Why plague doctors wore beaked masks

1,796,583 views ใƒป 2022-11-22

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: zeeva livshitz ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Ido Dekkers
00:07
The year is 1656.
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ื”ืฉื ื” ื”ื™ื 1656.
00:09
Your body is wracked by violent chills.
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ื”ื’ื•ืฃ ืฉืœื›ื ื”ืจื•ืก ืžืฆืžืจืžื•ืจื•ืช ืืœื™ืžื•ืช.
00:13
Your head pounds, your muscles are too weak to sit up,
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ื”ืจืืฉ ืฉืœื›ื ืคื•ืขื, ื”ืฉืจื™ืจื™ื ื—ืœืฉื™ื ืžื›ื“ื™ ืœืฉื‘ืช,
00:17
and you feel like rancid, hard-boiled eggs
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ื•ืืชื ืžืจื’ื™ืฉื™ื ื›ืื™ืœื• ื‘ื™ืฆื™ื ืงืฉื•ืช ืžื‘ื•ืฉืœื•ืช ื•ืžืขื•ืคืฉื•ืช
00:19
are squeezing out of your neck and armpits.
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ื ืกื—ื˜ื•ืช ืžื”ืฆื•ื•ืืจ ืฉืœื›ื ื•ื‘ืชื™ ื”ืฉื—ื™.
00:23
In your feverish state, you see a strange-looking man approach,
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ื‘ืžืฆื‘ ื”ื—ื•ื ืฉืœื›ื, ืืชื ืจื•ืื™ื ื’ื‘ืจ ืžื•ื–ืจ ืœืžืจืื” ืžืชืงืจื‘,
00:27
his face obscured by a beak-like mask, his body covered from head to toe.
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ืคื ื™ื• ืžื•ืกืชืจื™ื ื‘ืžืกื›ื” ื“ืžื•ื™ืช ืžืงื•ืจ, ื’ื•ืคื• ืžื›ื•ืกื” ืžื›ืฃ ืจื’ืœ ื•ืขื“ ืจืืฉ.
00:33
He examines you and even without seeing his face,
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ื”ื•ื ื‘ื•ื—ืŸ ืืชื›ื ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ื‘ืœื™ ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ืคื ื™ื•,
00:36
you know the diagnosis:
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ืืชื ืžื›ื™ืจื™ื ืืช ื”ืื‘ื—ื ื”:
00:38
you have the plague.
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ื ื“ื‘ืงืชื ื‘ืžื’ื™ืคื”.
00:39
The plague stands out as one of the most terrifying and destructive diseases
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ื”ืžื’ืคื” ื‘ื•ืœื˜ืช ื›ืื—ืช ืžืื•ืชืŸ ืžื—ืœื•ืช ืžืคื—ื™ื“ื•ืช ื•ื”ืจืกื ื™ื•ืช
00:44
in human history.
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ื‘ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช.
00:46
It swept across large parts of Afro- Eurasia in three separate pandemics
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ื”ื™ื ืชืงืคื” ื—ืœืงื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ืฉืœ ืืคืจื•-ืื™ืจื•ืืกื™ื” ื‘ืฉืœื•ืฉ ืžื’ื™ืคื•ืช ื ืคืจื“ื•ืช
00:50
starting in the 6th, 14th, and 19th centuries;
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ื”ื—ืœ ืžื”ืžืื•ืช ื”-6, ื”-14, ื•ื”ืžืื” ื”-19;
00:55
killed tens of millions of people,
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ื”ืจื’ื” ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืžื™ืœื™ื•ื ื™ ืื ืฉื™ื,
00:57
and hadโ€” in the best of casesโ€” about a 40% survival rate.
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ื•ื”ื™ื” ืœื”- ื‘ืžืงืจื” ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ - ืฉื™ืขื•ืจ ื”ื™ืฉืจื“ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื›-40%.
01:03
The European plague doctor, with his beaked mask and wizard-like robes,
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ืจื•ืคื ื”ืžื’ื™ืคื•ืช ื”ืื™ืจื•ืคื™, ืขื ืžืกื›ืช ื”ืžืงื•ืจ ืฉืœื• ื•ื’ืœื™ืžื•ืช ื“ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ืงื•ืกืžื™ื,
01:08
is one of the images most popularly associated with plague today.
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ื”ื•ื ืื—ืช ื”ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืคื•ืคื•ืœืจื™ื•ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื”ืงืฉื•ืจื•ืช ื”ื™ื•ื ืœืžื’ืคื”.
01:13
Heโ€™s often found in books and films about the 14th century pandemic
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ื”ื•ื ื ืžืฆื ืœืขืชื™ื ืงืจื•ื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืกืคืจื™ื ื•ื‘ืกืจื˜ื™ื ืขืœ ืžื’ืคืช ื”ืžืื” ื”-14
01:17
known as the Black Death.
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ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื” ื”ืžื•ื•ืช ื”ืฉื—ื•ืจ.
01:20
The only problem is thatโ€™s about as accurate as placing
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ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื” ื”ื™ื ืฉื–ื” ืžื“ื•ื™ืง ื‘ืขืจืš ื›ืžื• ืžื™ืงื•ื
01:23
a modern surgeon at the court of Louis the 14th in Versailles.
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ืฉืœ ืžื ืชื— ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžืฉืคื˜ ืฉืœ ืœื•ืื™ ื”-14 ื‘ื•ื•ืจืกืื™.
01:28
The confusion is understandable thoughโ€”
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื‘ืœื‘ื•ืœ ืžื•ื‘ืŸ -
01:30
the Black Death had several aftershocks,
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ืœืžื•ื•ืช ื”ืฉื—ื•ืจ ื”ื™ื• ื›ืžื” ื–ืขื–ื•ืขื™ื ืขื•ืงื‘ื™ื,
01:33
including a series of devastating outbreaks in Western Europe
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ื›ื•ืœืœ ืกื“ืจื” ืฉืœ ื”ืชืคืจืฆื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืจืกื ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืžืขืจื‘ ืื™ืจื•ืคื”
01:37
during the 17th century.
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ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืžืื” ื”-17.
01:39
This is when the iconic plague doctor actually emerged on the scene.
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ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื”ื–ืžืŸ ืฉืจื•ืคื ื”ืžื’ื™ืคื•ืช ื”ืื™ืงื•ื ื™ ืœืžืขืฉื” ื”ื•ืคื™ืข.
01:45
First described in the early 17th century,
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ื”ื•ื ืชื•ืืจ ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื”ืžืื” ื”-17,
01:47
the outfit consisted of a hood with crystal eyepieces
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ื”ืชืœื‘ื•ืฉืช ื›ืœืœื” ื‘ืจื“ืก ืขื ืขื™ื ื™ื•ืช ืงืจื™ืกื˜ืœ
01:51
and a beak filled with a pungent combination of herbs and compounds.
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ื•ืžืงื•ืจ ืžืœื ืฉื™ืœื•ื‘ ืฉืœ ืฆืžื—ื™ ืžืจืคื ื•ืชืจื›ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื—ืจื™ืคื•ืช.
01:56
This could include cinnamon, pepper, turpentine,
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ื–ื” ื™ื›ืœ ืœื›ืœื•ืœ ืงื™ื ืžื•ืŸ, ืคืœืคืœ, ื˜ึถืจืคึธึผื ื˜ึดื™ืŸ,
01:59
roast copper, and powdered viper flesh.
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ื ื—ื•ืฉืช ืงืœื•ื™ื”, ื•ืื‘ืงืช ื‘ืฉืจ ืฆืคืข.
02:03
This recipe was inspired by the famed 2nd century Greco-Roman physician Galen,
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ื”ืžืชื›ื•ืŸ ื”ื–ื” ื ื•ืฆืจ ื‘ื”ืฉืจืืช ื”ืจื•ืคื ื”ื™ื•ื•ื ื™-ืจื•ืžื™ ื”ืžืคื•ืจืกื ื’ืืœืŸ ืžื”ืžืื” ื”-2,
02:09
and was thought to ward off poisoned air known as miasma.
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ื•ื ื—ืฉื‘ ื›ืžืจื—ื™ืง ืื•ื•ื™ืจ ืžื•ืจืขืœ ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื” ืžื™ืืกืžื”.
02:14
People believed this bad air spread plague after emanating from swamps
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ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืืžื™ื ื• ืฉื”ืื•ื•ื™ืจ ื”ืจืข ื”ื–ื” ืžืคื™ืฅ ืžื’ืคื” ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื ื‘ืขื” ืžื‘ื™ืฆื•ืช
02:18
and sources of decay,
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ื•ืžืงื•ืจื•ืช ืจื™ืงื‘ื•ืŸ,
02:20
such as dead plants or animal carcasses.
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ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ืฆืžื—ื™ื ืžืชื™ื ืื• ืคื’ืจื™ ื‘ืขืœื™ ื—ื™ื™ื.
02:23
In earlier centuries, doctors across Europe carried metal pomanders
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ื‘ืžืื•ืช ืงื•ื“ืžื•ืช, ืจื•ืคืื™ื ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ื ืฉืื• ื›ืœื™ ืžืชื›ืช ืงื˜ื ื™ื
02:28
filled with similar mixtures,
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ืžืœืื™ื ื‘ืชืขืจื•ื‘ื•ืช ื“ื•ืžื•ืช,
02:30
and itโ€™s possible that the beak evolved as a hands-free alternative.
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ื•ื™ื™ืชื›ืŸ ืฉื”ืžืงื•ืจ ื”ืชืคืชื— ื›ื—ืœื•ืคื” ืœืœื ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ื™ื“ื™ื™ื.
02:35
The rest of the costume, which included an oiled leather robe, boots and gloves,
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ืฉืืจ ื”ืœื‘ื•ืฉ, ืฉื›ืœืœ ื—ืœื•ืง ืขื•ืจ ืžืฉื•ืžืŸ, ืžื’ืคื™ื™ื ื•ื›ืคืคื•ืช,
02:40
acted as kind of an early hazmat suit,
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ืคืขืœ ื›ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ื—ืœื™ืคืช ืžื’ืŸ ืžื•ืงื“ืžืช,
02:42
likely designed to block miasma from entering through the skinโ€™s pores.
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ืฉื›ื ืจืื” ื ื•ืขื“ื” ืœื—ืกื•ื ืืช ื”ืžื™ืืกืžื” ืžื›ื ื™ืกื” ื“ืจืš ื ืงื‘ื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืจ.
02:47
While this shows some basic understanding that plague
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืฉื–ื” ืžืจืื” ื”ื‘ื ื” ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ืช ืฉื”ืžื’ื™ืคื” ื”ื”ื™ื
02:50
spread from one place to another,
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ื”ืชืคืฉื˜ื” ืžืžืงื•ื ืœืžืงื•ื,
02:53
these doctors couldnโ€™t know that, in most cases,
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ื”ืจื•ืคืื™ื ื”ืืœื” ืœื ื™ื›ืœื• ืœื“ืขืช ืฉื‘ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืžืงืจื™ื,
02:56
the true culprit was a tiny flea transmitting the bacteria,
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ื”ืืฉื ื”ืืžื™ืชื™ ื”ื™ื” ืคืจืขื•ืฉ ื–ืขื™ืจ ืฉื”ืขื‘ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ื,
03:00
Yersinia pestis, from one person or animal to another.
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ื™ืจืกื™ื ื™ื™ื” ืคืกื˜ื™ืก, ืžืื“ื ืื—ื“ ืื• ื—ื™ื” ืœืžืฉื ื”ื•.
03:04
Itโ€™s possible that the plague doctorโ€™s outfit may have provided
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ื™ืชื›ืŸ ืฉื”ืชืœื‘ื•ืฉืช ืฉืœ ืจื•ืคื ื”ืžื’ื™ืคื” ืกื™ืคืงื”
03:07
some unintentional protection from flea bites.
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ื—ืœืง ืžื”ื’ื ื” ืœื ืžื›ื•ื•ื ืช ืžืขืงื™ืฆื•ืช ืคืจืขื•ืฉื™ื.
03:10
However, not enough information survives to know whether
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ืขื ื–ืืช, ืœื ืฉืจื“ ืžืกืคื™ืง ืžื™ื“ืข ื›ื“ื™ ืœื“ืขืช ืื
03:13
the costumed doctors fared any better than their ordinarily robed counterparts.
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ื”ืจื•ืคืื™ื ื”ืžื—ื•ืคืฉื™ื ื”ืกืชื“ืจื• ื˜ื•ื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืžืงื‘ื™ืœื™ื”ื ืฉืœื‘ื•ืฉื™ื ื›ืจื’ื™ืœ.
03:19
It's no surprise that this bizarre getup has captured popular imagination,
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ืื™ืŸ ื–ื” ืžืคืชื™ืข ืฉื”ืชืœื‘ื•ืฉืช ื”ืžื•ื–ืจื” ื”ื–ื• ืชืคืกื” ื“ืžื™ื•ืŸ ืคื•ืคื•ืœืจื™,
03:23
despite the fact that its use was limited to a few places in Italy and France
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ืฉื”ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ื” ื”ื™ื” ืžื•ื’ื‘ืœ ืœื›ืžื” ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื‘ืื™ื˜ืœื™ื” ื•ื‘ืฆืจืคืช
03:28
during the 17th and early 18th centuries.
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ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืžืื•ืช ื” -17 ื•ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื”ืžืื” ื” -18.
03:31
Even at the time, it was viewed with macabre fascination
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ืืคื™ืœื• ื‘ืื•ืชื” ืชืงื•ืคื”, ื–ื” ื ืฆืคื” ื›ื‘ืขืœ ืงืกื ืžืงืื‘ืจื™
03:35
and occasionally used to mock the ineffective and corrupt
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ื•ืฉื™ืžืฉ ืžื“ื™ ืคืขื ื›ื“ื™ ืœืœืขื•ื’ ืœืคืจืงื˜ื™ืงื•ืช ื”ืœื ื™ืขื™ืœื•ืช
03:39
practices of some physicians.
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ื•ื”ืžื•ืฉื—ืชื•ืช ืฉืœ ืจื•ืคืื™ื ืื—ื“ื™ื.
03:42
Until the 20th century, there was no effective treatment for the plague,
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ืขื“ ื”ืžืื” ื”ืขืฉืจื™ื, ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ื™ืขื™ืœ ืœืžื’ื™ืคื”,
03:47
but that didnโ€™t stop doctorsโ€” costumed or notโ€” from trying.
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ืœื ื”ืคืจื™ืข ืœืจื•ืคืื™ื - ืžื—ื•ืคืฉื™ื ืื• ืœื - ืœื ืกื•ืช.
03:51
They consulted the works of earlier physicians for guidance,
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ื”ื ื”ืชื™ื™ืขืฆื• ืขื ืขื‘ื•ื“ื•ืชื™ื”ื ืฉืœ ืจื•ืคืื™ื ืงื•ื“ืžื™ื
03:55
did what they could to fend off miasma,
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ืขืฉื• ืžื” ืฉื”ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœื—ืกื•ื ืืช ื”ืžื™ืืกืžื”,
03:57
and prescribed a variety of concoctions and antidotes.
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ื•ืจืฉืžื• ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืžืจืงื—ื•ืช ื•ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื ื’ื“.
04:01
They also relied on pre-modern medical mainstays.
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ื”ื ื”ืกืชืžื›ื• ื’ื ืขืœ ืขืžื•ื“ื™ ื”ืชื•ื•ืš ื”ืจืคื•ืื™ื™ื ื”ืงื“ื-ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ื.
04:05
These could include bloodletting,
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ืืœื” ื™ื›ืœื• ืœื›ืœื•ืœ ื”ืงื–ืช ื“ื,
04:07
which involved draining (sometimes concerningly large amounts of) blood
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ืฉื›ืœืœื” ื ื™ืงื•ื– (ืœืคืขืžื™ื ืฉืœ ื›ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช) ืฉืœ ื“ื
04:11
in an attempt to remove poison or restore the bodyโ€™s natural balance.
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ื‘ื ื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ืœืกืœืง ืจืขืœ ืื• ืœื”ื—ื–ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืื™ื–ื•ืŸ ื”ื˜ื‘ืขื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื’ื•ืฃ.
04:16
Or cupping, where the rim of a heated glass
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ืื• ื›ื•ืกื•ืช ืจื•ื—, ื›ืฉื”ืฉืคื” ืฉืœ ื›ื•ืก ืžื—ื•ืžืžืช
04:18
was placed over swollen lymph nodes in hopes of making them burst soonerโ€”
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ื”ื•ื ื—ื” ืžืขืœ ื‘ืœื•ื˜ื•ืช ืœื™ืžืคื” ื ืคื•ื—ื•ืช ื‘ืชืงื•ื•ื” ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœื”ื ืœื”ืชืคื•ืฆืฅ ืžื•ืงื“ื ื™ื•ืชืจ -
04:23
a sign, when it occurred naturally, that a plague patient was on the mend.
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ืกื™ืžืŸ, ืฉื›ืืฉืจ ื”ืชืจื—ืฉ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื˜ื‘ืขื™, ื”ื™ื” ืฉืžื˜ื•ืคืœ ื‘ืžื’ื™ืคื” ืžื—ืœื™ื.
04:28
Orโ€” perhaps most painfullyโ€” cautery,
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ืื• - ืื•ืœื™ ื”ื›ื™ ื›ื•ืื‘ - ื›ึฐึผื•ึดื™ึธื”,
04:31
which involved lancing the lymph nodes with a red-hot poker
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ืฉื”ื™ืชื” ื›ืจื•ื›ื” ื‘ื ื™ืชื•ืง ื‘ืœื•ื˜ื•ืช ื”ืœื™ืžืคื” ืขื ืžึทื—ึฐืชึธึผื” ืื“ื•ืžื”-ื—ืžื”
04:34
to release the blackened pus within.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืฉื—ืจืจ ืืช ื”ืžื•ื’ืœื” ื”ืžื•ืฉื—ืจืช ื‘ืคื ื™ื.
04:38
A lot has changed since their times.
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ื”ืฉืชื ื” ืžืื– ืชืงื•ืคืชื.
04:40
Modern medicine has given us the means to quickly identify
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ื”ืจืคื•ืื” ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ืช ื”ืขื ื™ืงื” ืœื ื• ืืช ื”ืืžืฆืขื™ื ืœื–ื”ื•ืช ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช
04:43
bacterial as well as viral threats
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ืื™ื•ืžื™ื ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ื™ื ื›ืžื• ื’ื ื•ื™ืจืืœื™ื™ื
04:46
and to effectively mobilize against them.
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ื•ืœื”ืชื’ื™ื™ืก ื‘ื™ืขื™ืœื•ืช ื ื’ื“ื.
04:49
We also have access to technologies like test kits,
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ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื’ื ื’ื™ืฉื” ืœื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช ื›ืžื• ืขืจื›ื•ืช ืžื‘ื—ืŸ,
04:52
masks to deter the spread of respiratory viruses, and vaccines;
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ืžืกื›ื•ืช ืœืžื ื•ืข ืืช ื”ื”ืชืคืฉื˜ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื ื’ื™ืคื™ ื ืฉื™ืžื” ื•ื—ื™ืกื•ื ื™ื;
04:56
and we conduct robust trials to make sure theyโ€™re safe and effective.
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื‘ืฆืขื™ื ื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื ื™ืขืœื™ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื— ืฉื”ื ื‘ื˜ื•ื—ื™ื ื•ื™ืขื™ืœื™ื.
05:00
But some things donโ€™t change:
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ืื‘ืœ ื™ืฉ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืœื ืžืฉืชื ื™ื:
05:02
we still depend on the courage and compassion of medical professionals
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืชืœื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ืื•ืžืฅ ื•ื‘ื—ืžืœื” ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ ืžืงืฆื•ืข ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ื”ืจืคื•ืื”
05:05
who voluntarily risk their lives
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ื”ืžืกื›ื ื™ื ืžืจืฆื•ื ื ืืช ื—ื™ื™ื”ื
05:08
against an invisible attacker to help and comfort those who need it most.
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ื ื’ื“ ืชื•ืงืฃ ื‘ืœืชื™ ื ืจืื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœืขื–ื•ืจ ื•ืœื ื—ื ืืช ืžื™ ืฉื”ื›ื™ ืฆืจื™ืš ืืช ื–ื”.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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