Steven Pinker: What our language habits reveal

442,363 views ・ 2007-09-11

TED


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Prevoditelj: Zlatko Smetisko Recezent: Tilen Pigac - EFZG
00:26
This is a picture of Maurice Druon,
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Ovo je slika Mauricea Druona,
00:28
the Honorary Perpetual Secretary of L'Academie francaise,
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doživotnog počasnog tajnika L'Academie francaise --
00:32
the French Academy.
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Francuske akademije.
00:34
He is splendidly attired in his 68,000-dollar uniform,
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Veličanstveno je obučen u 68.000 dolara vrijednu odoru,
00:39
befitting the role of the French Academy
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ispunjavajući ulogu Francuske akademije
00:42
as legislating the
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u standardizaciji
00:45
correct usage in French
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točne uporabe francuskog jezika
00:47
and perpetuating the language.
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i očuvanju jezika.
00:49
The French Academy has two main tasks:
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Francuska akademija ima dvije glavne zadaće:
00:52
it compiles a dictionary of official French.
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sastavljanje rječnika službenog francuskog jezika --
00:55
They're now working on their ninth edition,
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trenutno rade na devetom izdanju,
00:58
which they began in 1930, and they've reached the letter P.
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započetom 1930. godine, u kojem su došli do slova P.
01:02
They also legislate on correct usage,
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Određuju i točnu upotrebu jezika,
01:05
such as the proper term for what the French call "email,"
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primjerice, opći naziv onoga što Francuzi nazivaju „email“,
01:09
which ought to be "courriel."
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trebao bi biti „courriel“.
01:11
The World Wide Web, the French are told,
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Također im je rečeno da bi se World Wide Web
01:13
ought to be referred to as
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trebao zvati
01:15
"la toile d'araignee mondiale" -- the Global Spider Web --
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„la toile d'araignee mondiale“ -- Globalna paukova mreža --
01:19
recommendations that the French gaily ignore.
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sve su to sugestije koje Francuzi rado ignoriraju.
01:24
Now, this is one model of how language comes to be:
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Ovo je jedan od načina nastanka jezika:
01:28
namely, it's legislated by an academy.
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zakonski je određen od strane akademije.
01:31
But anyone who looks at language realizes
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No, svatko tko baci pogled na jezik
01:34
that this is a rather silly conceit,
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ubrzo će shvatiti kako je to smiješna zamisao,
01:38
that language, rather, emerges from human minds interacting from one another.
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jezik, zapravo, nastaje međudjelovanjem ljudskih umova.
01:41
And this is visible in the unstoppable change in language --
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To je vidljivo kod stalne promjene jezika --
01:45
the fact that by the time the Academy finishes their dictionary,
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u činjenici da kada Akademija završi rječnik,
01:48
it will already be well out of date.
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on će već biti zastario.
01:50
We see it in the
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To je vidljivo u
01:52
constant appearance of slang and jargon,
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neprestanom stvaranju slenga i žargona,
01:56
of the historical change in languages,
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u povijesnim promjenama jezika,
01:58
in divergence of dialects
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u razilaženju dijalekata
02:00
and the formation of new languages.
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i nastajanju novih jezika.
02:03
So language is not so much a creator or shaper of human nature,
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Jezik ne stvara i ne oblikuje ljudsku prirodu u tolikoj mjeri
02:06
so much as a window onto human nature.
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koliko je zapravo prozor u ljudsku prirodu.
02:09
In a book that I'm currently working on,
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U knjizi na kojoj trenutno radim,
02:12
I hope to use language to shed light on
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nadam se da ću putem jezika rasvijetliti
02:15
a number of aspects of human nature,
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mnoge aspekte ljudske prirode
02:17
including the cognitive machinery
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uključujući kognitivni mehanizam
02:19
with which humans conceptualize the world
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putem kojeg ljudi konceptualiziraju svijet
02:22
and the relationship types that govern human interaction.
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i tipove odnosa koji određuju ljudsku interakciju.
02:25
And I'm going to say a few words about each one this morning.
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O svakoj od njih ću ponešto reći danas ujutro.
02:28
Let me start off with a technical problem in language
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Započet ću s tehničkim jezičnim problemom
02:30
that I've worried about for quite some time --
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koji me dulje vrijeme zabrinjavao --
02:32
and indulge me
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nadam se da ćete udovoljiti
02:36
in my passion for verbs and how they're used.
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mojoj strasti prema glagolima i načinu na koji se koriste.
02:39
The problem is, which verbs go in which constructions?
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Problem je sljedeći: koji glagoli idu s kojim konstrukcijama?
02:42
The verb is the chassis of the sentence.
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Glagol je šasija rečenice,
02:45
It's the framework onto which the other parts are bolted.
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on je okvir na koji se pričvršćuju ostali dijelovi rečenice.
02:49
Let me give you a quick reminder
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Na brzinu ću vas podsjetiti na nešto
02:51
of something that you've long forgotten.
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što ste odavno zaboravili.
02:53
An intransitive verb, such as "dine," for example,
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Neprijelazni glagoli, poput „večerati“,
02:56
can't take a direct object.
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ne mogu primiti izravni objekt.
02:58
You have to say, "Sam dined," not, "Sam dined the pizza."
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Morate reći „Sam je večerao“, ne „Sam je večerao pizzu“.
03:01
A transitive verb mandates
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Prelazni glagol
03:03
that there has to be an object there:
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zahtijeva objekt:
03:05
"Sam devoured the pizza." You can't just say, "Sam devoured."
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„Sam je uživao u pizzi“. Ne možete reći samo „Sam je uživao“.
03:08
There are dozens or scores of verbs of this type,
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Postoji mnoštvo ovakvih glagola
03:12
each of which shapes its sentence.
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od kojih svaki oblikuje svoju rečenicu.
03:14
So, a problem in explaining how children learn language,
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Problem objašnjavanja načina na koji djeca uče jezik,
03:18
a problem in teaching language to adults so that they don't make grammatical errors,
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učenja odraslih da ne rade gramatičke greške
03:23
and a problem in programming computers to use language is
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i problem programiranja računala kako koristiti jezik
03:26
which verbs go in which constructions.
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temelji se na glagolima i njihovim konstrukcijama.
03:29
For example, the dative construction in English.
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Primjerice, dativna konstrukcija u engleskom --
03:31
You can say, "Give a muffin to a mouse," the prepositional dative.
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možete reći „Dajte mafin mišu“, dativom s prijedlogom,
03:34
Or, "Give a mouse a muffin," the double-object dative.
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ili „Dajte mišu mafin“, dativom s dvostrukim objektom,
03:37
"Promise anything to her," "Promise her anything," and so on.
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„Obećaj bilo što njoj“ i „Obećaj joj bilošto“, itd.
03:41
Hundreds of verbs can go both ways.
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Postoje stotine glagola koji se mogu koristiti na oba načina.
03:43
So a tempting generalization for a child,
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Primamljiva generalizacija djetetu,
03:45
for an adult, for a computer
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odrasloj osobi ili računalu
03:47
is that any verb that can appear in the construction,
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je da se svaki glagol koji se pojavi u konstrukciji
03:49
"subject-verb-thing-to-a-recipient"
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„subjekt-glagol-stvar-primatelju“
03:52
can also be expressed as "subject-verb-recipient-thing."
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može izraziti konstukcijom „subjekt-glagol-primatelj-stvar“.
03:55
A handy thing to have,
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Zgodno je imati tako nešto
03:57
because language is infinite,
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jer je jezik beskonačan,
03:59
and you can't just parrot back the sentences that you've heard.
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a mi ne možemo mehanički ponavljati rečenice koje samo upravo čuli.
04:02
You've got to extract generalizations
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Moramo generalizirati
04:04
so you can produce and understand new sentences.
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kako bismo poizveli i razumijeli nove rečenice.
04:07
This would be an example of how to do that.
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Ovo je bio primjer toga.
04:09
Unfortunately, there appear to be idiosyncratic exceptions.
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Nažalost, postoje idiosinkratične iznimke.
04:12
You can say, "Biff drove the car to Chicago,"
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Možemo reći „Biff je vozio autom u Chicago“,
04:15
but not, "Biff drove Chicago the car."
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ali ne i „Biff je vozio Chicago autom“.
04:18
You can say, "Sal gave Jason a headache,"
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Možemo reći „Sal je zadao Jasonu glavobolju“,
04:21
but it's a bit odd to say, "Sal gave a headache to Jason."
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ali je malo čudno kada kažemo „Sal je dao glavobolju Jasonu“.
04:24
The solution is that these constructions, despite initial appearance,
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Odgovor leži u činjenici da ove konstrukcije,
04:27
are not synonymous,
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iako slične na prvi pogled, nisu istoznačne.
04:29
that when you crank up the microscope
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Kada pomnije pogledamo
04:31
on human cognition, you see that there's a subtle difference
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ljudsko spoznavanje, vidjet ćemo da postoji suptilna razlika
04:33
in meaning between them.
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u značenju tih konstrukcija.
04:35
So, "give the X to the Y,"
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Dakle, konstrukcija „Dajte X Y-u“--
04:37
that construction corresponds to the thought
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odgovara misli „Uzrokujte da X ide Y-u“.
04:40
"cause X to go to Y." Whereas "give the Y the X"
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Dok konstrukcija „Dajte Y X-u“
04:43
corresponds to the thought "cause Y to have X."
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odgovara misli „uzrokujte da Y sadrži X“.
04:47
Now, many events can be subject to either construal,
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Mnogi se događaji mogu interpretirati na oba načina,
04:51
kind of like the classic figure-ground reversal illusions,
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poput klasične promijenjive iluzije pozadine-lika,
04:54
in which you can either pay attention
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prema kojoj pažnju možemo usmjeriti
04:57
to the particular object,
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na određeni objekt
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in which case the space around it recedes from attention,
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i u tom je slučaju prostor oko objekta povučen iz prvog plana,
05:03
or you can see the faces in the empty space,
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ili možemo vidjeti lica u praznom prostoru
05:05
in which case the object recedes out of consciousness.
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te je u tom slučaju objekt povučen iz naše svijesti.
05:09
How are these construals reflected in language?
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Kako se ovakve predodžbe očituju u jeziku?
05:11
Well, in both cases, the thing that is construed as being affected
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U oba slučaja, ono što percipiramo kao stvar na koju utječemo
05:15
is expressed as the direct object,
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izražavamo izravnim objektom:
05:17
the noun after the verb.
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imenicom nakon glagola.
05:19
So, when you think of the event as causing the muffin to go somewhere --
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Kada percipiramo događaj kojim utječemo na „mafin“ --
05:23
where you're doing something to the muffin --
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kada radimo nešto mafinu --
05:25
you say, "Give the muffin to the mouse."
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kažemo „Daj mafin mišu“.
05:27
When you construe it as "cause the mouse to have something,"
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Kada događaj percipiramo kao „uzrokujte da miš ima nešto“,
05:30
you're doing something to the mouse,
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tada utječemo na miša,
05:32
and therefore you express it as, "Give the mouse the muffin."
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te stoga koristimo „Dajte mišu mafin“.
05:35
So which verbs go in which construction --
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Koji glagoli idu s kojim konstrukcijama --
05:37
the problem with which I began --
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problem s kojim sam započeo izlaganje --
05:39
depends on whether the verb specifies a kind of motion
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ovisi o tome da li glagol određuje promjenu kretanja
05:43
or a kind of possession change.
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ili promjenu posjedovanja.
05:45
To give something involves both causing something to go
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Dati nešto podrazumijeva promjenu mjesta nečega
05:48
and causing someone to have.
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i promjenu posjedovanja nečega.
05:50
To drive the car only causes something to go,
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Vožnja automobila uključuje samu promjenu mjesta
05:53
because Chicago's not the kind of thing that can possess something.
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jer Chicago ne predstavlja vrstu stvari koja bi mogla nešto posjedovati.
05:55
Only humans can possess things.
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Samo ljudi mogu posjedovati stvari.
05:58
And to give someone a headache causes them to have the headache,
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Dati nekome glavobolju znači da taj netko ima glavobolju,
06:00
but it's not as if you're taking the headache out of your head
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ali to ne možemo shvatiti kao uzimanje glavobolje iz naše glave
06:03
and causing it to go to the other person,
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i njezino premještanje drugoj osobi,
06:05
and implanting it in them.
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ubacivanjem iste u drugu glavu.
06:07
You may just be loud or obnoxious,
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Možete biti glasni ili nepodnošljivi,
06:09
or some other way causing them to have the headache.
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ili na neki drugi način uzrokovati nekom glavobolju.
06:11
So, that's
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Ovo je primjer
06:15
an example of the kind of thing that I do in my day job.
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onoga što ja svakodnevno radim.
06:17
So why should anyone care?
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Zašto bi to nekog zanimalo?
06:19
Well, there are a number of interesting conclusions, I think,
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Po mom mišljenu, postoji niz zanimljivih zaključaka
06:22
from this and many similar kinds of analyses
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koji se mogu izvući iz ovakvih i sličnih analiza
06:26
of hundreds of English verbs.
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velikog broja glagola engleskog jezika.
06:28
First, there's a level of fine-grained conceptual structure,
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Prvo, tu je razina kompleksne konceptualne strukture,
06:31
which we automatically and unconsciously compute
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koju automatski i nesvijesno koristimo
06:34
every time we produce or utter a sentence, that governs our use of language.
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svaki put kada stvaramo ili izgovaramo rečenicu, a koja upravlja našim korištenjem jezika.
06:38
You can think of this as the language of thought, or "mentalese."
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To možemo nazvati jezikom misli ili mentalnim jezikom.
06:42
It seems to be based on a fixed set of concepts,
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Čini se da se on temelji na određenom nizu koncepata
06:45
which govern dozens of constructions and thousands of verbs --
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koji upravljaju desetcima konstrukcija i tisućama glagola --
06:48
not only in English, but in all other languages --
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ne samo u engleskom jeziku, već i u svim drugim jezicima --
06:51
fundamental concepts such as space,
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temeljnim konceptima poput vremena,
06:53
time, causation and human intention,
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prostora, uzroka i ljudske namjere --
06:56
such as, what is the means and what is the ends?
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kao što su sredstvo i cilj.
06:59
These are reminiscent of the kinds of categories
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Ovo podsjeća na kategorije
07:01
that Immanuel Kant argued
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za koje je Immanuel Kant tvrdio
07:03
are the basic framework for human thought,
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da čine osnovu ljudske misli,
07:06
and it's interesting that our unconscious use of language
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pa je zanimljivo kako naše nesvijesno korištenje jezika
07:09
seems to reflect these Kantian categories.
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naizgled odražava ove Kantovske kategorije --
07:12
Doesn't care about perceptual qualities,
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ne mari za percepcijske kvalitete,
07:14
such as color, texture, weight and speed,
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poput boje, teksture, težine i brzine,
07:16
which virtually never differentiate
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koje nikada ne rade razliku
07:18
the use of verbs in different constructions.
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pri korištenju glagola u različitim konstrukcijama.
07:21
An additional twist is that all of the constructions in English
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Dodatan zaplet čini to što se sve ove konstrukcije engleskog jezika
07:24
are used not only literally,
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ne koriste samo u doslovnom,
07:26
but in a quasi-metaphorical way.
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već i u polu-metaforičnom izričaju.
07:29
For example, this construction, the dative,
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Primjerice, ova se konstrukcija s dativom
07:31
is used not only to transfer things,
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ne koristi samo za prijenos stvari,
07:33
but also for the metaphorical transfer of ideas,
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već i za metaforično prenošenje ideja,
07:36
as when we say, "She told a story to me"
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kao kada kažemo „Ona je ispričala priču meni“
07:38
or "told me a story,"
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ili „ispričala mi priču“,
07:40
"Max taught Spanish to the students" or "taught the students Spanish."
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„Max je podučavao španjolski studente“ ili „podučavao studente španjolski“.
07:43
It's exactly the same construction,
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Potpuno je ista konstrukcija
07:45
but no muffins, no mice, nothing moving at all.
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samo bez mafina i miševa. Ništa ne mijenja položaj.
07:49
It evokes the container metaphor of communication,
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Ovo priziva metaforu "omeđenog prostora ili posude" u komunikaciji
07:52
in which we conceive of ideas as objects,
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prema kojoj ideje zamišljamo kao predmete,
07:54
sentences as containers,
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rečenice kao posude,
07:56
and communication as a kind of sending.
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a komunikaciju kao vrstu slanja --
07:58
As when we say we "gather" our ideas, to "put" them "into" words,
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kao kada kažemo da samo „skupili“ ideje kako bismo ih „pretočili“ u riječi,
08:01
and if our words aren't "empty" or "hollow,"
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a ako naše riječi nisu „prazne“ ili „isprazne“,
08:03
we might get these ideas "across" to a listener,
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možemo ih „prenijeti“ sugovorniku
08:06
who can "unpack" our words to "extract" their "content."
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koji će naše riječi „raspakirati“ kako bi „izvukao“ njihov „sadržaj“.
08:09
And indeed, this kind of verbiage is not the exception, but the rule.
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Ovakav način izražavanje nije iznimka, već pravilo.
08:12
It's very hard to find any example of abstract language
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Teško je pronaći bilo kakav primjer apstraktnog jezika
08:15
that is not based on some concrete metaphor.
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koji se ne temelji na konkretnoj metafori.
08:18
For example, you can use the verb "go"
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Na primjer, možemo korisiti glagol „ići“
08:21
and the prepositions "to" and "from"
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i prijedloge „prema“ i „od“
08:23
in a literal, spatial sense.
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u doslovnom prostornom smislu:
08:25
"The messenger went from Paris to Istanbul."
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„Glasnogovornik je išao iz Pariza u Istanbul“.
08:27
You can also say, "Biff went from sick to well."
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Isto tako možemo reći „Biffu je išlo na bolje“.
08:30
He needn't go anywhere. He could have been in bed the whole time,
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On nije nikamo morao ići. Mogao je biti cijelo vrijeme u krevetu,
08:33
but it's as if his health is a point in state space
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ali čini se kao da je njegovo zdravlje točka u prostoru
08:35
that you conceptualize as moving.
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koju doživljavamo kao nešto što se kreće.
08:37
Or, "The meeting went from three to four,"
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Ili „Sastanak se održao od 3 do 4“ --
08:39
in which we conceive of time as stretched along a line.
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u kojem vrijeme zamišljamo kao rastegnuto duž linije.
08:42
Likewise, we use "force" to indicate
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Slično koristimo silu ne samo
08:45
not only physical force,
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da bismo govorili o fizičkoj sili,
08:47
as in, "Rose forced the door to open,"
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„Rose je prislila vrata da se otvore“,
08:49
but also interpersonal force,
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već da bismo koristili interpersonalnu silu,
08:51
as in, "Rose forced Sadie to go," not necessarily by manhandling her,
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„Rose je prislila Saide da ide“ -- što ne mora značiti da je koristila silu,
08:55
but by issuing a threat.
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već joj je mogla priprijetiti --
08:57
Or, "Rose forced herself to go,"
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ili „Rose je prislila sebe da ide“,
08:59
as if there were two entities inside Rose's head,
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kao da postoje dva entiteta u njenoj glavi
09:02
engaged in a tug of a war.
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koja međusobno ratuju.
09:04
Second conclusion is that the ability to conceive
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Drugi je zaključak da sposobnost zamišljanja
09:07
of a given event in two different ways,
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određenog događaja na dva različita načina,
09:10
such as "cause something to go to someone"
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poput „uzrokovati nešto da ide k nekome“,
09:12
and "causing someone to have something,"
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i „uzrokovati da netko ima nešto“,
09:14
I think is a fundamental feature of human thought,
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predstavlja, po meni, fundamentalnu karakteristiku ljudske misli
09:18
and it's the basis for much human argumentation,
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i osnovu za mnogobrojne ljudske rasprave
09:21
in which people don't differ so much on the facts
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u kojima ne postoje razlike među činjenicama
09:24
as on how they ought to be construed.
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već u načinu na koji ljudi te činjenice interpretiraju.
09:26
Just to give you a few examples:
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Nekoliko primjera toga:
09:28
"ending a pregnancy" versus "killing a fetus;"
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„okončati trudnoću“ naspram „ubojstvo fetusa“,
09:30
"a ball of cells" versus "an unborn child;"
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„skupina stanica“ naspram „nerođeno dijete“,
09:33
"invading Iraq" versus "liberating Iraq;"
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„invazija Iraka“ naspram „oslobađanje Iraka“,
09:35
"redistributing wealth" versus "confiscating earnings."
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„redistribucija bogatstva“ naspram „zapljenjivanje zarađenog“.
09:39
And I think the biggest picture of all
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Kako bismo dobili široku sliku trebali bismo
09:41
would take seriously the fact
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ozbiljno shvatiti činjenicu
09:44
that so much of our verbiage about abstract events
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kako se veći dio našeg izražavanja apstraktnih događaja
09:47
is based on a concrete metaphor
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temelji na konkretnim metaforama.
09:49
and see human intelligence itself
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Ljudska bi se inteligencija tada
09:51
as consisting of a repertoire of concepts --
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sastojala od niza koncepata --
09:54
such as objects, space, time, causation and intention --
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poput predmeta, prostora, vremena, uzroka i namjera --
09:57
which are useful in a social, knowledge-intensive species,
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koji su korisni za društvenu vrstu s naglašenom komponentom znanja
10:01
whose evolution you can well imagine,
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i čija je evolucija dobro poznata,
10:03
and a process of metaphorical abstraction
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i procesa metaforičke apstrakcije
10:06
that allows us to bleach these concepts
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koji nam omogućava da iz njih ispraznimo
10:08
of their original conceptual content --
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izvorni konceptualni sadržaj --
10:11
space, time and force --
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prostor, vrijeme i silu --
10:14
and apply them to new abstract domains,
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kako bismo ih primijenili na nove apstraktne domene,
10:16
therefore allowing a species that evolved
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omogućavajući na taj način vrsti koja je evoluirala
10:19
to deal with rocks and tools and animals,
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kako bi koristila kamen, oruđe i životinje,
10:21
to conceptualize mathematics, physics, law
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konceptualiziranje matematike, fizike, zakone
10:24
and other abstract domains.
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i druge apstraktne domene.
10:27
Well, I said I'd talk about two windows on human nature --
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Rekao sam da ću govoriti o dva pogleda na ljudsku prirodu:
10:30
the cognitive machinery with which we conceptualize the world,
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kognitivnom mehanizmu kojim konceptualiziramo svijet,
10:33
and now I'm going to say a few words about the relationship types
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a sada ću reći nekoliko riječi o vrstama odnosa
10:35
that govern human social interaction,
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koji upravljaju ljudskom društvenom interakcijom
10:37
again, as reflected in language.
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i to onako kako se odražava u jeziku.
10:40
And I'll start out with a puzzle, the puzzle of indirect speech acts.
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Započet ću zagonetkom: zagonetkom indirektnih govornih činova.
10:44
Now, I'm sure most of you have seen the movie "Fargo."
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Siguran sam da je većina vas gledala film „Fargo“.
10:46
And you might remember the scene in which
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Možda se sjećate scene u kojoj
10:48
the kidnapper is pulled over by a police officer,
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je policajac zaustavio otimičara
10:51
is asked to show his driver's license
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i tražio od njega vozačku
10:53
and holds his wallet out
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na što otmičar pruža policajcu novčanik
10:55
with a 50-dollar bill extending
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iz kojeg viri
10:58
at a slight angle out of the wallet.
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novčanica od 50 dolara.
11:00
And he says, "I was just thinking
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Otmičar kaže, „Mislio sam
11:02
that maybe we could take care of it here in Fargo,"
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da bismo ovo mogli riješiti ovdje u Fargu“ --
11:04
which everyone, including the audience,
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svi smo to, uključujući i gledatelje,
11:07
interprets as a veiled bribe.
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protumačili kao prikriven oblik podmićivanja.
11:10
This kind of indirect speech is rampant in language.
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Ovakav je oblik indirektnog govora vrlo raširen u jeziku.
11:14
For example, in polite requests,
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Na primjer, u ljubaznim zahtjevima,
11:16
if someone says, "If you could pass the guacamole,
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kada netko kaže „Ako biste mi mogli dodati guacamole umak,
11:18
that would be awesome,"
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to bi bilo odlično“,
11:20
we know exactly what he means,
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točno znamo što time misli,
11:22
even though that's a rather bizarre
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iako je izrečeno
11:24
concept being expressed.
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na pomalo čudan način.
11:26
(Laughter)
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(Smijeh)
11:29
"Would you like to come up and see my etchings?"
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„Biste li došli k meni i pogledali moj bakropis?“
11:31
I think most people
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mislim da većina
11:33
understand the intent behind that.
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razumije namjeru iza ove rečenice.
11:36
And likewise, if someone says,
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Isto tako, ako netko kaže,
11:38
"Nice store you've got there. It would be a real shame if something happened to it" --
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„Zgodna ti je trgovina. Bila bi prava šteta da joj se nešto dogodi“ --
11:41
(Laughter) --
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(Smijeh)
11:42
we understand that as a veiled threat,
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shvaćamo ovo kao prikrivenu prijetnju,
11:44
rather than a musing of hypothetical possibilities.
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a ne kao razmišljanje o hipotetskim mogućnostima.
11:47
So the puzzle is, why are bribes,
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Zagonetka je u sljedećem: zašto su podmićivanja,
11:50
polite requests, solicitations and threats so often veiled?
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molbe, zahtjevi i prijetnje tako često prikrivene?
11:53
No one's fooled.
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Nitko nije zavaran --
11:55
Both parties know exactly what the speaker means,
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obje strane točno znaju što govornik misli,
11:58
and the speaker knows the listener knows
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a govornik zna da sugovornik zna
12:00
that the speaker knows that the listener knows, etc., etc.
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da govornik zna da sugovornik zna itd., itd.
12:03
So what's going on?
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Što se onda događa?
12:05
I think the key idea is that language
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Mislim da je ključna ideja kako je jezik
12:07
is a way of negotiating relationships,
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zapravo način uspostavljanja odnosa
12:09
and human relationships fall into a number of types.
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a ljudski se odnosi dijele na nekoliko vrsta.
12:12
There's an influential taxonomy by the anthropologist Alan Fiske,
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Vrlo utjecajnu klasifikaciju napravio je antropolog Alan Fiske,
12:16
in which relationships can be categorized, more or less,
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prema kojoj se ljudski odnosi mogu, više manje, kategorizirati
12:19
into communality, which works on the principle
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na odnose zajedništva koji se temelje na načelu
12:21
"what's mine is thine, what's thine is mine,"
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„Ono što je moje je i tvoje, a ono što je tvoje je i moje“ --
12:24
the kind of mindset that operates within a family, for example;
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načelo koje funkcionira unutar obitelji --
12:28
dominance, whose principle is "don't mess with me;"
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dominantnosti koja se temelji na načelu „Nemoj se zezat sa mnom“,
12:31
reciprocity, "you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours;"
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uzajamnosti: „Ruka ruku mije“,
12:35
and sexuality, in the immortal words of Cole Porter, "Let's do it."
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i seksualnosti, riječima besmrtnog Colea Portera, „Učinimo to“.
12:40
Now, relationship types can be negotiated.
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Odnosi se mogu pregovarati.
12:43
Even though there are default situations
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Iako postoje zadane situacije
12:46
in which one of these mindsets can be applied,
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u kojima možemo primijeniti jedno od ovih načela,
12:48
they can be stretched and extended.
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ona mogu razvući svoje granice i proširiti se.
12:51
For example, communality applies most naturally
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Primjerice, zajedništvo se sasvim normalno koristi
12:54
within family or friends,
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unutar obitelji i među prijateljima,
12:56
but it can be used to try to transfer
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ali može se iskoristiti
12:58
the mentality of sharing
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prijenos ideje zajedništva
13:00
to groups that ordinarily would not be disposed to exercise it.
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na neke grupe u kojima se tipično ne bi javio --
13:04
For example, in brotherhoods, fraternal organizations,
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primjerice unutar bratstva, studentskih udruženja,
13:08
sororities, locutions like "the family of man,"
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sestrinstva, izraza „zajednica ljudi“,
13:11
you try to get people who are not related
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gdje se među ljudima, koji nisu u rodu
13:13
to use the relationship type that would ordinarily
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potiče vrsta odnosa
13:17
be appropriate to close kin.
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svojstvena bliskoj obitelji.
13:19
Now, mismatches -- when one person assumes one relationship type,
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Ali nepodudaranja -- kada jedna osoba prisvoji jednu vrstu odnosa,
13:22
and another assumes a different one -- can be awkward.
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a druga drugu vrstu -- mogu dovesti do neugodnosti.
13:25
If you went over and you helped yourself
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Kada biste se došetali do svog šefa
13:27
to a shrimp off your boss' plate,
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i ponudili škampima s njegova tanjura
13:29
for example, that would be an awkward situation.
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to bi bila vrlo nezgodna situacija.
13:31
Or if a dinner guest after the meal
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Ili ako bi vaš gost nakon večere
13:33
pulled out his wallet and offered to pay you for the meal,
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izvadio novčanik i ponudio platiti obrok,
13:36
that would be rather awkward as well.
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to bi također predstavljalo nezgodnu situaciju.
13:38
In less blatant cases,
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U manje očitim situacijama,
13:41
there's still a kind of negotiation that often goes on.
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postoji vrsta pregovora koja se neprestano događa.
13:44
In the workplace, for example,
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Na radnom mjestu, na primjer,
13:46
there's often a tension over whether an employee
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postoje napetosti oko toga
13:48
can socialize with the boss,
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smije li se radnik družiti sa šefom
13:50
or refer to him or her
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ili se obratiti njemu ili njoj
13:52
on a first-name basis.
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krsnim imenom.
13:54
If two friends have a
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Dobro je poznato
13:56
reciprocal transaction, like selling a car,
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da uzajamna transakcija između dva prijatelja,
13:58
it's well known that this can be a source
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poput prodaje automobila, može postati
14:00
of tension or awkwardness.
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izvor napetosti i nelagode među njima.
14:02
In dating, the transition
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Kod hodanja, prijelaz iz
14:04
from friendship to sex
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prijateljskog odnosa u seksualni odnos
14:06
can lead to, notoriously, various forms of awkwardness,
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može dovesti, kao što je poznato, do raznih oblika neugode,
14:09
and as can sex in the workplace,
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kao i seks na radnom mjestu
14:11
in which we call the conflict between a
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u kojem sukob između
14:13
dominant and a sexual relationship "sexual harassment."
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dominacije i seksualnog odnosa nazivamo „seksualno uznemiravanje“.
14:17
Well, what does this have to do with language?
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Kakve ovo ima veze s jezikom?
14:19
Well, language, as a social interaction,
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Jezik kao oblik društvene interakcije
14:21
has to satisfy two conditions.
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mora zadovoljiti dva uvjeta.
14:23
You have to convey the actual content --
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Morate prenijeti točan sadržaj --
14:26
here we get back to the container metaphor.
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ovdje se ponovno vraćamo na metaforu posude.
14:28
You want to express the bribe, the command, the promise,
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Želite izraziti podmićivanje, naredbu, obećanje,
14:31
the solicitation and so on,
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molbu itd. --
14:33
but you also have to negotiate
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ali istovremeno morate pregovarati
14:35
and maintain the kind of relationship
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i održavati onakvu vrstu odnosa
14:37
you have with the other person.
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kakvu imate s drugom osobom.
14:39
The solution, I think, is that we use language at two levels:
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Mislim da je rješenje u činjenici kako jezik koristimo na dvije razine:
14:42
the literal form signals
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doslovan oblik označava
14:44
the safest relationship with the listener,
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najsigurniji odnos sa sugovornikom,
14:46
whereas the implicated content --
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dok implicirani sadržaj --
14:49
the reading between the lines that we count on the listener to perform --
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čitanje između redova na koje računamo od svog sugovornika --
14:52
allows the listener to derive the interpretation
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omogućuje sugovorniku da izvede interpretaciju
14:54
which is most relevant in context,
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koja je najznačajnija u tom kontekstu,
14:56
which possibly initiates a changed relationship.
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a koje potencira promjenu odnosa.
14:59
The simplest example of this is in the polite request.
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Najjednostavniji primjer ovoga je zamolba.
15:03
If you express your request as a conditional --
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Ako svoju molbu izrazite kondicionalom:
15:06
"if you could open the window, that would be great" --
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„Ako bi mogao otvoriti prozor, bilo bi to sjajno“,
15:09
even though the content is an imperative,
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iako je sadržaj zapovjedni,
15:11
the fact that you're not using the imperative voice
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činjenica da ne koristimo zapovjedni način
15:14
means that you're not acting as if you're in a relationship of dominance,
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znači da se ne ponašamo kao da smo u dominantnom odnosu,
15:18
where you could presuppose the compliance of the other person.
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u kojem bi se poslušnost sugovornika mogla pretpostaviti.
15:21
On the other hand, you want the damn guacamole.
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S druge strane želite prokleti guacamole umak.
15:23
By expressing it as an if-then statement,
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Izražavajući to kao „ako-onda“ tvrdnju,
15:26
you can get the message across
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možete prenijeti poruku
15:28
without appearing to boss another person around.
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bez da izgleda kao da nekome naređujete.
15:32
And in a more subtle way, I think, this works
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Na nešto suptilniji način, mislim da ovo vrijedi
15:34
for all of the veiled speech acts
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za sve prikrivene govorne činove
15:36
involving plausible deniability:
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koji uključuju uvjerljivo poricanje:
15:38
the bribes, threats, propositions,
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potkupljivanje, prijetnje, prijedloge,
15:40
solicitations and so on.
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molbe, itd.
15:42
One way of thinking about it is to imagine what it would be like
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Jedan od načina razmatranja ovoga jest da pokušamo zamisliti
15:44
if language -- where it could only be used literally.
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situaciju u kojoj bi se jezik koristio u doslovnom smislu.
15:47
And you can think of it in terms of a
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Možete to zamisliti u kontekstu
15:49
game-theoretic payoff matrix.
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scene isplate u teoriji igara.
15:52
Put yourself in the position of the
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Stavite se u položaj
15:54
kidnapper wanting to bribe the officer.
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otmičara koji želi potkupiti policajca.
15:57
There's a high stakes
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Ulog je velik
15:59
in the two possibilities
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s obzirom na dvije mogućnosti --
16:02
of having a dishonest officer or an honest officer.
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da će policajac biti nepošten ili da će biti pošten.
16:05
If you don't bribe the officer,
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Ukoliko ne podmitite policajca
16:08
then you will get a traffic ticket --
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dobit ćete kaznu --
16:10
or, as is the case of "Fargo," worse --
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ili u slučaju „Farga“ i gore --
16:12
whether the honest officer
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bez obzira na to je li policajac
16:14
is honest or dishonest.
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pošten ili nepošten:
16:16
Nothing ventured, nothing gained.
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tko ne riskira ne profitira.
16:18
In that case, the consequences are rather severe.
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U tom su slučaju posljedice prilično ozbiljne.
16:21
On the other hand, if you extend the bribe,
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S druge strane, ako ponudite mito,
16:23
if the officer is dishonest,
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a policajac je nepošten,
16:25
you get a huge payoff of going free.
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dobit ćete ogromnu dobit jer nećete biti kažnjeni.
16:28
If the officer is honest, you get a huge penalty
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Ukoliko je policajac pošten, dobit ćete golemu kaznu
16:31
of being arrested for bribery.
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jer će vas uhititi za davanje mita.
16:33
So this is a rather fraught situation.
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Dakle, to je jedna vrlo nezgodna situacija.
16:35
On the other hand, with indirect language,
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S druge strane, s neizravnim govornim činom,
16:37
if you issue a veiled bribe,
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ako ponudite prikriveno mito,
16:39
then the dishonest officer
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nepošten će policajac
16:41
could interpret it as a bribe,
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to shvatiti kao mito
16:43
in which case you get the payoff of going free.
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i u tom ste slučaju na dobiti jer ćete biti pušteni,
16:46
The honest officer can't hold you to it as being a bribe,
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dok vas pošten policajac ne može optužiti za podmićivanje
16:49
and therefore, you get the nuisance of the traffic ticket.
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te ćete samo dobiti glupu prometnu kaznu.
16:52
So you get the best of both worlds.
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Na ovaj ste način u najboljem mogućem položaju.
16:55
And a similar analysis, I think,
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Slična se analiza, smatram,
16:57
can apply to the potential awkwardness
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može primijeniti na moguću neugodnost
16:59
of a sexual solicitation,
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seksualne ponude
17:01
and other cases where plausible deniability is an asset.
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i druge slučajeve u kojima je uvjerljivo poricanje prednost.
17:04
I think this affirms
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Mislim da ovo potvrđuje
17:06
something that's long been known by diplomats --
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ono što diplomati odavno znaju --
17:08
namely, that the vagueness of language,
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jezična neodređenost
17:10
far from being a bug or an imperfection,
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nije manjkavost jezika,
17:13
actually might be a feature of language,
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zapravo je njegova značajka --
17:16
one that we use to our advantage in social interactions.
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koju možemo iskoristiti u svoju korist prilikom društvenih interakcija.
17:19
So to sum up: language is a collective human creation,
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Da sažmem: jezik je kolektivna ljudska tvorevina
17:22
reflecting human nature,
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u kojoj se ocrtava ljudska priroda --
17:24
how we conceptualize reality,
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način na koji konceptualiziramo stvarnost,
17:26
how we relate to one another.
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kako se odnosimo jedni prema drugima --
17:28
And then by analyzing the various quirks and complexities of language,
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analizirajući razne jezične osebujnosti i složenosti,
17:32
I think we can get a window onto what makes us tick.
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smatram da možemo dobiti uvid u ono što nas pokreće.
17:35
Thank you very much.
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Hvala vam najljepša.
17:36
(Applause)
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(Pljesak)
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