ืฉืื—ื“ ืžื ื™ื— ืžืขืจื›ืช ื™ื—ืกื™ื
13:22
and another assumes a different one -- can be awkward.
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ืžืกื•ื’ ืื—ื“, ื•ื”ืฉื ื™ ืžื ื™ื— ืกื•ื’ ืื—ืจ โ€“ ื–ื” ืžื‘ื™ืš.
13:25
If you went over and you helped yourself
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ืื ื ื™ื’ืฉืช ื•ื”ืชื›ื‘ื“ืช
13:27
to a shrimp off your boss' plate,
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ื‘ื—ืกื™ืœื•ืŸ ืžื”ืฆืœื—ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ื•ืก ืฉืœืš,
13:29
for example, that would be an awkward situation.
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ืœืžืฉืœ, ืžืฉืชืจืจืช ืžื‘ื•ื›ื”.
13:31
Or if a dinner guest after the meal
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ืื• ืื ืื•ืจื— ื‘ืืจื•ื—ืช ืขืจื‘
13:33
pulled out his wallet and offered to pay you for the meal,
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ืฉื•ืœืฃ ืืจื ืง ื‘ืชื•ื ื”ืืจื•ื—ื” ื•ืžืฆื™ืข ืœืฉืœื ืœืš,
13:36
that would be rather awkward as well.
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ื’ื ื–ื” ื™ื”ื™ื” ื“ื™ ืžื‘ื™ืš.
13:38
In less blatant cases,
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ื‘ืžืงืจื™ื ืคื—ื•ืช ื‘ื•ื˜ื™ื,
13:41
there's still a kind of negotiation that often goes on.
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ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืžืชื ื”ืœ ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ืžื™ืงื•ื—.
13:44
In the workplace, for example,
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ื‘ืขื‘ื•ื“ื”, ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”,
13:46
there's often a tension over whether an employee
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ื™ืฉ ืœืขื™ืชื™ื ืงืจื•ื‘ื•ืช ืžืชื— ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ืฉืืœื” ืื ืขื•ื‘ื“
13:48
can socialize with the boss,
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ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืชื™ื™ื“ื“ ืขื ื”ื‘ื•ืก,
13:50
or refer to him or her
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ื”ืื ืžื•ืชืจ ืœืคื ื•ืช ืืœื™ื• ืื• ืืœื™ื”
13:52
on a first-name basis.
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ื‘ืฉืžื ื”ืคืจื˜ื™.
13:54
If two friends have a
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ืื ืฉื ื™ ื—ื‘ืจื™ื ืžืขื•ืจื‘ื™ื
13:56
reciprocal transaction, like selling a car,
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ื‘ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ื“ื“ื™ืช, ื›ืžื• ืžื›ื™ืจืช ืžื›ื•ื ื™ืช,
13:58
it's well known that this can be a source
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ื™ื“ื•ืข ืฉื–ื” ืขืœื•ืœ ืœื’ืจื•ื
14:00
of tension or awkwardness.
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ืœืžืชื— ืื• ืœืžื‘ื•ื›ื”.
14:02
In dating, the transition
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ื‘ื“ื™ื™ื˜, ื”ืžืขื‘ืจ
14:04
from friendship to sex
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ืžื™ื“ื™ื“ื•ืช ืœืกืงืก
14:06
can lead to, notoriously, various forms of awkwardness,
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ื™ื“ื•ืข ืœืฉืžืฆื” ื‘ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ืกื•ื’ื™ ื”ืžื‘ื•ื›ื” ืฉืœื•,
14:09
and as can sex in the workplace,
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ื•ื›ืš ื’ื ืกืงืก ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื”,
14:11
in which we call the conflict between a
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ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžื›ื ื™ื ืื•ืชื•, ื›ืฉื ื•ืฆืจ ืงื•ื ืคืœื™ืงื˜ ื‘ื™ืŸ
14:13
dominant and a sexual relationship "sexual harassment."
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ื™ื—ืกื™ ืื“ื ื•ืช ื•ืžื™ืŸ, ื‘ืฉื "ื”ื˜ืจื“ื” ืžื™ื ื™ืช."
14:17
Well, what does this have to do with language?
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ืื– ืžื” ืœื–ื” ื•ืœืฉืคื”?
14:19
Well, language, as a social interaction,
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืฉืคื”, ื‘ืชื•ืจ ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ืช,
14:21
has to satisfy two conditions.
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ื—ื™ื™ื‘ืช ืœืžืœื ืฉื ื™ ืชื ืื™ื:
14:23
You have to convey the actual content --
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ืขืœื™ื” ืœื‘ื˜ื ืืช ื”ืชื•ื›ืŸ ื”ืžืžืฉื™ -
14:26
here we get back to the container metaphor.
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ื›ืืŸ ื—ื•ื–ืจื™ื ืœืžื˜ืืคื•ืจืช ื”ืžื™ื›ืœ.
14:28
You want to express the bribe, the command, the promise,
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ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœื‘ื˜ื ืืช ื”ืฆืขืช ื”ืฉื•ื—ื“, ื”ืคืงื•ื“ื”, ื”ื”ื‘ื˜ื—ื”,
14:31
the solicitation and so on,
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ื”ืฉื™ื“ื•ืœ ื•ื›ื™ื•ืฆื ื‘ืืœื” โ€“
14:33
but you also have to negotiate
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ืื‘ืœ ื’ื ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœื”ืชืžืงื—
14:35
and maintain the kind of relationship
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ื•ืœืฉืžื•ืจ ืขืœ ืกื•ื’ ื”ื™ื—ืกื™ื
14:37
you have with the other person.
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ืฉื”ื™ื• ืœื ื• ืขื ื”ืื“ื ื”ืฉื ื™.
14:39
The solution, I think, is that we use language at two levels:
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ื”ืคืชืจื•ืŸ ื”ื•ื, ืœื“ืขืชื™, ื”ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ืฉืœื ื• ื‘ืฉืคื” ื‘ืฉืชื™ ืจืžื•ืช:
14:42
the literal form signals
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ื”ืฆื•ืจื” ื”ืžื™ืœื•ืœื™ืช ืžืกืžื ืช
14:44
the safest relationship with the listener,
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ืืช ืกื•ื’ ื”ื™ื—ืกื™ื ื”ื‘ื˜ื•ื— ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขื ื”ืžืื–ื™ืŸ,
14:46
whereas the implicated content --
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ื•ืื™ืœื• ื”ืชื•ื›ืŸ ื”ืžืฉืชืžืข -
14:49
the reading between the lines that we count on the listener to perform --
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ื”ืงืจื™ืื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืฉื•ืจื•ืช ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืกื•ืžื›ื™ื ืฉื”ืžืื–ื™ืŸ ื™ื‘ืฆืข โ€“
14:52
allows the listener to derive the interpretation
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ืžืืคืฉืจืช ืœืžืื–ื™ืŸ ืœื’ื–ื•ืจ ืืช ื”ืžืฉืžืขื•ืช
14:54
which is most relevant in context,
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ื”ืงื‘ื™ืœื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ื”ืงืฉืจื”,
14:56
which possibly initiates a changed relationship.
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ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื‘ืกื•ื’ ื”ื™ื—ืกื™ื.
14:59
The simplest example of this is in the polite request.
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ื”ื“ื•ื’ืžื” ื”ืคืฉื•ื˜ื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื”ื™ื ืฉืœ ื‘ืงืฉื” ืžื ื•ืžืกืช.
15:03
If you express your request as a conditional --
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ืื ืชื‘ื˜ืื• ืืช ื”ื‘ืงืฉื” ื‘ืชื•ืจ ืชื ืื™:
15:06
"if you could open the window, that would be great" --
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"ืื ืชื•ื›ืœ ืœืคืชื•ื— ืืช ื”ื—ืœื•ืŸ, ื–ื” ื™ื”ื™ื” ื ืคืœื."
15:09
even though the content is an imperative,
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื”ืชื•ื›ืŸ ื”ื•ื ืฆื™ื•ื•ื™,
15:11
the fact that you're not using the imperative voice
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ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ืฉืืชื ืœื ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ืžืฉืคื˜ ืฆื™ื•ื•ื™
15:14
means that you're not acting as if you're in a relationship of dominance,
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ืื•ืžืจืช ืฉืืชื ืœื ืžืชื ื”ื’ื™ื ื›ืžื• ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื™ื—ืกื™ื ืื“ื ื•ืชื™ืช
15:18
where you could presuppose the compliance of the other person.
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ืฉื‘ื” ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœื”ื ื™ื— ืžืจืืฉ ืืช ื”ื”ืขื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืื“ื ื”ืฉื ื™.
15:21
On the other hand, you want the damn guacamole.
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ืžืฆื“ ืฉื ื™, ืืชื ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืืช ืžืžืจื— ื”ืื‘ื•ืงื“ื• ื”ืืจื•ืจ.
15:23
By expressing it as an if-then statement,
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ื›ืฉืืชื ืžืฆื™ื’ื™ื ื–ืืช ื›ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ "ืื-ืื–"
15:26
you can get the message across
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ืืชื ืžืขื‘ื™ืจื™ื ืืช ื”ืžืกืจ
15:28
without appearing to boss another person around.
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ืžื‘ืœื™ ืœื ื‘ื•ื— ืคืงื•ื“ื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ืื“ื ื”ืฉื ื™.
15:32
And in a more subtle way, I think, this works
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ื•ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžืขื•ื“ืŸ ื™ื•ืชืจ ื–ื” ื ื›ื•ืŸ, ืœื“ืขืชื™,
15:34
for all of the veiled speech acts
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ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื›ืœ ื”ืคืขื•ืœื•ืช ืฉื ืืžืจื•ืช ื‘ืžืกื•ื•ื”
15:36
involving plausible deniability:
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ื•ื›ื•ืœืœื•ืช ืกื™ืจื•ื‘ ืืคืฉืจื™:
15:38
the bribes, threats, propositions,
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ืฉื•ื—ื“, ืื™ื•ืžื™ื, ื”ืฆืขื•ืช,
15:40
solicitations and so on.
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ืฉื™ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื•ื›ื™ื•ืฆื ื‘ืืœื”.
15:42
One way of thinking about it is to imagine what it would be like
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ื“ืจืš ืื—ืช ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ื›ืš ื”ื™ื ืœื“ืžื™ื™ืŸ
15:44
if language -- where it could only be used literally.
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ืžื” ื”ื™ื” ืงื•ืจื” ืื™ืœื• ืœืฉืคื” ื”ื™ืชื” ืจืง ืžืฉืžืขื•ืช ืžื™ืœื•ืœื™ืช.
15:47
And you can think of it in terms of a
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ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ื›ืš ื‘ืžื•ืฉื’ื™ื ืฉืœ
15:49
game-theoretic payoff matrix.
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ื˜ื‘ืœืช ืจื•ื•ื— ื•ื”ืคืกื“ ืžืชื•ืจืช ื”ืžืฉื—ืงื™ื.
15:52
Put yourself in the position of the
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ืฉื™ืžื• ืขืฆืžื›ื ื‘ื ืขืœื™ื•
15:54
kidnapper wanting to bribe the officer.
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ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื•ื˜ืฃ ืฉืจื•ืฆื” ืœืฉื—ื“ ืืช ื”ืฉื•ื˜ืจ.
15:57
There's a high stakes
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ื™ืฉ ืกื™ื›ื•ืŸ ื’ื‘ื•ื”
15:59
in the two possibilities
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ื‘ืฉืชื™ ื”ืืคืฉืจื•ื™ื•ืช,
16:02
of having a dishonest officer or an honest officer.
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ืฉื”ืฉื•ื˜ืจ ืžื•ืฉื—ืช ืื• ืฉื”ื•ื ื™ืฉืจ.
16:05
If you don't bribe the officer,
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ืื ืœื ืชืฉื—ื“ื• ืืช ื”ืฉื•ื˜ืจ
16:08
then you will get a traffic ticket --
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ืชืงื‘ืœื• ื“ื•ื— ืชื ื•ืขื”
16:10
or, as is the case of "Fargo," worse --
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ืื• ื’ืจื•ืข ืžื›ืš, ื‘ืžืงืจื” ืฉืœ "ืคืืจื’ื•" -
16:12
whether the honest officer
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ืื ื”ืฉื•ื˜ืจ ื™ืฉืจ
16:14
is honest or dishonest.
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ืื• ืฉื”ื•ื ืžื•ืฉื—ืช,
16:16
Nothing ventured, nothing gained.
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ืื™ืŸ ื”ื™ืžื•ืจ ื•ืื™ืŸ ืจื•ื•ื—.
16:18
In that case, the consequences are rather severe.
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ื‘ืžืงืจื” ื”ื–ื” ื”ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช ื“ื™ ื—ืžื•ืจื•ืช.
16:21
On the other hand, if you extend the bribe,
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ืžืฆื“ ืฉื ื™, ืื ืชืฆื™ืขื• ืืช ื”ืฉื•ื—ื“,
16:23
if the officer is dishonest,
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ืื ื”ืฉื•ื˜ืจ ื”ื•ื ืžื•ืฉื—ืช,
16:25
you get a huge payoff of going free.
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ืชืฉื™ื’ื• ืจื•ื•ื— ืขืฆื•ื ื•ืชืฆืื• ืœื—ื•ืคืฉื™.
16:28
If the officer is honest, you get a huge penalty
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ืื ื”ืฉื•ื˜ืจ ื™ืฉืจ, ืชืคืกื™ื“ื• ืžื—ื™ืจ ื›ื‘ื“
16:31
of being arrested for bribery.
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ืฉืœ ืžืขืฆืจ ื‘ื’ื™ืŸ ืฉื•ื—ื“.
16:33
So this is a rather fraught situation.
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ืื– ื–ื” ืžืฆื‘ ื˜ืขื•ืŸ ืœืžื“ื™.
16:35
On the other hand, with indirect language,
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ืžืฆื“ ืฉืœื™ืฉื™, ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ื“ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ืขืงื™ืฃ,
16:37
if you issue a veiled bribe,
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ืื ืชืฆื™ืขื• ืฉื•ื—ื“ ืžืจื•ืžื–,
16:39
then the dishonest officer
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ื”ืฉื•ื˜ืจ ื”ืžื•ืฉื—ืช ื™ื•ื›ืœ
16:41
could interpret it as a bribe,
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ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ื–ืืช ื›ืฉื•ื—ื“,
16:43
in which case you get the payoff of going free.
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ื•ืื– ืชื–ื›ื• ืœืฆืืช ืœื—ื•ืคืฉื™,
16:46
The honest officer can't hold you to it as being a bribe,
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ื•ื”ืฉื•ื˜ืจ ื”ื™ืฉืจ ืœื ื™ื•ื›ืœ ืœื–ืงื•ืฃ ื–ืืช ื›ื”ืฆืขืช ืฉื•ื—ื“
16:49
and therefore, you get the nuisance of the traffic ticket.
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ื•ืœื›ืŸ ืชื™ืฉืืจื• ืขื ื ื˜ืœ ื”ื“ื•ื—.
16:52
So you get the best of both worlds.
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ื›ืš ืืชื ื ื”ื ื™ื ืžืฉื ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœืžื•ืช.
16:55
And a similar analysis, I think,
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ื•ื ื™ืชื•ื— ื“ื•ืžื”, ืœื“ืขืชื™,
16:57
can apply to the potential awkwardness
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ืชื•ืคืก ื‘ืžืงืจื™ ื”ืžื‘ื•ื›ื” ื”ืืคืฉืจื™ืช
16:59
of a sexual solicitation,
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ืฉืœ ืฉื™ื“ื•ืœ ืžื™ื ื™
17:01
and other cases where plausible deniability is an asset.
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ื•ื‘ืžืงืจื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ืฉื‘ื”ื ื”ืืคืฉืจื•ืช ืœื”ื›ื—ื™ืฉ ื”ื™ื ื‘ืขืœืช ืขืจืš.
17:04
I think this affirms
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ืœื“ืขืชื™ ื–ื” ืžืืฉืจ ื“ื‘ืจ
17:06
something that's long been known by diplomats --
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ืฉื“ื™ืคืœื•ืžื˜ื™ื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืžื–ืžืŸ
17:08
namely, that the vagueness of language,
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืฉื”ืขืžื™ืžื•ืช ื‘ืฉืคื”
17:10
far from being a bug or an imperfection,
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ื”ื™ื ืœื ืชืงืœื” ืื• ืคื’ื
17:13
actually might be a feature of language,
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ืืœื ืžืžืฉ ืชื›ื•ื ื” ืžื•ื‘ื ื™ืช ื‘ืฉืคื”
17:16
one that we use to our advantage in social interactions.
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ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืœื ืฆืœ ืœื˜ื•ื‘ืชื ื• ื‘ืื™ื ื˜ืจืืงืฆื™ื•ืช ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื•ืช.
17:19
So to sum up: language is a collective human creation,
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ืื– ืœืกื™ื›ื•ื: ืฉืคื” ื”ื™ื ื™ืฆื™ืจื” ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช ืžืฉื•ืชืคืช
17:22
reflecting human nature,
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ืฉืžืฉืงืคืช ืืช ื˜ื‘ืข ื”ืื“ื โ€“
17:24
how we conceptualize reality,
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ืชืคื™ืกืช ื”ืžืฆื™ืื•ืช ืฉืœื ื•,
17:26
how we relate to one another.
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ื”ืงืฉืจ ืฉืœื ื• ื–ื” ืขื ื–ื”,
17:28
And then by analyzing the various quirks and complexities of language,
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ื•ืžืชื•ืš ื ื™ืชื•ื— ืฉืœ ืžื•ื–ืจื•ื™ื•ืช ื•ืกืจื‘ื•ืœื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืคื”,
17:32
I think we can get a window onto what makes us tick.
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ืœื“ืขืชื™ ื ืคืชื— ืœื ื• ื—ืœื•ืŸ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื™ืš ืื ื—ื ื• ืคื•ืขืœื™ื.
17:35
Thank you very much.
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ืชื•ื“ื” ืจื‘ื” ืœื›ื.
17:36
(Applause)
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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