Wade Davis: Cultures at the far edge of the world

387,007 views ・ 2007-01-12

TED


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00:25
You know, one of the intense pleasures of travel
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and one of the delights of ethnographic research
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is the opportunity to live amongst those
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who have not forgotten the old ways,
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who still feel their past in the wind,
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touch it in stones polished by rain,
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taste it in the bitter leaves of plants.
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Just to know that Jaguar shamans still journey beyond the Milky Way,
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or the myths of the Inuit elders still resonate with meaning,
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or that in the Himalaya,
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the Buddhists still pursue the breath of the Dharma,
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is to really remember the central revelation of anthropology,
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and that is the idea that the world in which we live
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does not exist in some absolute sense,
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but is just one model of reality,
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the consequence of one particular set of adaptive choices
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that our lineage made, albeit successfully, many generations ago.
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And of course, we all share the same adaptive imperatives.
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We're all born. We all bring our children into the world.
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We go through initiation rites.
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We have to deal with the inexorable separation of death,
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so it shouldn't surprise us that we all sing, we all dance,
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we all have art.
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But what's interesting is the unique cadence of the song,
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the rhythm of the dance in every culture.
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And whether it is the Penan in the forests of Borneo,
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or the Voodoo acolytes in Haiti,
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or the warriors in the Kaisut desert of Northern Kenya,
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the Curandero in the mountains of the Andes,
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or a caravanserai in the middle of the Sahara --
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this is incidentally the fellow that I traveled into the desert with
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a month ago --
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or indeed a yak herder in the slopes of Qomolangma,
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Everest, the goddess mother of the world.
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All of these peoples teach us that there are other ways of being,
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other ways of thinking,
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other ways of orienting yourself in the Earth.
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And this is an idea, if you think about it,
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can only fill you with hope.
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Now, together the myriad cultures of the world
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make up a web of spiritual life and cultural life
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that envelops the planet,
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and is as important to the well-being of the planet
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as indeed is the biological web of life that you know as a biosphere.
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And you might think of this cultural web of life
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as being an ethnosphere,
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and you might define the ethnosphere
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as being the sum total of all thoughts and dreams, myths,
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ideas, inspirations, intuitions brought into being
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by the human imagination since the dawn of consciousness.
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The ethnosphere is humanity's great legacy.
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It's the symbol of all that we are
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and all that we can be as an astonishingly inquisitive species.
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And just as the biosphere has been severely eroded,
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so too is the ethnosphere
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-- and, if anything, at a far greater rate.
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No biologists, for example, would dare suggest
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that 50 percent of all species or more have been or are
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on the brink of extinction because it simply is not true,
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and yet that -- the most apocalyptic scenario
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in the realm of biological diversity --
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scarcely approaches what we know to be the most optimistic scenario
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in the realm of cultural diversity.
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And the great indicator of that, of course, is language loss.
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When each of you in this room were born,
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there were 6,000 languages spoken on the planet.
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Now, a language is not just a body of vocabulary
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or a set of grammatical rules.
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A language is a flash of the human spirit.
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It's a vehicle through which the soul of each particular culture
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comes into the material world.
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Every language is an old-growth forest of the mind,
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a watershed, a thought, an ecosystem of spiritual possibilities.
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And of those 6,000 languages, as we sit here today in Monterey,
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fully half are no longer being whispered into the ears of children.
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They're no longer being taught to babies,
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which means, effectively, unless something changes,
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they're already dead.
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What could be more lonely than to be enveloped in silence,
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to be the last of your people to speak your language,
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to have no way to pass on the wisdom of the ancestors
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or anticipate the promise of the children?
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And yet, that dreadful fate is indeed the plight of somebody
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somewhere on Earth roughly every two weeks,
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because every two weeks, some elder dies
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and carries with him into the grave the last syllables
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of an ancient tongue.
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And I know there's some of you who say, "Well, wouldn't it be better,
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wouldn't the world be a better place
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if we all just spoke one language?" And I say, "Great,
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let's make that language Yoruba. Let's make it Cantonese.
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Let's make it Kogi."
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And you'll suddenly discover what it would be like
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to be unable to speak your own language.
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And so, what I'd like to do with you today
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is sort of take you on a journey through the ethnosphere,
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a brief journey through the ethnosphere,
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to try to begin to give you a sense of what in fact is being lost.
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Now, there are many of us who sort of forget
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that when I say "different ways of being,"
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I really do mean different ways of being.
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Take, for example, this child of a Barasana in the Northwest Amazon,
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the people of the anaconda
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who believe that mythologically they came up the milk river
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from the east in the belly of sacred snakes.
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Now, this is a people who cognitively
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do not distinguish the color blue from the color green
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because the canopy of the heavens
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is equated to the canopy of the forest
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upon which the people depend.
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They have a curious language and marriage rule
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which is called "linguistic exogamy:"
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you must marry someone who speaks a different language.
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And this is all rooted in the mythological past,
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yet the curious thing is in these long houses,
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where there are six or seven languages spoken
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because of intermarriage,
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you never hear anyone practicing a language.
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They simply listen and then begin to speak.
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Or, one of the most fascinating tribes I ever lived with,
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the Waorani of northeastern Ecuador,
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an astonishing people first contacted peacefully in 1958.
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In 1957, five missionaries attempted contact
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and made a critical mistake.
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They dropped from the air
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8 x 10 glossy photographs of themselves
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in what we would say to be friendly gestures,
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forgetting that these people of the rainforest
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had never seen anything two-dimensional in their lives.
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They picked up these photographs from the forest floor,
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tried to look behind the face to find the form or the figure,
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found nothing, and concluded that these were calling cards
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from the devil, so they speared the five missionaries to death.
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But the Waorani didn't just spear outsiders.
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They speared each other.
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54 percent of their mortality was due to them spearing each other.
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We traced genealogies back eight generations,
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and we found two instances of natural death
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and when we pressured the people a little bit about it,
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they admitted that one of the fellows had gotten so old
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that he died getting old, so we speared him anyway. (Laughter)
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But at the same time they had a perspicacious knowledge
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of the forest that was astonishing.
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Their hunters could smell animal urine at 40 paces
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and tell you what species left it behind.
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In the early '80s, I had a really astonishing assignment
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when I was asked by my professor at Harvard
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if I was interested in going down to Haiti,
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infiltrating the secret societies
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which were the foundation of Duvalier's strength
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and Tonton Macoutes,
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and securing the poison used to make zombies.
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In order to make sense out of sensation, of course,
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I had to understand something about this remarkable faith
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of Vodoun. And Voodoo is not a black magic cult.
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On the contrary, it's a complex metaphysical worldview.
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It's interesting.
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If I asked you to name the great religions of the world,
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what would you say?
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Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, Judaism, whatever.
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There's always one continent left out,
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the assumption being that sub-Saharan Africa
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had no religious beliefs. Well, of course, they did
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and Voodoo is simply the distillation
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of these very profound religious ideas
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that came over during the tragic Diaspora of the slavery era.
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But, what makes Voodoo so interesting
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is that it's this living relationship
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between the living and the dead.
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So, the living give birth to the spirits.
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The spirits can be invoked from beneath the Great Water,
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responding to the rhythm of the dance
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to momentarily displace the soul of the living,
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so that for that brief shining moment, the acolyte becomes the god.
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That's why the Voodooists like to say
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that "You white people go to church and speak about God.
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We dance in the temple and become God."
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And because you are possessed, you are taken by the spirit --
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how can you be harmed?
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So you see these astonishing demonstrations:
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Voodoo acolytes in a state of trance
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handling burning embers with impunity,
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a rather astonishing demonstration of the ability of the mind
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to affect the body that bears it
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when catalyzed in the state of extreme excitation.
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Now, of all the peoples that I've ever been with,
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the most extraordinary are the Kogi
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of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in northern Colombia.
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Descendants of the ancient Tairona civilization
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which once carpeted the Caribbean coastal plain of Colombia,
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in the wake of the conquest,
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these people retreated into an isolated volcanic massif
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that soars above the Caribbean coastal plain.
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In a bloodstained continent,
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these people alone were never conquered by the Spanish.
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To this day, they remain ruled by a ritual priesthood
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but the training for the priesthood is rather extraordinary.
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The young acolytes are taken away from their families
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at the age of three and four,
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sequestered in a shadowy world of darkness
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in stone huts at the base of glaciers for 18 years:
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two nine-year periods
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deliberately chosen to mimic the nine months of gestation
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they spend in their natural mother's womb;
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now they are metaphorically in the womb of the great mother.
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And for this entire time,
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they are inculturated into the values of their society,
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values that maintain the proposition that their prayers
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and their prayers alone maintain the cosmic --
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or we might say the ecological -- balance.
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And at the end of this amazing initiation,
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one day they're suddenly taken out
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and for the first time in their lives, at the age of 18,
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they see a sunrise. And in that crystal moment of awareness
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of first light as the Sun begins to bathe the slopes
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of the stunningly beautiful landscape,
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suddenly everything they have learned in the abstract
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is affirmed in stunning glory. And the priest steps back
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and says, "You see? It's really as I've told you.
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It is that beautiful. It is yours to protect."
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They call themselves the "elder brothers"
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and they say we, who are the younger brothers,
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are the ones responsible for destroying the world.
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Now, this level of intuition becomes very important.
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Whenever we think of indigenous people and landscape,
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we either invoke Rousseau
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and the old canard of the "noble savage,"
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which is an idea racist in its simplicity,
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or alternatively, we invoke Thoreau
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and say these people are closer to the Earth than we are.
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Well, indigenous people are neither sentimental
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nor weakened by nostalgia.
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There's not a lot of room for either
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in the malarial swamps of the Asmat
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or in the chilling winds of Tibet, but they have, nevertheless,
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through time and ritual, forged a traditional mystique of the Earth
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that is based not on the idea of being self-consciously close to it,
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but on a far subtler intuition:
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the idea that the Earth itself can only exist
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because it is breathed into being by human consciousness.
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Now, what does that mean?
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It means that a young kid from the Andes
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who's raised to believe that that mountain is an Apu spirit
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that will direct his or her destiny
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will be a profoundly different human being
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and have a different relationship to that resource
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or that place than a young kid from Montana
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raised to believe that a mountain is a pile of rock
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ready to be mined.
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Whether it's the abode of a spirit or a pile of ore is irrelevant.
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What's interesting is the metaphor that defines the relationship
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between the individual and the natural world.
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I was raised in the forests of British Columbia
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to believe those forests existed to be cut.
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That made me a different human being
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than my friends amongst the Kwagiulth
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who believe that those forests were the abode of Huxwhukw
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and the Crooked Beak of Heaven
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and the cannibal spirits that dwelled at the north end of the world,
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spirits they would have to engage during their Hamatsa initiation.
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Now, if you begin to look at the idea
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that these cultures could create different realities,
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you could begin to understand
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some of their extraordinary discoveries. Take this plant here.
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It's a photograph I took in the Northwest Amazon just last April.
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This is ayahuasca, which many of you have heard about,
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the most powerful psychoactive preparation
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of the shaman's repertoire.
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What makes ayahuasca fascinating
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is not the sheer pharmacological potential of this preparation,
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but the elaboration of it. It's made really of two different sources:
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on the one hand, this woody liana
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which has in it a series of beta-carbolines,
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harmine, harmaline, mildly hallucinogenic --
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to take the vine alone
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is rather to have sort of blue hazy smoke
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drift across your consciousness --
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but it's mixed with the leaves of a shrub in the coffee family
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called Psychotria viridis.
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This plant had in it some very powerful tryptamines,
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very close to brain serotonin, dimethyltryptamine,
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5-methoxydimethyltryptamine.
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If you've ever seen the Yanomami
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blowing that snuff up their noses,
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that substance they make from a different set of species
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also contains methoxydimethyltryptamine.
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To have that powder blown up your nose
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is rather like being shot out of a rifle barrel
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lined with baroque paintings and landing on a sea of electricity. (Laughter)
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It doesn't create the distortion of reality;
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it creates the dissolution of reality.
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In fact, I used to argue with my professor, Richard Evan Shultes --
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who is a man who sparked the psychedelic era
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with his discovery of the magic mushrooms
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in Mexico in the 1930s --
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I used to argue that you couldn't classify these tryptamines
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as hallucinogenic because by the time you're under the effects
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there's no one home anymore to experience a hallucination. (Laughter)
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But the thing about tryptamines is they cannot be taken orally
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because they're denatured by an enzyme
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found naturally in the human gut called monoamine oxidase.
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They can only be taken orally if taken in conjunction
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with some other chemical that denatures the MAO.
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Now, the fascinating things
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are that the beta-carbolines found within that liana
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are MAO inhibitors of the precise sort necessary
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to potentiate the tryptamine. So you ask yourself a question.
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How, in a flora of 80,000 species of vascular plants,
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do these people find these two morphologically unrelated plants
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that when combined in this way,
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created a kind of biochemical version
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of the whole being greater than the sum of the parts?
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Well, we use that great euphemism, "trial and error,"
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which is exposed to be meaningless.
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But you ask the Indians, and they say, "The plants talk to us."
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Well, what does that mean?
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This tribe, the Cofan, has 17 varieties of ayahuasca,
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all of which they distinguish a great distance in the forest,
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all of which are referable to our eye as one species.
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And then you ask them how they establish their taxonomy
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and they say, "I thought you knew something about plants.
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I mean, don't you know anything?" And I said, "No."
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Well, it turns out you take each of the 17 varieties
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in the night of a full moon, and it sings to you in a different key.
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Now, that's not going to get you a Ph.D. at Harvard,
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but it's a lot more interesting than counting stamens. (Laughter)
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Now --
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(Applause) --
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the problem -- the problem is that even those of us
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sympathetic with the plight of indigenous people
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view them as quaint and colorful
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but somehow reduced to the margins of history
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as the real world, meaning our world, moves on.
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Well, the truth is the 20th century, 300 years from now,
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is not going to be remembered for its wars
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or its technological innovations,
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but rather as the era in which we stood by
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and either actively endorsed or passively accepted
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the massive destruction of both biological and cultural diversity
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on the planet. Now, the problem isn't change.
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All cultures through all time
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have constantly been engaged in a dance
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with new possibilities of life.
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And the problem is not technology itself.
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The Sioux Indians did not stop being Sioux
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when they gave up the bow and arrow
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any more than an American stopped being an American
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when he gave up the horse and buggy.
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It's not change or technology
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that threatens the integrity of the ethnosphere. It is power,
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the crude face of domination.
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Wherever you look around the world,
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you discover that these are not cultures destined to fade away;
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these are dynamic living peoples
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being driven out of existence by identifiable forces
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that are beyond their capacity to adapt to:
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whether it's the egregious deforestation
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in the homeland of the Penan --
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a nomadic people from Southeast Asia, from Sarawak --
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a people who lived free in the forest until a generation ago,
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and now have all been reduced to servitude and prostitution
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on the banks of the rivers,
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where you can see the river itself is soiled with the silt
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that seems to be carrying half of Borneo away
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to the South China Sea,
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where the Japanese freighters hang light in the horizon
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ready to fill their holds with raw logs ripped from the forest --
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or, in the case of the Yanomami,
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it's the disease entities that have come in,
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in the wake of the discovery of gold.
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Or if we go into the mountains of Tibet,
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where I'm doing a lot of research recently,
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you'll see it's a crude face of political domination.
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You know, genocide, the physical extinction of a people
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is universally condemned, but ethnocide,
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the destruction of people's way of life, is not only not condemned,
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it's universally, in many quarters, celebrated
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as part of a development strategy.
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And you cannot understand the pain of Tibet
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until you move through it at the ground level.
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I once travelled 6,000 miles from Chengdu in Western China
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overland through southeastern Tibet to Lhasa
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with a young colleague, and it was only when I got to Lhasa
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that I understood the face behind the statistics
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you hear about:
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6,000 sacred monuments torn apart to dust and ashes,
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1.2 million people killed by the cadres
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during the Cultural Revolution.
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This young man's father had been ascribed to the Panchen Lama.
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That meant he was instantly killed
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at the time of the Chinese invasion.
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His uncle fled with His Holiness in the Diaspora
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that took the people to Nepal.
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His mother was incarcerated
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for the crime of being wealthy.
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He was smuggled into the jail at the age of two
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to hide beneath her skirt tails
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because she couldn't bear to be without him.
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17:20
The sister who had done that brave deed
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was put into an education camp.
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One day she inadvertently stepped on an armband
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of Mao, and for that transgression,
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she was given seven years of hard labor.
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The pain of Tibet can be impossible to bear,
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but the redemptive spirit of the people is something to behold.
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And in the end, then, it really comes down to a choice:
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do we want to live in a monochromatic world of monotony
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or do we want to embrace a polychromatic world of diversity?
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17:47
Margaret Mead, the great anthropologist, said, before she died,
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that her greatest fear was that as we drifted towards
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this blandly amorphous generic world view
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not only would we see the entire range of the human imagination
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reduced to a more narrow modality of thought,
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but that we would wake from a dream one day
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having forgotten there were even other possibilities.
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And it's humbling to remember that our species has, perhaps,
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been around for [150,000] years.
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The Neolithic Revolution -- which gave us agriculture,
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at which time we succumbed to the cult of the seed;
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18:19
the poetry of the shaman was displaced
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by the prose of the priesthood;
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we created hierarchy specialization surplus --
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is only 10,000 years ago.
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The modern industrial world as we know it
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is barely 300 years old.
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Now, that shallow history doesn't suggest to me
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that we have all the answers for all of the challenges
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that will confront us in the ensuing millennia.
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When these myriad cultures of the world
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are asked the meaning of being human,
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they respond with 10,000 different voices.
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And it's within that song that we will all rediscover the possibility
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of being what we are: a fully conscious species,
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fully aware of ensuring that all peoples and all gardens
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find a way to flourish. And there are great moments of optimism.
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This is a photograph I took at the northern tip of Baffin Island
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when I went narwhal hunting with some Inuit people,
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and this man, Olayuk, told me a marvelous story of his grandfather.
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The Canadian government has not always been kind
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to the Inuit people, and during the 1950s,
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19:17
to establish our sovereignty, we forced them into settlements.
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19:20
This old man's grandfather refused to go.
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19:24
The family, fearful for his life, took away all of his weapons,
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all of his tools.
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Now, you must understand that the Inuit did not fear the cold;
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they took advantage of it.
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19:33
The runners of their sleds were originally made of fish
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19:36
wrapped in caribou hide.
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19:37
So, this man's grandfather was not intimidated by the Arctic night
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19:42
or the blizzard that was blowing.
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19:44
He simply slipped outside, pulled down his sealskin trousers
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19:48
and defecated into his hand. And as the feces began to freeze,
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he shaped it into the form of a blade.
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He put a spray of saliva on the edge of the shit knife
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and as it finally froze solid, he butchered a dog with it.
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He skinned the dog and improvised a harness,
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took the ribcage of the dog and improvised a sled,
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20:06
harnessed up an adjacent dog,
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20:07
and disappeared over the ice floes, shit knife in belt.
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20:11
Talk about getting by with nothing. (Laughter)
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And this, in many ways --
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(Applause) --
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is a symbol of the resilience of the Inuit people
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and of all indigenous people around the world.
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The Canadian government in April of 1999
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gave back to total control of the Inuit
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an area of land larger than California and Texas put together.
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20:31
It's our new homeland. It's called Nunavut.
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20:34
It's an independent territory. They control all mineral resources.
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20:37
An amazing example of how a nation-state
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can seek restitution with its people.
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20:44
And finally, in the end, I think it's pretty obvious
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at least to all of all us who've traveled
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in these remote reaches of the planet,
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to realize that they're not remote at all.
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They're homelands of somebody.
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20:55
They represent branches of the human imagination
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that go back to the dawn of time. And for all of us,
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21:01
the dreams of these children, like the dreams of our own children,
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become part of the naked geography of hope.
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So, what we're trying to do at the National Geographic, finally,
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is, we believe that politicians will never accomplish anything.
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We think that polemics --
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(Applause) --
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we think that polemics are not persuasive,
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but we think that storytelling can change the world,
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and so we are probably the best storytelling institution
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in the world. We get 35 million hits on our website every month.
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156 nations carry our television channel.
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Our magazines are read by millions.
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And what we're doing is a series of journeys
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to the ethnosphere where we're going to take our audience
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to places of such cultural wonder
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that they cannot help but come away dazzled
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by what they have seen, and hopefully, therefore,
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embrace gradually, one by one,
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the central revelation of anthropology:
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that this world deserves to exist in a diverse way,
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21:56
that we can find a way to live
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in a truly multicultural, pluralistic world
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where all of the wisdom of all peoples
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can contribute to our collective well-being.
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Thank you very much.
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(Applause)
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About this website

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