Hendrik Poinar: Bring back the woolly mammoth!

243,451 views ใƒป 2013-05-30

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

00:00
Translator: Joseph Geni Reviewer: Morton Bast
0
0
7000
ืžืชืจื’ื: David Forrai ืžื‘ืงืจ: Ido Dekkers
00:12
When I was a young boy,
1
12868
1786
ื›ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ื ืขืจ ืฆืขื™ืจ,
00:14
I used to gaze through the microscope of my father
2
14654
2608
ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืžื‘ื™ื˜ ืžื‘ืขื“ ืœืžื™ืงืจื•ืกืงื•ืค ืขื ืื‘ื™
00:17
at the insects in amber that he kept in the house.
3
17262
3358
ื‘ื—ืจืงื™ื ืœื›ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ืขื ื‘ืจ (ืฉืจืฃ ืฉื”ืชืงืฉื”), ืฉื”ื—ื–ืงื ื• ื‘ื‘ื™ืช.
00:20
And they were remarkably well preserved,
4
20620
2557
ื•ื”ื ื ืฉืชืžืจื• ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ืžื“ื”ื™ืžื”,
00:23
morphologically just phenomenal.
5
23177
2245
ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ื™ื•ืฆืืช ืžืŸ ื”ื›ืœืœ ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ื” ืžื•ืจืคื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช.
00:25
And we used to imagine that someday,
6
25422
2194
ื•ื ื”ื’ื ื• ืœื“ืžื™ื™ืŸ, ืฉื™ื•ื ืื—ื“,
00:27
they would actually come to life
7
27616
1609
ื”ื ืžืžืฉ ื™ืชืขื•ืจืจื• ืœื—ื™ื™ื
00:29
and they would crawl out of the resin,
8
29225
1997
ื•ื™ื–ื—ืœื• ืืœ ืžื—ื•ืฅ ืœืฉืจืฃ
00:31
and, if they could, they would fly away.
9
31222
2744
ื•ืื ื™ื•ื›ืœื•, ื”ื ื™ืคืจืฉื• ื›ื ืคื™ื™ื ื•ื™ืขื•ืคื•.
00:33
If you had asked me 10 years ago whether or not
10
33966
2376
ืœื• ื”ื™ื™ืชื ืฉื•ืืœื™ื ืื•ืชื™ ืœืคื ื™ 10 ืฉื ื™ื, ื”ืื
00:36
we would ever be able to sequence the genome of extinct animals,
11
36342
3198
ื ื•ื›ืœ ืื™ ืคืขื ืœืžืคื•ืช ืืช ื”ื’ื ื•ื ืฉืœ ื—ื™ื•ืช ืฉื ื›ื—ื“ื•, ืื• ืœื,
00:39
I would have told you, it's unlikely.
12
39540
2475
ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืื•ืžืจ ืœื›ื ืฉื–ื” ืœื ืกื‘ื™ืจ.
00:42
If you had asked whether or not we would actually be able
13
42015
1895
ื”ืื ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืฉื•ืืœ ืืชื›ื, ื”ืื ื ื•ื›ืœ
00:43
to revive an extinct species,
14
43910
2152
ืžืžืฉ ืœื”ืฉื™ื‘ ืœื—ื™ื™ื ืžื™ืŸ ืฉื ื›ื—ื“, ืื• ืœื,
00:46
I would have said, pipe dream.
15
46062
1659
ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืื•ืžืจ, ื—ืœื•ืžื•ืช ื‘ืืกืคืžื™ื”.
00:47
But I'm actually standing here today, amazingly,
16
47721
2525
ืื‘ืœ ืœืžืขืฉื”, ืื ื™ ืขื•ืžื“ ื›ืืŸ ื”ื™ื•ื, ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžื“ื”ื™ื,
00:50
to tell you that not only is the sequencing
17
50246
2007
ื›ื“ื™ ืœื•ืžืจ ืœื›ื, ืฉืœื ืจืง ืฉืืคืฉืจื•ืช ืฉื—ื–ื•ืจ ื”ื’ื ื•ื
00:52
of extinct genomes a possibility, actually a modern-day reality,
18
52253
4190
ืฉืœ ืžื™ื ื™ื ื ื›ื—ื“ื™ื ื”ื™ื ืืคืฉืจื™ืช ื•ื›ื‘ืจ ืงื™ื™ืžืช ื”ื™ื•ื,
00:56
but the revival of an extinct species is actually within reach,
19
56443
4293
ืืœื ืฉื”ื”ืฉื‘ื” ืœื—ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื™ื ื™ื ื ื›ื—ื“ื™ื ื”ื™ื ืžืžืฉ ื‘ื”ื™ืฉื’ ื™ื“,
01:00
maybe not from the insects in amber --
20
60736
1839
ืื•ืœื™ ืœื ืžืชื•ืš ื”ื—ืจืงื™ื ืฉืœื›ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ืขื ื‘ืจ -
01:02
in fact, this mosquito was actually used
21
62575
1960
ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื”ื™ืชื•ืฉ ื”ื–ื” ืฉื™ืžืฉ
01:04
for the inspiration for "Jurassic Park" โ€”
22
64535
2352
ื”ืฉืจืื” ืœืกืจื˜ "ืคืืจืง ื”ื™ื•ืจื”" -
01:06
but from woolly mammoths, the well preserved remains
23
66887
2560
ืืœื ืžืžืžื•ืชื•ืช ืฆืžืจื™ืจื™ื•ืช, ืžื”ืฉื™ื™ืจื™ื ืฉื ืฉืชืžืจื• ื”ื™ื˜ื‘
01:09
of woolly mammoths in the permafrost.
24
69447
2207
ืฉืœ ืžืžื•ืชื•ืช ืฆืžืจื™ืจื™ื•ืช ื‘ืฉื›ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืงืจืงืข ื”ืงืคื•ืื•ืช-ืชืžื™ื“.
01:11
Woollies are a particularly interesting,
25
71654
2073
ื”ืžืžื•ืชื•ืช ื”ืฆืžืจื™ืจื™ื•ืช ื”ืŸ ื“ื•ื’ืžื” ืžืขื ื™ื™ื ืช
01:13
quintessential image of the Ice Age.
26
73727
2546
ื•ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ืช ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ืฉืœ ืขื™ื“ืŸ ื”ืงืจื—.
01:16
They were large. They were hairy.
27
76273
1825
ื”ืŸ ื”ื™ื• ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช. ื”ืŸ ื”ื™ื• ืฉืขื™ืจื•ืช.
01:18
They had large tusks, and we seem to have
28
78098
1984
ื”ื™ื• ืœื”ืŸ ื—ื˜ื™ื ืขื ืงื™ื™ื, ื•ื ืจืื” ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืืœื™ื”ืŸ
01:20
a very deep connection with them, like we do with elephants.
29
80082
2900
ืงืฉืจ ืขืžื•ืง, ื›ืžื• ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืขื ืคื™ืœื™ื.
01:22
Maybe it's because elephants share
30
82982
2515
ืื•ืœื™ ื–ื” ืžืคื ื™ ืฉืคื™ืœื™ื ื—ื•ืœืงื™ื
01:25
many things in common with us.
31
85497
1822
ืื™ืชื ื• ื”ืจื‘ื” ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืžืฉื•ืชืคื™ื.
01:27
They bury their dead. They educate the next of kin.
32
87319
2728
ื”ื ืงื•ื‘ืจื™ื ืืช ืžืชื™ื”ื. ื”ื ืžื—ื ื›ื™ื ืืช ื”ืฆืืฆืื™ื ืฉืœื”ื.
01:30
They have social knits that are very close.
33
90047
3020
ื”ื ื˜ื•ื•ื™ื ืงืฉืจื™ื ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื™ื ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ื.
01:33
Or maybe it's actually because we're bound by deep time,
34
93067
2870
ืื• ืื•ืœื™ ื–ื” ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืงืฉื•ืจื™ื ื‘ืงืฉืจ ืขืชื™ืง ื™ื•ืžื™ืŸ,
01:35
because elephants, like us, share their origins in Africa
35
95937
3338
ื›ื™ ื”ืคื™ืœื™ื, ื›ืžื•ื ื•, ืžืงื•ืจื ื‘ืืคืจื™ืงื”
01:39
some seven million years ago,
36
99275
2123
ืœืคื ื™ ื›ืฉื‘ืขื” ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื ื™ื,
01:41
and as habitats changed and environments changed,
37
101398
2794
ื•ื›ืฉื‘ืชื™ ื”ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ื•ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ื”ืฉืชื ื•,
01:44
we actually, like the elephants, migrated out
38
104192
3610
ืื ื—ื ื•, ืžืžืฉ ื›ืžื• ื”ืคื™ืœื™ื, ื”ืชื—ืœื ื• ืœื ื“ื•ื“ ื”ื—ื•ืฆื”,
01:47
into Europe and Asia.
39
107802
2220
ืืœ ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ื•ืืœ ืืกื™ื”.
01:50
So the first large mammoth that appears on the scene
40
110022
2703
ืื– ื”ืžืžื•ืชื” ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืฉื”ื•ืคื™ืขื” ื‘ืฉื˜ื—
01:52
is meridionalis, which was standing four meters tall
41
112725
3406
ื”ื™ื ื”ืžืจื™ื“ื™ืื•ื ืืœื™ืก, ืฉื‘ืขืžื™ื“ื” ื”ื’ื™ืขื” ืœื’ื•ื‘ื” ืฉืœ 4 ืžื˜ืจื™ื
01:56
weighing about 10 tons, and was a woodland-adapted species
42
116131
3832
ืฉืงืœื” ื› 10 ื˜ื•ื ื•ืช ื•ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืžื•ืชืืžืช ืœื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ื™ืขืจื•ืช
01:59
and spread from Western Europe clear across Central Asia,
43
119963
2962
ื•ื”ืชืคืฉื˜ื” ืžืžืขืจื‘ ื™ื‘ืฉืช ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ื•ืขื“ ืœืžืจื›ื– ืืกื™ื”,
02:02
across the Bering land bridge
44
122925
2250
ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœื’ืฉืจ ื”ื™ื‘ืฉืชื™ ืฉืœ ื‘ืจื™ื ื’
02:05
and into parts of North America.
45
125175
2310
ื•ืืœ ืชื•ืš ื—ืœืง ืžืฆืคื•ืŸ ืืžืจื™ืงื”.
02:07
And then, again, as climate changed as it always does,
46
127485
2688
ื•ืื–, ืฉื•ื‘, ื›ืฉื”ืืงืœื™ื ื”ืฉืชื ื”, ื›ืคื™ ืฉื”ื•ื ืžืฉืชื ื” ืชืžื™ื“,
02:10
and new habitats opened up,
47
130173
1510
ื•ื‘ืชื™ ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ื—ื“ืฉื™ื ื ืคืชื—ื•,
02:11
we had the arrival of a steppe-adapted species
48
131683
2476
ื”ื’ื™ืขื• ื”ืžื™ื ื™ื ื”ืžื•ืชืืžื™ื ืœื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ืขืจื‘ื”
02:14
called trogontherii in Central Asia
49
134159
2248
ื”ื ืงืจืื™ื trogontherii, ื‘ืžืจื›ื– ืืกื™ื”,
02:16
pushing meridionalis out into Western Europe.
50
136407
2750
ื“ื•ื—ืงื™ื ืืช ื”ืžืจื™ื“ื™ืื•ื ืืœื™ืก ืืœ ืžืขืจื‘ ืื™ืจื•ืคื”.
02:19
And the open grassland savannas of North America
51
139157
2395
ื•ื”ืกื•ื•ืื ื•ืช ื”ืคืชื•ื—ื•ืช ื•ื”ืžื“ื•ืฉืื•ืช ื‘ืฆืคื•ืŸ ืืžืจื™ืงื”
02:21
opened up, leading to the Columbian mammoth,
52
141552
2160
ื ืคืชื—ื•, ืžื” ืฉื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืœื”ื•ืคืขืชื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžืžื•ืชื” ื”ืงื•ืœื•ืžื‘ื™ืื ื™ืช,
02:23
a large, hairless species in North America.
53
143712
2540
ืžื™ืŸ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื•ื—ืกืจ ืฉื™ืขืจ ื‘ืฆืคื•ืŸ ืืžืจื™ืงื”.
02:26
And it was really only about 500,000 years later
54
146252
2911
ื•ื‘ืืžืช ืจืง ืื—ืจื™ ื› 500,000 ืฉื ื” ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ,
02:29
that we had the arrival of the woolly,
55
149163
2705
ื”ื•ืคื™ืขื” ื”ืžืžื•ืชื” ื”ืฆืžืจื™ืจื™ืช,
02:31
the one that we all know and love so much,
56
151868
2028
ื–ื• ืฉื›ื•ืœื ื• ืžื›ื™ืจื™ื ื•ืื•ื”ื‘ื™ื ื›ืœ ื›ืš,
02:33
spreading from an East Beringian point of origin
57
153896
3310
ื•ื”ืชืคืฉื˜ื” ืžื ืงื•ื“ื” ืžื–ืจื—ื™ืช ื‘ืื–ื•ืจ ื‘ืจื™ื ื’
02:37
across Central Asia, again pushing the trogontherii
58
157206
2886
ืœื›ืœ ืจื—ื‘ื™ ืžืจื›ื– ืืกื™ื”, ื“ื•ื—ืงืช ืฉื•ื‘ ืืช ื” trogontherii
02:40
out through Central Europe,
59
160092
1651
ื”ื—ื•ืฆื” ืœืžืจื›ื– ืื™ืจื•ืคื”,
02:41
and over hundreds of thousands of years
60
161743
2066
ื•ื‘ืžืฉืš ืžืื•ืช ืืœืคื™ ืฉื ื™ื
02:43
migrating back and forth across the Bering land bridge
61
163809
3084
ื ื•ื“ื“ืช ื”ืœื•ืš ื•ืฉื•ื‘ ื“ืจืš ื”ื’ืฉืจ ื”ื™ื‘ืฉืชื™ ืฉืœ ื‘ืจื™ื ื’
02:46
during times of glacial peaks
62
166893
2027
ื‘ืชืงื•ืคื•ืช ืฉื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืงืจื—ื•ื ื™ื
02:48
and coming into direct contact
63
168920
1796
ื•ืžื’ื™ืขื” ืœืงืฉืจ ื™ืฉื™ืจ
02:50
with the Columbian relatives living in the south,
64
170716
2804
ืขื ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ ื”ืžืฉืคื—ื” ื”ืงื•ืœื•ืžื‘ื™ืื ื™ื ืฉื’ืจื• ื‘ื“ืจื•ื,
02:53
and there they survive over hundreds of thousands of years
65
173520
3288
ื•ืฉื ื”ื ืฉื•ืจื“ื™ื ื‘ืžืฉืš ืžืื•ืช ืืœืคื™ ืฉื ื™ื
02:56
during traumatic climatic shifts.
66
176808
2177
ืชื•ืš ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื˜ืจืื•ืžื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืืงืœื™ื.
02:58
So there's a highly plastic animal dealing with great transitions
67
178985
4216
ืื– ื”ื ื” ืœื ื• ื—ื™ื” ืกืชื’ืœื ื™ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืžืฆืœื™ื—ื” ืœื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ ืขื ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ืื“ื™ืจื™ื
03:03
in temperature and environment, and doing very, very well.
68
183201
2848
ื‘ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื” ื•ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”, ื•ืขื•ืฉื” ื–ืืช ื‘ื”ืฆืœื—ื” ืจื‘ื” ืžืื•ื“.
03:06
And there they survive on the mainland until about 10,000 years ago,
69
186049
3991
ื•ื”ื™ื ืฉื•ืจื“ืช ืขืœ ื”ื™ื‘ืฉืช ืขื“ ืœืคื ื™ ื› 10,000 ืฉื ื”,
03:10
and actually, surprisingly, on the small islands off of Siberia
70
190040
3153
ื•ื‘ืขืฆื, ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžืคืชื™ืข, ื’ื ืขืœ ืื™ื™ื ืงื˜ื ื™ื ื‘ืื–ื•ืจ ืกื™ื‘ื™ืจ
03:13
and Alaska until about 3,000 years ago.
71
193193
2474
ื•ืืœืกืงื”, ืขื“ ืœืคื ื™ ื› 3,000 ืฉื ื™ื.
03:15
So Egyptians are building pyramids
72
195667
1689
ื›ืš ืฉื›ืฉื”ืžืฆืจื™ื ื‘ื•ื ื™ื ืคื™ืจืžื™ื“ื•ืช
03:17
and woollies are still living on islands.
73
197356
2766
ื”ืžืžื•ืชื•ืช ื”ืฆืžืจื™ืจื™ื•ืช ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื—ื™ื•ืช ืขืœ ืื™ื™ื.
03:20
And then they disappear.
74
200122
1549
ื•ืื– ื”ืŸ ื ืขืœืžื•ืช.
03:21
Like 99 percent of all the animals that have once lived,
75
201671
2254
ื›ืžื• 99% ืžื”ื—ื™ื•ืช ืฉื”ืชืงื™ื™ืžื• ืคืขื,
03:23
they go extinct, likely due to a warming climate
76
203925
3263
ื”ืŸ ื ื›ื—ื“ื• ื›ื ืจืื” ื‘ืฉืœ ื”ื”ืชื—ืžืžื•ืช ื”ื’ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ืช
03:27
and fast-encroaching dense forests
77
207204
2082
ื•ื”ืฆื˜ืžืงื•ืช ืžื”ื™ืจื” ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืขืจื•ืช ื”ืฆืคื•ืคื™ื
03:29
that are migrating north,
78
209286
1501
ืฉืžืชืคืฉื˜ื™ื ืฆืคื•ื ื”,
03:30
and also, as the late, great Paul Martin once put it,
79
210787
2973
ื•ื’ื, ื›ืคื™ ืฉืืžืจ ื–ืืช ืคืขื ืคื•ืœ ืžืจื˜ื™ืŸ ื”ืžื ื•ื—,
03:33
probably Pleistocene overkill,
80
213760
1751
ื›ื ืจืื” ื”ื”ืจื’ ื”ืžื•ืคืจื– ืฉืœ ืชืงื•ืคืช ื”ืคืœื™ื™ืกื˜ื•ืงืŸ
03:35
so the large game hunters that took them down.
81
215511
2573
ื›ืœื•ืžืจ ื”ืฆื™ื™ื“ื™ื ืฉื—ื™ืกืœื• ืื•ืชื.
03:38
Fortunately, we find millions of their remains
82
218084
2262
ืœืžืจื‘ื” ื”ืžื–ืœ, ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื•ืฆืื™ื ืฉืจื™ื“ื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื™ืœื™ื•ื ื™ื ืžื”ื
03:40
strewn across the permafrost buried deep
83
220346
2677
ืžืคื•ื–ืจื™ื ืœื›ืœ ืจื•ื—ื‘ ืžืขื‘ื” ื”ืงืจืงืข ื”ืงืคื•ืื”
03:43
in Siberia and Alaska, and we can actually go up there
84
223023
3125
ื‘ืกื™ื‘ื™ืจ ื•ื‘ืืœืกืงื”, ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืžืžืฉ ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœืฉื
03:46
and actually take them out.
85
226148
1910
ื•ืœื”ื•ืฆื™ื ืื•ืชื ืžืฉื.
03:48
And the preservation is, again,
86
228058
1524
ื•ืจืžืช ื”ืฉื™ืžื•ืจ, ืฉื•ื‘,
03:49
like those insects in [amber], phenomenal.
87
229582
2570
ื›ืžื• ืื•ืชื ื—ืจืงื™ื ื‘ืฉืจืฃ, ื”ื™ื ื™ื•ืฆืืช ืžื’ื“ืจ ื”ืจื’ื™ืœ.
03:52
So you have teeth, bones with blood
88
232152
3520
ืื– ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืฉื™ื ื™ื™ื, ืขืฆืžื•ืช ืขื ื“ื
03:55
which look like blood, you have hair,
89
235672
2040
ืฉื ืจืื•ืช ื›ืžื• ื“ื, ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืฉื™ืขืจ,
03:57
and you have intact carcasses or heads
90
237712
1527
ื•ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืคื’ืจื™ื ืฉื ืฉืชืžืจื• ื‘ืฉืœืžื•ืชื ืื• ืจืืฉื™ื
03:59
which still have brains in them.
91
239239
2943
ืฉืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืžื›ื™ืœื™ื ืžื•ื—ื•ืช ื‘ืชื•ื›ื.
04:02
So the preservation and the survival of DNA
92
242182
2371
ืจืžืช ื”ื”ืฉืชืžืจื•ืช ื•ื”ื”ื™ืฉืจื“ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”DNA
04:04
depends on many factors, and I have to admit,
93
244553
2072
ืชืœื•ื™ื” ื‘ื’ื•ืจืžื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื, ื•ืื ื™ ื—ื™ื™ื‘ ืœื”ื•ื“ื•ืช,
04:06
most of which we still don't quite understand,
94
246625
2328
ืฉืจื‘ื™ื ืžื”ื ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื ืžื‘ื™ื ื™ื,
04:08
but depending upon when an organism dies
95
248953
2072
ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืชืœื•ืช ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉื‘ื• ื”ื™ืฆื•ืจ ืžืช,
04:11
and how quickly he's buried, the depth of that burial,
96
251025
4489
ื•ื›ืžื” ืžื”ืจ ื”ื•ื ื ืงื‘ืจ, ืขื•ืžืง ื”ืงื‘ื•ืจื”,
04:15
the constancy of the temperature of that burial environment,
97
255514
3302
ื”ืจืžื” ื”ืงื‘ื•ืขื” ืฉืœ ื”ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื” ืฉืœ ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ืฉื‘ื” ื”ื•ื ื ืงื‘ืจ,
04:18
will ultimately dictate how long DNA will survive
98
258816
2568
ื™ืงื‘ืขื• ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ื›ืžื” ื–ืžืŸ ื™ืฉืจื•ื“ ื”DNA
04:21
over geologically meaningful time frames.
99
261384
2861
ืœืื•ืจืš ืชืงื•ืคื•ืช ื’ื™ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ื•ืช.
04:24
And it's probably surprising to many of you
100
264245
1644
ื•ื–ื” ื‘ื•ื•ื“ืื™ ื™ืคืชื™ืข ืจื‘ื™ื ืžื›ื
04:25
sitting in this room that it's not the time that matters,
101
265889
3140
ืฉื™ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ื›ืืŸ ื‘ื—ื“ืจ ืฉื–ื” ืœื ื”ื–ืžืŸ ืฉืžืฉื ื”,
04:29
it's not the length of preservation,
102
269029
1627
ื–ื” ืœื ืžืฉืš ืชืงื•ืคืช ื”ืฉื™ืžื•ืจ,
04:30
it's the consistency of the temperature of that preservation that matters most.
103
270656
3982
ืืœื ื”ืจืžื” ื”ืงื‘ื•ืขื” ืฉืœ ื”ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื”, ื”ื™ื ื”ื’ื•ืจื ื”ืžื›ืจื™ืข ื‘ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ืฉื™ืžื•ืจ.
04:34
So if we were to go deep now within the bones
104
274638
2819
ื›ืš ืฉืื ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืžืขืžื™ืงื™ื ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืœืชื•ืš ื”ืขืฆืžื•ืช
04:37
and the teeth that actually survived the fossilization process,
105
277457
2975
ื•ื”ืฉื™ื ื™ื™ื ืฉืฉืจื“ื• ืืช ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ื”ืชืื‘ื ื•ืช,
04:40
the DNA which was once intact, tightly wrapped
106
280432
3392
ื”DNA ืฉื”ื™ื” ืคืขื ืฉืœื, ืืจื•ื– ื”ื™ื˜ื‘
04:43
around histone proteins, is now under attack
107
283824
2368
ืžืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืœื—ืœื‘ื•ื ื™ ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืŸ, ื”ื•ื ื›ืขืช ืชื—ืช ืžืชืงืคื”
04:46
by the bacteria that lived symbiotically with the mammoth
108
286192
2966
ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ืงื˜ืจื™ื” ืฉื—ื™ื” ืคืขื ื‘ืกื™ืžื‘ื™ื•ื–ื” ืขื ื”ืžืžื•ืชื”
04:49
for years during its lifetime.
109
289158
1810
ื‘ืžืฉืš ืฉื ื™ื, ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ื™ื ืขื•ื“ ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื.
04:50
So those bacteria, along with the environmental bacteria,
110
290968
3201
ืื– ื”ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ื ื”ืืœื”, ื‘ื™ื—ื“ ืขื ื”ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ื ืžื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”
04:54
free water and oxygen, actually break apart the DNA
111
294169
3703
ืžืฉื—ืจืจื™ื ืžื™ื ื•ื—ืžืฆืŸ ืฉืœืžืขืฉื” ืฉื•ื‘ืจื™ื ื—ืœืงื™ื ืžื”-DNA
04:57
into smaller and smaller and smaller DNA fragments,
112
297872
2545
ืœื—ืœืงื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื•ื™ื•ืชืจ ืงื˜ื ื™ื ืฉืœ DNA
05:00
until all you have are fragments that range
113
300417
2321
ืขื“ ืฉื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉื ืฉืืจ ื”ื ืžืงื˜ืขื™ื ื‘ืื•ืจืš ืฉื ืข ื‘ื™ืŸ
05:02
from 10 base pairs to, in the best case scenarios,
114
302738
2681
10 ื–ื•ื’ื•ืช ื‘ืกื™ืก, ื‘ืžืงืจื” ื”ื˜ื•ื‘,
05:05
a few hundred base pairs in length.
115
305419
2373
ืขื“ ืœื›ืžื” ืžืื•ืช ื–ื•ื’ื•ืช ื‘ืกื™ืก.
05:07
So most fossils out there in the fossil record
116
307792
2311
ื›ืš ืฉืจื•ื‘ ื”ืžืื•ื‘ื ื™ื ืฉื ืžืฆืื™ื ืฉื ื‘ื—ื•ืฅ
05:10
are actually completely devoid of all organic signatures.
117
310103
2713
ื”ื ืœืžืขืฉื” ืžืฉื•ืœืœื™ ื›ืœ ื—ืชื™ืžื” ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ืช.
05:12
But a few of them actually have DNA fragments
118
312816
2433
ืื‘ืœ ื‘ื—ืœืง ืžื”ื ื™ืฉ ืžืžืฉ ืžืงื˜ืขื™ DNA
05:15
that survive for thousands,
119
315249
1874
ืฉืฉืจื“ื• ื‘ืžืฉืš ืืœืคื™,
05:17
even a few millions of years in time.
120
317123
3749
ืื•ืœื™ ืืคื™ืœื• ืžื™ืœื™ื•ื ื™ ืฉื ื™ื.
05:20
And using state-of-the-art clean room technology,
121
320872
2188
ื•ื‘ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื”ืขื“ื›ื ื™ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืœ ื—ื“ืจื™ื ื ืงื™ื™ื,
05:23
we've devised ways that we can actually pull these DNAs
122
323060
2664
ืคื™ืชื—ื ื• ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืฉื‘ื”ืŸ ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื‘ืจื•ืจ ืืช ื”DNA ื”ื–ื”
05:25
away from all the rest of the gunk in there,
123
325724
2504
ืžืชื•ืš ื›ืœ ืฉืืจ ื”ื‘ืจืจื” ืฉื,
05:28
and it's not surprising to any of you sitting in the room
124
328228
2199
ื•ื–ื” ืœื ื™ืคืชื™ืข ืืฃ ืื—ื“ ืžื›ื ื›ืืŸ ื‘ื—ื“ืจ,
05:30
that if I take a mammoth bone or a tooth
125
330427
2121
ืฉืื ืืงื— ืขืฆื ืื• ืฉืŸ ืฉืœ ืžืžื•ืชื”
05:32
and I extract its DNA that I'll get mammoth DNA,
126
332548
2999
ื•ืืžืฆื” ืžืชื•ื›ืŸ ืืช ื”DNA, ืืงื‘ืœ DNA ืฉืœ ืžืžื•ืชื”,
05:35
but I'll also get all the bacteria that once lived with the mammoth,
127
335547
3811
ืื‘ืœ ืื ื™ ื’ื ืืงื‘ืœ ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ื‘ืงื˜ืจื™ื•ืช ืฉื—ื™ื• ืคืขื ืขื ื”ืžืžื•ืชื”,
05:39
and, more complicated, I'll get all the DNA
128
339358
2247
ื•ืขื•ื“ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื•ืจื›ื‘, ืื ื™ ืืงื‘ืœ ืืช ื›ืœ ื”DNA
05:41
that survived in that environment with it,
129
341605
2184
ืฉืฉืจื“ ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ื™ื—ื“ ืื™ืชื”,
05:43
so the bacteria, the fungi, and so on and so forth.
130
343789
3174
ืืช ื”ื‘ืงื˜ืจื™ื•ืช, ืืช ื”ืคื˜ืจื™ื•ืช, ื•ืขื•ื“ ื•ืขื•ื“.
05:46
Not surprising then again that a mammoth
131
346963
2405
ื•ืฉื•ื‘ ืœื ืžืคืชื™ืข, ืฉืœืžืžื•ืชื”
05:49
preserved in the permafrost will have something
132
349368
1672
ืฉื ืฉืชืžืจื” ื‘ืื“ืžืช ื”ืงืจื— ื”ืงืคื•ืื” ืชืžื™ื“, ื™ื”ื™ื•
05:51
on the order of 50 percent of its DNA being mammoth,
133
351040
2868
ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื•ืช 50 ืื—ื•ื–ื™ื DNA ืฉืœ ืžืžื•ืชื”,
05:53
whereas something like the Columbian mammoth,
134
353908
2023
ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืฉืœื—ื™ื” ื›ืžื• ื”ืžืžื•ืชื” ื”ืงื•ืœื•ืžื‘ื™ืื ื™ืช,
05:55
living in a temperature and buried in a temperate environment
135
355931
2617
ืฉื—ื™ื” ื‘ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื” ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ื•ื ืงื‘ืจื” ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ื—ืžื” ื™ื•ืชืจ,
05:58
over its laying-in will only have 3 to 10 percent endogenous.
136
358548
3817
ื™ื”ื™ื• ืžืฉื”ื• ื›ืžื• 3 ืขื“ 10 ืื—ื•ื–ื™ื.
06:02
But we've come up with very clever ways
137
362365
2443
ืื‘ืœ ืคื™ืชื—ื ื• ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืžื—ื•ื›ืžื•ืช ืžืื•ื“
06:04
that we can actually discriminate, capture and discriminate,
138
364808
3106
ืฉื‘ื”ืŸ ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืžืžืฉ ืœื”ื‘ื—ื™ืŸ, ืœืงืœื•ื˜ ื•ืœื”ื‘ื—ื™ืŸ,
06:07
the mammoth from the non-mammoth DNA,
139
367914
1975
ื‘ื™ืŸ DNA ืฉืœ ื”ืžืžื•ืชื” ืœื‘ื™ืŸ ื”DNA ืฉืื™ื ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืžืžื•ืชื”,
06:09
and with the advances in high-throughput sequencing,
140
369889
2550
ื•ืขื ื”ืชืงื“ืžื•ืช ื”ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื‘ื‘ื ื™ื™ืช ืจืฆืฃ ื‘ื”ืกืคืงื™ื ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื™ื,
06:12
we can actually pull out and bioinformatically
141
372439
2837
ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืžืฆื•ืช ื•ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื‘ื™ื•ืื™ื ืคื•ืจืžื˜ื™
06:15
re-jig all these small mammoth fragments
142
375276
2969
ืœื”ืชืื™ื ืžื—ื“ืฉ ืืช ืžืงื˜ืขื™ ื”ืžืžื•ืชื” ื”ืงื˜ื ื™ื ื”ืืœื”
06:18
and place them onto a backbone
143
378245
2297
ื•ืœื”ืœื‘ื™ืฉ ืื•ืชื ืขืœ ื‘ืกื™ืก
06:20
of an Asian or African elephant chromosome.
144
380542
2559
ืฉืœ ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื ืฉืฉื™ื™ืš ืœืคื™ืœ ืืกื™ืืชื™ ืื• ืืคืจื™ืงื ื™.
06:23
And so by doing that, we can actually get all the little points
145
383101
2576
ื•ื‘ื“ืจืš ื–ื•, ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ื ืงื•ื“ื•ืช ื”ืงื˜ื ื•ืช
06:25
that discriminate between a mammoth and an Asian elephant,
146
385677
2825
ืฉืžื‘ื—ื™ื ื•ืช ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžืžื•ืชื” ืœื‘ื™ืŸ ืคื™ืœ ืืกื™ืืชื™,
06:28
and what do we know, then, about a mammoth?
147
388502
3039
ื•ืžื” ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื, ื‘ืืžืช, ืขืœ ืžืžื•ืชื”?
06:31
Well, the mammoth genome is almost at full completion,
148
391541
3153
ื˜ื•ื‘, ื”ื’ื ื•ื ืฉืœ ืžืžื•ืชื” ื›ืžืขื˜ ื”ื•ืฉืœื,
06:34
and we know that it's actually really big. It's mammoth.
149
394694
3541
ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื ืžืžืฉ ื’ื“ื•ืœื”. ื˜ื•ื‘, ื–ื• ืžืžื•ืชื”.
06:38
So a hominid genome is about three billion base pairs,
150
398235
3185
ืื– ืื ื’ื ื•ื ืฉืœ ื“ืžื•ื™ ืื“ื ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ ื‘ืขืจืš ืž3 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื–ื•ื’ื•ืช ื‘ืกื™ืก,
06:41
but an elephant and mammoth genome
151
401420
1577
ื’ื ื•ื ืฉืœ ืคื™ืœ ื•ืฉืœ ืžืžื•ืชื”
06:42
is about two billion base pairs larger, and most of that
152
402997
2656
ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ืขืจืš ื‘ืฉื ื™ ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื–ื•ื’ื•ืช ื‘ืกื™ืก, ืฉืจื•ื‘ื
06:45
is composed of small, repetitive DNAs
153
405653
2624
ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ ืžืžืงื˜ืขื™ DNA ืงื˜ื ื™ื ืฉื—ื•ื–ืจื™ื ืขืœ ืขืฆืžื
06:48
that make it very difficult to actually re-jig the entire structure of the genome.
154
408277
4633
ืžื” ืฉืžืงืฉื” ืžืื•ื“ ืขืœ ื”ื”ืจื›ื‘ื” ืžื—ื“ืฉ ืฉืœ ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ื’ื ื•ื ื”ืฉืœื.
06:52
So having this information allows us to answer
155
412910
2361
ื›ืฉื‘ื™ื“ื™ื ื• ื”ืื™ื ืคื•ืจืžืฆื™ื” ื”ื–ื•, ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืขื ื•ืช
06:55
one of the interesting relationship questions
156
415271
2135
ืขืœ ืื—ืช ืžื”ืฉืืœื•ืช ื”ืžืขื ื™ื™ื ื•ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ื™ื—ืกื™ื
06:57
between mammoths and their living relatives,
157
417406
2172
ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืžืžื•ืชื•ืช ืœื‘ื™ืŸ ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ื”ืŸ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื,
06:59
the African and the Asian elephant,
158
419578
2044
ื”ืคื™ืœ ื”ืืคืจื™ืงื ื™ ื•ื”ืคื™ืœ ื”ืืกื™ืืชื™,
07:01
all of which shared an ancestor seven million years ago,
159
421622
3167
ื›ื•ืœื ื—ืœืงื• ืื‘ ืงื“ืžื•ืŸ ืžืฉื•ืชืฃ ื‘ืขืจืš ืœืคื ื™ ื›ืฉื‘ืขื” ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื ื™ื
07:04
but the genome of the mammoth shows it to share
160
424789
2089
ืื‘ืœ ื”ื’ื ื•ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžืžื•ืชื” ืžืจืื” ืฉื”ื™ื ื—ืœืงื”
07:06
a most recent common ancestor with Asian elephants
161
426878
2780
ืืช ื”ืื‘ ื”ืงื“ืžื•ืŸ ื”ืžืฉื•ืชืฃ ื”ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขื ื”ืคื™ืœ ื”ืืกื™ืืชื™,
07:09
about six million years ago,
162
429658
1416
ืœืคื ื™ ื›ืฉื™ืฉื” ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื ื™ื,
07:11
so slightly closer to the Asian elephant.
163
431074
2473
ื›ืš ืฉื”ื™ื ืงืจื•ื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœืคื™ืœ ื”ืืกื™ืืชื™.
07:13
With advances in ancient DNA technology,
164
433547
2724
ืขื ื”ื”ืชืงื“ืžื•ืช ื‘ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ืช ื”DNA ื”ืขืชื™ืง,
07:16
we can actually now start to begin to sequence
165
436271
1953
ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ื›ืขืช ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ื•ืœืžืคื•ืช
07:18
the genomes of those other extinct mammoth forms that I mentioned,
166
438224
3311
ืืช ื”ื’ื ื•ื ืฉืœ ืžืžื•ืชื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช ืฉื”ื–ื›ืจืชื™,
07:21
and I just wanted to talk about two of them,
167
441535
1887
ื•ืจืฆื™ืชื™ ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ืฉืชื™ื™ื ืžื”ืŸ,
07:23
the woolly and the Columbian mammoth,
168
443422
2054
ื”ืžืžื•ืชื” ื”ืฆืžืจื™ืจื™ืช ื•ื”ืžืžื•ืชื” ื”ืงื•ืœื•ืžื‘ื™ืื ื™ืช,
07:25
both of which were living very close to each other
169
445476
2418
ืฉืชื™ื”ืŸ ื—ื™ื• ื‘ืชืงื•ืคื•ืช ืงืจื•ื‘ื•ืช ืžืื•ื“ ื–ื• ืœื–ื•
07:27
during glacial peaks,
170
447894
2625
ื‘ื–ืžื ื™ ืฉื™ื ืฉืœ ืขื™ื“ืŸ ื”ืงืจื—,
07:30
so when the glaciers were massive in North America,
171
450519
2163
ื›ืš ืฉื›ืฉื”ืงืจื—ื•ื ื™ื ื”ื™ื• ืžืืกื™ื‘ื™ื™ื ื‘ืฆืคื•ืŸ ืืžืจื™ืงื”,
07:32
the woollies were pushed into these subglacial ecotones,
172
452682
2595
ื”ืžืžื•ืชื•ืช ื”ืฆืžืจื™ืจื™ื•ืช ื ื“ื—ืงื• ืœืื–ื•ืจื™ ื”ืžื—ื™ื” ื”ืชืช-ืงืจื—ื•ื ื™ื™ื,
07:35
and came into contact with the relatives living to the south,
173
455277
3211
ื•ื‘ืื• ื‘ืžื’ืข ืขื ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ื”ื ืฉื—ื™ื• ื‘ื“ืจื•ื,
07:38
and there they shared refugia,
174
458488
2012
ื•ื—ืœืงื• ืื™ืชื ืื™ื–ื•ืจื™ ืžืงืœื˜,
07:40
and a little bit more than the refugia, it turns out.
175
460500
2384
ื•ื’ื ืงืฆืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืื™ื–ื•ืจื™ ืžืงืœื˜, ื›ืš ืžืกืชื‘ืจ.
07:42
It looks like they were interbreeding.
176
462884
2500
ื ืจืื” ืฉืฉื ื™ ื”ืžื™ื ื™ื ื”ืชืจื‘ื• ื–ื” ืขื ื–ื”.
07:45
And that this is not an uncommon feature
177
465384
1633
ื•ื–ื• ืœื ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ืช ื—ืจื™ื’ื”
07:47
in Proboscideans, because it turns out
178
467017
1638
ื‘ื‘ืขืœื™ ื—ื“ืง, ื›ื™ ืžืกืชื‘ืจ
07:48
that large savanna male elephants will outcompete
179
468655
2913
ืฉื–ื›ืจื™ ืคื™ืœื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ืžื”ืกื•ื•ืื ื” ื“ื•ื—ืงื™ื ื•ืžืชื—ืจื™ื ืขื
07:51
the smaller forest elephants for their females.
180
471568
3368
ื”ืคื™ืœื™ื ื”ืงื˜ื ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ, ืฉื•ื›ื ื™ ื”ื™ืขืจื•ืช, ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœื–ื›ื•ืช ื‘ื ืงื‘ื•ืชื™ื”ื.
07:54
So large, hairless Columbians
181
474936
2312
ื›ืš ืฉื”ืงื•ืœื•ืžื‘ื™ืื ื™ื ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื•ื—ืกืจื™ ื”ืฉื™ืขืจ
07:57
outcompeting the smaller male woollies.
182
477248
1803
ืžืชื—ืจื™ื ืขื ื”ื–ื›ืจื™ื ื”ืงื˜ื ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื•ื”ืฆืžืจื™ืจื™ื™ื.
07:59
It reminds me a bit of high school, unfortunately.
183
479051
2618
ืžื–ื›ื™ืจ ืœื™ ืงืฆืช ืืช ื™ืžื™ ื”ืชื™ื›ื•ืŸ, ืœืฆืขืจื™.
08:01
(Laughter)
184
481669
2339
(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
08:04
So this is not trivial, given the idea that we want
185
484008
2694
ื–ื” ืœื ื˜ืจื•ื™ื•ื•ื™ืืœื™, ืœืื•ืจ ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืฆื™ื
08:06
to revive extinct species, because it turns out
186
486702
2205
ืœื”ื—ื™ื•ืช ืžื™ื ื™ื ื ื›ื—ื“ื™ื, ื›ื™ ืžืกืชื‘ืจ
08:08
that an African and an Asian elephant
187
488907
1820
ืฉื”ืคื™ืœ ื”ืืคืจื™ืงื ื™ ื•ื”ืคื™ืœ ื”ืืกื™ืืชื ื™
08:10
can actually interbreed and have live young,
188
490727
2095
ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื–ื” ืขื ื–ื” ื•ืœื”ื•ืœื™ื“ ืฆืืฆืื™ื,
08:12
and this has actually occurred by accident in a zoo
189
492822
2141
ื•ื–ื” ืื›ืŸ ืงืจื” ื‘ื˜ืขื•ืช ื‘ื’ืŸ ื—ื™ื•ืช ืื—ื“
08:14
in Chester, U.K., in 1978.
190
494963
3042
ื‘ืฆ'ืกื˜ืจ, ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื ื™ื”, ื‘1978.
08:18
So that means that we can actually take Asian elephant chromosomes,
191
498005
3146
ืžื” ืฉืื•ืžืจ, ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืงื—ืช ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ืžื™ื ืฉืœ ืคื™ืœ ืืกื™ืืชื™,
08:21
modify them into all those positions we've actually now
192
501151
2158
ืœืฉื ื•ืช ืื•ืชื ืœืคื™ ืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื
08:23
been able to discriminate with the mammoth genome,
193
503309
2384
ืขืœ ื”ื’ื ื•ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžืžื•ืชื”
08:25
we can put that into an enucleated cell,
194
505693
2781
ื›ืš ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืœืฉื™ื ืื•ืชื ืขืœ ืชื ืฉื”ื’ืœืขื™ืŸ ื”ื•ืฆื ืžืžื ื•,
08:28
differentiate that into a stem cell,
195
508474
2259
ืœื”ืคื™ืง ืžืžื ื• ืชื ื’ื–ืข,
08:30
subsequently differentiate that maybe into a sperm,
196
510733
2320
ื•ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ืœื”ืคื™ืง ืžื”ืชื ื–ืจืข,
08:33
artificially inseminate an Asian elephant egg,
197
513053
2624
ืœื”ืคืจื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ ืชื ื‘ื™ืฆื” ืฉืœ ืคื™ืœื” ืืกื™ืืชื™ืช,
08:35
and over a long and arduous procedure,
198
515677
3107
ื•ื‘ืชื”ืœื™ืš ืืจื•ืš ื•ืžื™ื™ื’ืข
08:38
actually bring back something that looks like this.
199
518784
3509
ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ื—ื–ืจื” ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉื ืจืื” ื›ืžื• ื–ื”.
08:42
Now, this wouldn't be an exact replica,
200
522293
1690
ื–ื” ืื•ืœื™ ืœื ื™ื”ื™ื” ื”ืขืชืง ืžื“ื•ื™ืง,
08:43
because the short DNA fragments that I told you about
201
523983
2482
ื›ื™ ืžืงื˜ืขื™ ื”DNA ื”ืงืฆืจื™ื ืžืื•ื“ ืฉืขืœื™ื”ื ืกื™ืคืจืชื™ ืœื›ื,
08:46
will prevent us from building the exact structure,
202
526465
2481
ื™ืžื ืขื• ืžืื™ืชื ื• ืœืฉื—ื–ืจ ืืช ื”ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ืžื“ื•ื™ืง,
08:48
but it would make something that looked and felt
203
528946
1536
ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ื™ื™ืชืŸ ืœื ื• ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉื ืจืื” ื•ืžืจื’ื™ืฉ
08:50
very much like a woolly mammoth did.
204
530482
3107
ืงืจื•ื‘ ืœืžืžื•ืชื” ื”ืฆืžืจื™ืจื™ืช.
08:53
Now, when I bring up this with my friends,
205
533589
2744
ื›ืฉืื ื™ ืžืขืœื” ืืช ื”ื ื•ืฉื ืขื ื—ื‘ืจื™ื™,
08:56
we often talk about, well, where would you put it?
206
536333
2608
ืื ื—ื ื• ืื•ืžืจื™ื ืœืขืชื™ื ืงืจื•ื‘ื•ืช, ื˜ื•ื‘, ืื‘ืœ ืื™ืคื” ื ืฉื™ื ืื•ืชื”?
08:58
Where are you going to house a mammoth?
207
538941
1688
ืื™ืคื” ืืชื ืขื•ืžื“ื™ื ืœืื›ืกืŸ ืžืžื•ืชื”?
09:00
There's no climates or habitats suitable.
208
540629
2040
ื”ืจื™ ืื™ืŸ ืืงืœื™ื ืื• ื‘ื™ืช ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ืžืชืื™ื.
09:02
Well, that's not actually the case.
209
542669
1340
ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ื–ื” ืœื ื”ืžืงืจื”.
09:04
It turns out that there are swaths of habitat
210
544009
2893
ืžืกืชื‘ืจ ืฉื™ืฉื ืŸ ืจืฆื•ืขื•ืช ืฉืœ ื‘ืชื™ ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ
09:06
in the north of Siberia and Yukon
211
546902
2335
ื‘ืฆืคื•ืŸ ืกื™ื‘ื™ืจ ื•ื‘ื™ื•ืงื•ืŸ
09:09
that actually could house a mammoth.
212
549237
1206
ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืื•ื›ืœืกื•ืช ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžืžื•ืชื•ืช.
09:10
Remember, this was a highly plastic animal
213
550443
2245
ื–ื›ืจื•, ืฉื”ื™ื ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื—ื™ื” ืกืชื’ืœื ื™ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ
09:12
that lived over tremendous climate variation.
214
552688
2661
ืฉื—ื™ื” ื‘ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ ืืงืœื™ื ืงื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื.
09:15
So this landscape would be easily able to house it,
215
555349
2882
ื›ืš ืฉื”ืื–ื•ืจ ื”ื–ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ื‘ืงืœื•ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืงื•ื ื”ืžื—ื™ื™ื” ืฉืœื”,
09:18
and I have to admit that there [is] a part of the child in me,
216
558231
3660
ื•ืื ื™ ื—ื™ื™ื‘ ืœื”ื•ื“ื•ืช ืฉื™ืฉ ื‘ื™ ื—ืœืง,
09:21
the boy in me, that would love to see
217
561891
1285
ื”ื™ืœื“ ืฉื‘ื™, ืฉื”ื™ื” ืžืช ืœืจืื•ืช
09:23
these majestic creatures walk across the permafrost
218
563176
2846
ืืช ื”ื—ื™ื•ืช ื”ืžืœื›ื•ืชื™ื•ืช ื”ืืœื” ืžื”ืœื›ื•ืช ืœืื•ืจืš ื”ืื“ืžื” ื”ืงืคื•ืื”
09:26
of the north once again, but I do have to admit
219
566022
2455
ืฉืœ ื”ืฆืคื•ืŸ ืฉื•ื‘, ืื‘ืœ ืื ื™ ื—ื™ื™ื‘ ื’ื ืœื”ื•ื“ื•ืช,
09:28
that part of the adult in me sometimes wonders
220
568477
2144
ืฉื”ื—ืœืง ืฉืœ ื”ืžื‘ื•ื’ืจ ืฉื‘ื™ ืชื•ื”ื” ืœืคืขืžื™ื
09:30
whether or not we should.
221
570621
2405
ืื ืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื–ืืช, ืื• ืฉืžื ืœื.
09:33
Thank you very much.
222
573026
1685
ืชื•ื“ื” ืจื‘ื” ืœื›ื.
09:34
(Applause)
223
574711
5198
(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
09:39
Ryan Phelan: Don't go away.
224
579909
1517
ืจื™ืืŸ ืคืœืืŸ: ืืœ ืชืœืš.
09:41
You've left us with a question.
225
581426
1732
ื”ืฉืืจืช ืื•ืชื ื• ืขื ืฉืืœื”.
09:43
I'm sure everyone is asking this. When you say, "Should we?"
226
583158
3524
ืื ื™ ื‘ื˜ื•ื—ื” ืฉื›ื•ืœื ืฉื•ืืœื™ื ืืช ืื•ืชื” ื”ืฉืืœื”. ื›ืฉืืชื” ืื•ืžืจ, "ื”ืื ืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืืช ื–ื”?"
09:46
it feels like you're reticent there,
227
586682
2609
ื–ื” ืžืจื’ื™ืฉ ื›ืื™ืœื• ืืชื” ืžืจืกืŸ ืืช ืขืฆืžืš,
09:49
and yet you've given us a vision of it being so possible.
228
589291
2978
ื•ื‘ื›ืœ ื–ืืช ื ืชืช ืœื ื• ื—ื–ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื•ื ื›ืœ ื›ืš ืืคืฉืจื™ ื”ื™ื•ื.
09:52
What's your reticence?
229
592269
1326
ืžื” ื”ื”ื™ืกื•ืก?
09:53
Hendrik Poinar: I don't think it's reticence.
230
593595
1306
ื”ื ื“ืจื™ืง ืคื•ื™ื ืืจ: ืื ื™ ืœื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื–ื” ื”ื™ืกื•ืก.
09:54
I think it's just that we have to think very deeply
231
594901
3798
ืื ื™ ืจืง ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืžืื•ื“ ื‘ืจืฆื™ื ื•ืช
09:58
about the implications, ramifications of our actions,
232
598699
2551
ืขืœ ื”ื”ืฉืœื›ื•ืช ื•ืขืœ ื”ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืžืขืฉื™ื ืฉืœื ื•,
10:01
and so as long as we have good, deep discussion
233
601250
2200
ื›ืœ ืขื•ื“ ื™ื”ื™ื” ืœื ื• ื“ื™ื•ืŸ ื˜ื•ื‘ ื•ืžืขืžื™ืง
10:03
like we're having now, I think
234
603450
2016
ื›ืžื• ื–ื” ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘
10:05
we can come to a very good solution as to why to do it.
235
605466
2706
ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœืžืกืงื ื” ื˜ื•ื‘ื” ืžื“ื•ืข ื›ืŸ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืืช ื–ื”.
10:08
But I just want to make sure that we spend time
236
608172
1637
ืื‘ืœ ืื ื™ ืจืง ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื˜ื•ื— ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžืฉืงื™ืขื™ื ื–ืžืŸ
10:09
thinking about why we're doing it first.
237
609809
1849
ื‘ืžื—ืฉื‘ื” ืขืœ ืžื“ื•ืข ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื•ืฉื™ื ืืช ื–ื”.
10:11
RP: Perfect. Perfect answer. Thank you very much, Hendrik.
238
611658
2781
ืจ"ืค: ืžืฆื•ื™ืŸ. ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืžืฆื•ื™ื ืช. ืชื•ื“ื” ืจื‘ื” ืœืš, ื”ื ื“ืจื™ืง.
10:14
HP: Thank you. (Applause)
239
614439
2464
ื”"ืค ืชื•ื“ื” ืœืš. (ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

https://forms.gle/WvT1wiN1qDtmnspy7