How we read each other's minds | Rebecca Saxe

561,739 views ใƒป 2009-09-11

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืžืชืจื’ื: Yifat Adler ืžื‘ืงืจ: Ido Dekkers
00:12
Today I'm going to talk to you about the problem of other minds.
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ื”ื™ื•ื ืืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืืช ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ืฉืœ ืชื•ื“ืขื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช.
00:15
And the problem I'm going to talk about
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ื•ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ืฉืื ื™ ืขื•ืžื“ืช ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœื™ื”
00:17
is not the familiar one from philosophy,
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ื”ื™ื ืœื ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ืžื•ื›ืจืช ืžืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ื”,
00:20
which is, "How can we know
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ืฉื”ื™ื, "ื›ื™ืฆื“ ืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื“ืขืช
00:22
whether other people have minds?"
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ื”ืื ืœืื ืฉื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ื™ืฉ ืชื•ื“ืขื”?"
00:24
That is, maybe you have a mind,
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ื›ืœื•ืžืจ, ืื•ืœื™ ืœื›ื ืขืฆืžื›ื ื™ืฉ ืชื•ื“ืขื”,
00:26
and everyone else is just a really convincing robot.
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ื•ื›ืœ ื”ืฉืืจ ื”ื ืจืง ืจื•ื‘ื•ื˜ื™ื ืžืฉื›ื ืขื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ.
00:29
So that's a problem in philosophy,
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ื–ื•ื”ื™ ื‘ืขื™ื” ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ืช.
00:31
but for today's purposes I'm going to assume
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื™ื•ื ืื ื™ ืขื•ืžื“ืช ืœื”ื ื™ื—
00:33
that many people in this audience have a mind,
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ืฉืœืื ืฉื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ื‘ืงื”ืœ ื”ื–ื” ื™ืฉ ืชื•ื“ืขื”,
00:35
and that I don't have to worry about this.
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ื•ืื ื™ ืœื ืฆืจื™ื›ื” ืœื“ืื•ื’ ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ื–ื”.
00:37
There is a second problem that is maybe even more familiar to us
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ื™ืฉื ื” ื‘ืขื™ื” ื ื•ืกืคืช ืฉืื•ืœื™ ืืคื™ืœื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื•ื›ืจืช ืœื ื•
00:40
as parents and teachers and spouses
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ื›ื”ื•ืจื™ื ื•ื›ืžื•ืจื™ื ื•ื›ื‘ื ื™ ื–ื•ื’,
00:43
and novelists,
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ื•ื›ืกื•ืคืจื™ื.
00:45
which is, "Why is it so hard
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ื•ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ื™ื, "ืœืžื” ื›ืœ ื›ืš ืงืฉื”
00:47
to know what somebody else wants or believes?"
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ืœื“ืขืช ืžื” ื”ืจืฆื•ื ื•ืช ืื• ื”ืืžื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื?"
00:49
Or perhaps, more relevantly,
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ืื• ืื•ืœื™, ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืจืœื•ื•ื ื˜ื™ืช,
00:51
"Why is it so hard to change what somebody else wants or believes?"
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"ืœืžื” ื›ืœ ื›ืš ืงืฉื” ืœืฉื ื•ืช ืืช ื”ืจืฆื•ื ื•ืช ืื• ืืช ื”ืืžื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื?"
00:54
I think novelists put this best.
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ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ืช ืฉืกื•ืคืจื™ื ืžื ืกื—ื™ื ื–ืืช ื‘ื“ืจืš ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ.
00:56
Like Philip Roth, who said,
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ืคื™ืœื™ืค ืจื•ืช, ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื, ืืžืจ,
00:58
"And yet, what are we to do about this terribly significant business
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"ื•ื‘ื›ืœ ื–ืืช, ืžื” ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื‘ืขื ื™ืŸ ื”ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื”ื–ื”
01:01
of other people?
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ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื?
01:03
So ill equipped are we all,
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ื”ืื ืื ื—ื ื• ื—ืกืจื™ ื›ืœื™ื ืฉื™ืืคืฉืจื• ืœื ื•
01:05
to envision one another's interior workings
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ืœืชืืจ ืœืขืฆืžื ื• ืืช ืื•ืคืŸ ื”ืคืขื•ืœื” ื”ืคื ื™ืžื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืื—ืจื™ื
01:07
and invisible aims."
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ื•ืืช ืžื˜ืจื•ืชื™ื”ื ื”ืกืžื•ื™ื•ืช?"
01:09
So as a teacher and as a spouse,
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ื›ืžื•ืจื” ื•ื›ื‘ืช ื–ื•ื’,
01:12
this is, of course, a problem I confront every day.
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ื–ื•ื”ื™, ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ, ื‘ืขื™ื” ืฉืื ื™ ื ืชืงืœืช ื‘ื” ืžื“ื™ ื™ื•ื.
01:14
But as a scientist, I'm interested in a different problem of other minds,
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ืืš ื›ืžื“ืขื ื™ืช, ืื ื™ ืžืชืขื ื™ื™ื ืช ื‘ื‘ืขื™ื” ืฉื•ื ื” ืฉืœ ืชื•ื“ืขื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช.
01:17
and that is the one I'm going to introduce to you today.
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ืืฆื™ื’ ืื•ืชื” ื”ื™ื•ื ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื.
01:20
And that problem is, "How is it so easy
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ื•ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ื™ื: "ืื™ืš ื–ื” ืฉื›ืœ ื›ืš ืงืœ ืœื ื•
01:22
to know other minds?"
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ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื” ืงื•ืจื” ื‘ืชื•ื“ืขื” ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื?"
01:24
So to start with an illustration,
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ืืชื—ื™ืœ ืขื ืชืžื•ื ื”.
01:26
you need almost no information,
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ืืชื ื–ืงื•ืงื™ื ืœืžืขื˜ ืžืื•ื“ ื ืชื•ื ื™ื -
01:28
one snapshot of a stranger,
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ืชืžื•ื ื” ืื—ืช ืฉืœ ืื“ื ื–ืจ,
01:30
to guess what this woman is thinking,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื ื—ืฉ ืžื” ื”ืืฉื” ื”ื–ืืช ื—ื•ืฉื‘ืช,
01:32
or what this man is.
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ืื• ืžื” ื”ืื“ื ื”ื–ื”.
01:35
And put another way, the crux of the problem is
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ื•ื‘ื ื™ืกื•ื— ืื—ืจ, ืœื‘ ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ื•ื
01:37
the machine that we use for thinking about other minds,
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ื”ืžื ื’ื ื•ืŸ ืฉืžืฉืžืฉ ืื•ืชื ื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ืชื•ื“ืขื” ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื,
01:40
our brain, is made up of pieces, brain cells,
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ื”ืžื•ื— ืฉืœื ื•, ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ ืžื—ืœืงื™ื, ืชืื™ ืžื•ื—,
01:43
that we share with all other animals, with monkeys
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ืฉืžืฉื•ืชืคื™ื ืœื ื• ื•ืœื›ืœ ื”ื—ื™ื•ืช ื”ืื—ืจื•ืช - ืงื•ืคื™ื,
01:45
and mice and even sea slugs.
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ืขื›ื‘ืจื™ื, ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ื—ืฉื•ืคื™ื•ืช ื™ื.
01:48
And yet, you put them together in a particular network,
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ื•ื‘ื›ืœ ื–ืืช, ืื ื• ืžื—ื‘ืจื™ื ืื•ืชื ื‘ืจืฉืช ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžืช,
01:51
and what you get is the capacity to write Romeo and Juliet.
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ื•ืžืงื‘ืœื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืœื›ืชื•ื‘ ืืช ืจื•ืžื™ืื• ื•ื™ื•ืœื™ื”.
01:54
Or to say, as Alan Greenspan did,
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ืื• ื›ืžื• ืฉืืœืŸ ื’ืจื™ื ืกืคืŸ ื ื™ืกื— ื–ืืช,
01:56
"I know you think you understand what you thought I said,
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"ืื ื™ ื™ื•ื“ืข ืฉืืชื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉืืชื ืžื‘ื™ื ื™ื ืžื” ื—ืฉื‘ืชื ืฉืืžืจืชื™,
01:59
but I'm not sure you realize that what you heard
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื™ ืœื ื‘ื˜ื•ื— ืฉืืชื ืžื‘ื™ื ื™ื ืฉืžื” ืฉืฉืžืขืชื
02:01
is not what I meant."
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ื”ื•ื ืœื ืžื” ืฉื”ืชื›ื•ื•ื ืชื™ ืืœื™ื•."
02:03
(Laughter)
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[ืฆื—ื•ืง]
02:06
So, the job of my field of cognitive neuroscience
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ืขื ื›ืš, ื”ืชืคืงื™ื“ ืฉืœ ื”ืชื—ื•ื ืฉืœื™ ืฉืœ ืžื“ืขื™ ื”ืžื•ื— ื”ืงื•ื’ื ื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื™ื
02:08
is to stand with these ideas,
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ื”ื•ื ืœืขืžื•ื“ ืขื ื”ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืืœื”,
02:10
one in each hand.
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ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืื—ื“ ื‘ื›ืœ ื™ื“,
02:12
And to try to understand how you can put together
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ื•ืœื ืกื•ืช ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื™ืš ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื—ื‘ืจ
02:15
simple units, simple messages over space and time, in a network,
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ื™ื—ื™ื“ื•ืช ืคืฉื•ื˜ื•ืช, ื”ื•ื“ืขื•ืช ืคืฉื•ื˜ื•ืช ื‘ืžืจื—ื‘ ื•ื‘ื–ืžืŸ, ื‘ืจืฉืช,
02:19
and get this amazing human capacity to think about minds.
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ื•ืœืงื‘ืœ ืืช ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช ื”ืžื“ื”ื™ืžื” ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ืชื•ื“ืขื•ืช.
02:23
So I'm going to tell you three things about this today.
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ืืกืคืจ ืœื›ื ื”ื™ื•ื ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื ื•ืฉื ื–ื”.
02:26
Obviously the whole project here is huge.
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ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ืžืืœื™ื• ืฉื”ืคืจื•ื™ืงื˜ ื›ื•ืœื• ื”ื•ื ืขืฆื•ื.
02:29
And I'm going to tell you just our first few steps
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ืืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืจืง ื›ืžื” ืฆืขื“ื™ื ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœื ื•
02:32
about the discovery of a special brain region
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ืขืœ ื”ื’ื™ืœื•ื™ ืฉืœ ืื™ื–ื•ืจ ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ื‘ืžื•ื—
02:34
for thinking about other people's thoughts.
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ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื” ืขืœ ืžื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื.
02:36
Some observations on the slow development of this system
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ื›ืžื” ืชืฆืคื™ื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ืช ื”ืื™ื˜ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื–ื•
02:38
as we learn how to do this difficult job.
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ื›ืืฉืจ ืื ื• ืœื•ืžื“ื™ื ืื™ืš ืœื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ ืขื ื”ืžืฉื™ืžื” ื”ืงืฉื” ื”ื–ื•.
02:42
And then finally, to show that some of the differences
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ื•ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ, ืืจืื” ืœื›ื ืฉื—ืœืง ืžื”ื”ื‘ื“ืœื™ื
02:44
between people, in how we judge others,
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ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื ืฉื™ื, ื‘ื“ืจืš ื”ืฉื™ืคื•ื˜ ืฉืœื”ื ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื,
02:47
can be explained by differences in this brain system.
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ืกื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ื”ื‘ื“ืœื™ื ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืžื•ื— ื”ื–ื•.
02:51
So first, the first thing I want to tell you is that
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ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœื”, ื‘ืจืฆื•ื ื™ ืœืกืคืจ ืœื›ื
02:53
there is a brain region in the human brain, in your brains,
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ืฉื™ืฉื ื• ืื™ื–ื•ืจ ื‘ืžื•ื— ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™, ื‘ืžื•ื—ื•ืช ืฉืœื›ื,
02:56
whose job it is to think about other people's thoughts.
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ืฉืชืคืงื™ื“ื• ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ืžื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื.
02:59
This is a picture of it.
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ื–ื•ื”ื™ ืชืžื•ื ื” ืฉืœื•.
03:01
It's called the Right Temporo-Parietal Junction.
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ื”ื•ื ื ืงืจื ื”ืฆื•ืžืช ื”ื™ืžื ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืื•ื ื” ื”ืจืงืชื™ืช ื•ื”ืื•ื ื” ื”ืงื•ื“ืงื•ื“ื™ืช.
03:03
It's above and behind your right ear.
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ื”ื•ื ื ืžืฆื ืžืขืœ ื•ืžืื—ื•ืจื™ ื”ืื•ื–ืŸ ื”ื™ืžื ื™ืช.
03:05
And this is the brain region you used when you saw the pictures I showed you,
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ื–ื”ื• ื”ืื™ื–ื•ืจ ื‘ืžื•ื— ื‘ื• ื”ืฉืชืžืฉืชื ื›ืฉืจืื™ืชื ืืช ื”ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ืฉื”ืฆื’ืชื™ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื,
03:07
or when you read Romeo and Juliet
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ืื• ื›ืฉืงืจืืชื ืืช ืจื•ืžื™ืื• ื•ื™ื•ืœื™ื”,
03:09
or when you tried to understand Alan Greenspan.
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ืื• ื›ืฉื ื™ืกื™ืชื ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืช ืืœืŸ ื’ืจื™ื ืกืคืŸ.
03:12
And you don't use it for solving any other kinds of logical problems.
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ื”ื•ื ืœื ื ืžืฆื ื‘ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื›ืฉืืชื ืคื•ืชืจื™ื ืกื•ื’ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช.
03:16
So this brain region is called the Right TPJ.
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ืื™ื–ื•ืจ ื”ืžื•ื— ื”ื–ื” ื ืงืจื RTPJ.
03:19
And this picture shows the average activation
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ื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ื”ื–ื• ืžืฆื™ื’ื” ืืช ื”ื”ืคืขืœื” ื”ืžืžื•ืฆืขืช ืฉืœื•
03:21
in a group of what we call typical human adults.
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ื‘ืงื‘ื•ืฆื” ืฉืœ ืžื” ืฉืื ื• ืžื›ื ื™ื "ืžื‘ื•ื’ืจื™ื ืื ื•ืฉื™ื™ื ื˜ื™ืคื•ืกื™ื™ื".
03:23
They're MIT undergraduates.
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ืืœื” ืกื˜ื•ื“ื ื˜ื™ื ืœืชื•ืืจ ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื‘-MIT.
03:25
(Laughter)
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[ืฆื—ื•ืง]
03:29
The second thing I want to say about this brain system
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ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ืฉื ื™ ืฉืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื•ืžืจ ืขืœ ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืžื•ื— ื”ื–ืืช
03:31
is that although we human adults
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ื”ื•ื ืฉืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉืื ื•, ื”ืžื‘ื•ื’ืจื™ื ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ื™ื,
03:33
are really good at understanding other minds,
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ื˜ื•ื‘ื™ื ืžืื•ื“ ื‘ื”ื‘ื ื” ืฉืœ ืชื•ื“ืขื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช,
03:35
we weren't always that way.
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ืœื ืชืžื™ื“ ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื›ืืœื”.
03:37
It takes children a long time to break into the system.
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ื“ืจื•ืฉ ืœื™ืœื“ื™ื ื–ืžืŸ ืจื‘ ื›ื“ื™ ืœืคืฆื— ืืช ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื–ื•.
03:40
I'm going to show you a little bit of that long, extended process.
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ืืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ื—ืœืง ืงื˜ืŸ ืžื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ืžืžื•ืฉืš ื•ื”ื ืจื—ื‘ ื”ื–ื”.
03:44
The first thing I'm going to show you is a change between age three and five,
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ืชื—ื™ืœื” ืืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืืช ื”ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื’ื™ืœ ืฉืœื•ืฉ ื•ื’ื™ืœ ื—ืžืฉ,
03:47
as kids learn to understand
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ื›ืืฉืจ ื™ืœื“ื™ื ืœื•ืžื“ื™ื ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ
03:49
that somebody else can have beliefs that are different from their own.
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ืฉืœืื ืฉื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืืžื•ื ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ืžืฉืœื”ื.
03:52
So I'm going to show you a five-year-old
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ืืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ื™ืœื“ ื‘ืŸ ื—ืžืฉ
03:54
who is getting a standard kind of puzzle
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ืฉืžืงื‘ืœ ื—ื™ื“ื” ืกื˜ื ื“ืจื˜ื™ืช
03:56
that we call the false belief task.
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ืฉืื ื• ืžื›ื ื™ื "ืžืฉื™ืžื” ืฉืœ ืืžื•ื ื” ืžื•ื˜ืขื™ืช".
03:59
Rebecca Saxe (Video): This is the first pirate. His name is Ivan.
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ื•ื™ื“ื™ืื•: ื–ื”ื• ืฉื•ื“ื“ ื”ื™ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ. ืงื•ืจืื™ื ืœื• ืื™ื‘ืŸ.
04:02
And you know what pirates really like?
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ื•ืืชื” ื™ื•ื“ืข ืžื” ืฉื•ื“ื“ื™-ื™ื ืžืื•ื“ ืื•ื”ื‘ื™ื?
04:04
Child: What? RS: Pirates really like cheese sandwiches.
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ืฉื•ื“ื“ื™-ื™ื ืื•ื”ื‘ื™ื ืžืื•ื“ ื›ืจื™ื›ื™ื ืขื ื’ื‘ื™ื ื”.
04:07
Child: Cheese? I love cheese!
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ื™ืœื“: ื’ื‘ื™ื ื”? ืื ื™ ืื•ื”ื‘ ื’ื‘ื™ื ื”!
04:10
RS: Yeah. So Ivan has this cheese sandwich,
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ืจ.ืก.: ื›ืŸ. ืื– ืœืื™ื‘ืŸ ื™ืฉ ื›ืจื™ืš ืขื ื’ื‘ื™ื ื”,
04:12
and he says, "Yum yum yum yum yum!
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืื•ืžืจ "ื™ืื ื™ืื ื™ืื ื™ืื ื™ืื!
04:14
I really love cheese sandwiches."
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ืื ื™ ืžืื•ื“ ืื•ื”ื‘ ื›ืจื™ื›ื™ ื’ื‘ื™ื ื”."
04:16
And Ivan puts his sandwich over here, on top of the pirate chest.
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ื•ืื™ื‘ืŸ ืžื ื™ื— ืืช ื”ื›ืจื™ืš ืฉืœื• ื›ืืŸ, ืขืœ ืชื™ื‘ืช ืฉื•ื“ื“ื™-ื”ื™ื.
04:20
And Ivan says, "You know what? I need a drink with my lunch."
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ื•ืื™ื‘ืŸ ืื•ืžืจ, "ืืชื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืžื”? ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœืฉืชื•ืช ืžืฉื”ื• ืขื ื”ืืจื•ื—ื” ืฉืœื™."
04:24
And so Ivan goes to get a drink.
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ื•ืื– ืื™ื‘ืŸ ื”ื•ืœืš ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืฉืชื™ื™ื”.
04:27
And while Ivan is away
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ื•ื›ืฉืื™ื‘ืŸ ืœื ื ืžืฆื
04:29
the wind comes,
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ืžื’ื™ืขื” ื”ืจื•ื—
04:32
and it blows the sandwich down onto the grass.
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ื•ืžืขื™ืคื” ืืช ื”ื›ืจื™ืš ืืœ ื”ื“ืฉื.
04:34
And now, here comes the other pirate.
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ื•ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืžื’ื™ืข ืฉื•ื“ื“-ื™ื ืื—ืจ.
04:38
This pirate is called Joshua.
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ืงื•ืจืื™ื ืœื• ื’'ื•ืฉื•ืข.
04:41
And Joshua also really loves cheese sandwiches.
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ื•ื’'ื•ืฉื•ืข ื’ื ื›ืŸ ืื•ื”ื‘ ืžืื•ื“ ื›ืจื™ื›ื™ ื’ื‘ื™ื ื”.
04:43
So Joshua has a cheese sandwich and he says,
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ืœื’'ื•ืฉื•ืข ื™ืฉ ื›ืจื™ืš ื’ื‘ื™ื ื” ื•ื”ื•ื ืื•ืžืจ,
04:45
"Yum yum yum yum yum! I love cheese sandwiches."
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"ื™ืื ื™ืื ื™ืื ื™ืื ื™ืื! ืื ื™ ืื•ื”ื‘ ื›ืจื™ื›ื™ ื’ื‘ื™ื ื”."
04:49
And he puts his cheese sandwich over here on top of the pirate chest.
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืžื ื™ื— ืืช ื›ืจื™ืš ื”ื’ื‘ื™ื ื” ืฉืœื• ืขืœ ืชื™ื‘ืช ืฉื•ื“ื“ื™-ื”ื™ื.
04:52
Child: So, that one is his.
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ื™ืœื“: ืื– ื”ื›ืจื™ืš ื”ื–ื” ืฉืœื•.
04:54
RS: That one is Joshua's. That's right.
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ืจ.ืก.: ื–ื” ื”ื›ืจื™ืš ืฉืœ ื’'ื•ืฉื•ืข. ื ื›ื•ืŸ.
04:56
Child: And then his went on the ground.
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ื™ืœื“: ืื– ื”ื›ืจื™ืš ืฉืœื• ื ืคืœ ืขืœ ื”ืื“ืžื”.
04:58
RS: That's exactly right.
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ืจ.ืก.: ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง.
05:00
Child: So he won't know which one is his.
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ื™ืœื“: ืื– ื”ื•ื ืœื ื™ื“ืข ืื™ื–ื” ื›ืจื™ืš ืฉืœื•.
05:02
RS: Oh. So now Joshua goes off to get a drink.
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ืจ.ืก.: ื•ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ื’'ื•ืฉื•ืข ื”ื•ืœืš ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืฉืชื™ื™ื”.
05:05
Ivan comes back and he says, "I want my cheese sandwich."
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ืื™ื‘ืŸ ื—ื•ื–ืจ ื•ืื•ืžืจ, "ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืืช ื›ืจื™ืš ื”ื’ื‘ื™ื ื” ืฉืœื™."
05:09
So which one do you think Ivan is going to take?
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ืื™ื–ื” ื›ืจื™ืš ืืชื” ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉืื™ื‘ืŸ ื™ืงื—?
05:12
Child: I think he is going to take that one.
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ื™ืœื“: ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื”ื•ื ื™ืงื— ืืช ื–ื”.
05:14
RS: Yeah, you think he's going to take that one? All right. Let's see.
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ืจ.ืก.: ื›ืŸ. ืืชื” ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื”ื•ื ื™ืงื— ืืช ื–ื”? ื˜ื•ื‘. ื‘ื•ื ื ืจืื”.
05:16
Oh yeah, you were right. He took that one.
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ื›ืŸ. ืฆื“ืงืช. ื”ื•ื ืœืงื— ืืช ื–ื”.
05:19
So that's a five-year-old who clearly understands
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ื–ื”ื• ื™ืœื“ ื‘ืŸ ื—ืžืฉ ืฉืžื‘ื™ืŸ ื‘ื‘ื™ืจื•ืจ
05:21
that other people can have false beliefs
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ืฉืœืื ืฉื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืืžื•ื ื•ืช ืžื•ื˜ืขื•ืช,
05:23
and what the consequences are for their actions.
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ื•ืืช ื”ื”ืฉืœื›ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ืŸ ืขืœ ื”ืคืขื•ืœื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื.
05:25
Now I'm going to show you a three-year-old
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ื™ืœื“ ื‘ืŸ ืฉืœื•ืฉ
05:28
who got the same puzzle.
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ืฉืžื•ืฆื’ืช ื‘ืคื ื™ื• ืื•ืชื” ื—ื™ื“ื”.
05:30
RS: And Ivan says, "I want my cheese sandwich."
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ื•ื™ื“ื™ืื•: ืจ.ืก.: ื•ืื™ื‘ืŸ ืื•ืžืจ, "ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืืช ื›ืจื™ืš ื”ื’ื‘ื™ื ื” ืฉืœื™."
05:32
Which sandwich is he going to take?
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ืื™ื–ื” ื›ืจื™ืš ื”ื•ื ื™ืงื—?
05:35
Do you think he's going to take that one? Let's see what happens.
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ืืชื” ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื”ื•ื ื™ืงื— ืืช ื–ื”? ื‘ื•ื ื ืจืื” ืžื” ืงื•ืจื”.
05:37
Let's see what he does. Here comes Ivan.
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ื‘ื•ื ื ืจืื” ืžื” ื”ื•ื ืขื•ืฉื”. ื”ื ื” ืื™ื‘ืŸ ืžื’ื™ืข.
05:39
And he says, "I want my cheese sandwich."
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืื•ืžืจ, "ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืืช ื›ืจื™ืš ื”ื’ื‘ื™ื ื” ืฉืœื™."
05:42
And he takes this one.
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืœื•ืงื— ืืช ื”ื›ืจื™ืš ื”ื–ื”.
05:44
Uh-oh. Why did he take that one?
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ืื•ื™. ืœืžื” ื”ื•ื ืœืงื— ืืช ื”ื›ืจื™ืš ื”ื–ื”?
05:47
Child: His was on the grass.
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ื™ืœื“: ื›ื™ ืฉืœื• ื ืคืœ ืขืœ ื”ื“ืฉื.
05:51
So the three-year-old does two things differently.
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ืจ.ืก.: ื”ื™ืœื“ ื‘ืŸ ื”ืฉืœื•ืฉ ืขื•ืฉื” ืฉื ื™ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืฉื•ื ื”.
05:54
First, he predicts Ivan will take the sandwich
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ืงื•ื“ื ื›ืœ ื”ื•ื ืฆื•ืคื” ืฉืื™ื‘ืŸ ื™ืงื— ืืช ื”ื›ืจื™ืš
05:57
that's really his.
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ืฉื‘ืืžืช ืฉืœื•.
05:59
And second, when he sees Ivan taking the sandwich where he left his,
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ื•ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉื ื™, ื›ืฉื”ื•ื ืจื•ืื” ืฉืื™ื‘ืŸ ืœื•ืงื— ืืช ื”ื›ืจื™ืš ืฉื ืžืฆื ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื‘ื• ื”ื•ื ื”ืฉืื™ืจ ืืช ื”ื›ืจื™ืš ืฉืœื• -
06:03
where we would say he's taking that one because he thinks it's his,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืื•ืžืจื™ื ืฉื”ื•ื ืœืงื— ืื•ืชื• ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ื—ืฉื‘ ืฉื”ื•ื ืฉืœื•,
06:06
the three-year-old comes up with another explanation:
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ืื‘ืœ ืœื‘ืŸ ื”ืฉืœื•ืฉ ื™ืฉ ื”ืกื‘ืจ ืื—ืจ.
06:09
He's not taking his own sandwich because he doesn't want it,
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ื”ื•ื ืœื ืœื•ืงื— ืืช ื”ื›ืจื™ืš ืฉืœื• ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ืœื ืจื•ืฆื” ืื•ืชื•,
06:11
because now it's dirty, on the ground.
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ื›ื™ ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ื”ื•ื ืžืœื•ื›ืœืš, ืขืœ ื”ืื“ืžื”.
06:13
So that's why he's taking the other sandwich.
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ื•ื–ืืช ื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ืœื›ืš ืฉื”ื•ื ืœืงื— ืืช ื”ื›ืจื™ืš ื”ืฉื ื™.
06:15
Now of course, development doesn't end at five.
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ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ืฉื”ื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ืช ืื™ื ื” ืžืกืชื™ื™ืžืช ื‘ื’ื™ืœ ื—ืžืฉ.
06:19
And we can see the continuation of this process
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ืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ื”ืžืฉืš ืชื”ืœื™ืš
06:21
of learning to think about other people's thoughts
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ื”ืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืฉืœ ื”ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื” ืขืœ ืžื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื
06:23
by upping the ante
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœืฉืœื‘ ืžืชืงื“ื ื™ื•ืชืจ
06:25
and asking children now, not for an action prediction,
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ื•ื”ืฆื’ืช ืฉืืœื•ืช ื‘ืคื ื™ ื™ืœื“ื™ื, ืœื ืขืœ ืชื—ื–ื™ืช ืฉืœ ืคืขื•ืœื•ืช,
06:28
but for a moral judgment.
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ืืœื ืขืœ ืฉื™ืคื•ื˜ื™ื ืžื•ืกืจื™ื™ื.
06:30
So first I'm going to show you the three-year-old again.
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ืจืืฉื™ืช ืืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืฉื•ื‘ ืืช ื‘ืŸ ื”ืฉืœื•ืฉ.
06:32
RS.: So is Ivan being mean and naughty for taking Joshua's sandwich?
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ื•ื™ื“ื™ืื•: ืจ.ืก.: ืื™ื‘ืŸ ืจืข ื•ืœื ืžืชื ื”ื’ ื™ืคื” ื›ืฉื”ื•ื ืœื•ืงื— ืืช ื”ื›ืจื™ืš ืฉืœ ื’'ื•ืฉื•ืข?
06:35
Child: Yeah.
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ื™ืœื“: ื›ืŸ.
06:36
RS: Should Ivan get in trouble for taking Joshua's sandwich?
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ืจ.ืก.: ืฆืจื™ืš ืœืชืช ืœืื™ื‘ืŸ ืขื•ื ืฉ ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ืœืงื— ืืช ื”ื›ืจื™ืš ืฉืœ ื’'ื•ืฉื•ืข?
06:39
Child: Yeah.
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ื™ืœื“: ื›ืŸ.
06:41
So it's maybe not surprising he thinks it was mean of Ivan
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ืจ.ืก.: ืื•ืœื™ ื–ื” ืœื ืžืคืชื™ืข ืฉื”ื•ื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื–ื” ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื™ืคื” ืžืฆื“ ืื™ื‘ืŸ
06:43
to take Joshua's sandwich,
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ืœืงื—ืช ืืช ื”ื›ืจื™ืš ืฉืœ ื’'ื•ืฉื•ืข.
06:45
since he thinks Ivan only took Joshua's sandwich
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื•ื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉืื™ื‘ืŸ ืœืงื— ืืช ื”ื›ืจื™ืš ืฉืœ ื’'ื•ืฉื•ืข
06:47
to avoid having to eat his own dirty sandwich.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื ืœืื›ื•ืœ ืืช ื”ื›ืจื™ืš ื”ืžืœื•ื›ืœืš ืฉืœื•.
06:50
But now I'm going to show you the five-year-old.
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืืช ื‘ืŸ ื”ื—ืžืฉ.
06:52
Remember the five-year-old completely understood
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ื–ื™ื›ืจื• ืฉื‘ืŸ ื”ื—ืžืฉ ืžื‘ื™ืŸ ื‘ื”ื—ืœื˜
06:54
why Ivan took Joshua's sandwich.
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ืœืžื” ืื™ื‘ืŸ ืœืงื— ืืช ื”ื›ืจื™ืš ืฉืœ ื’'ื•ืฉื•ืข.
06:56
RS: Was Ivan being mean and naughty
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ื•ื™ื“ื™ืื•: ืจ.ืก.: ืื™ื‘ืŸ ื”ื™ื” ืจืข ื•ื”ืชื ื”ื’ ืœื ื™ืคื”
06:58
for taking Joshua's sandwich?
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ื›ืฉื”ื•ื ืœืงื— ืืช ื”ื›ืจื™ืš ืฉืœ ื’'ื•ืฉื•ืข?
07:00
Child: Um, yeah.
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ื™ืœื“: ื”ืžืž, ื›ืŸ.
07:02
And so, it is not until age seven
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ืจ.ืก.: ืจืง ื‘ื’ื™ืœ ืฉื‘ืข
07:04
that we get what looks more like an adult response.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืงื‘ืœื™ื ืืช ืžื” ืฉื ืจืื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ื›ืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ืฉืœ ืžื‘ื•ื’ืจื™ื.
07:07
RS: Should Ivan get in trouble for taking Joshua's sandwich?
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ื•ื™ื“ื™ืื•: ืจ.ืก.: ืื™ื‘ืŸ ืฆืจื™ืš ืœืงื‘ืœ ืขื•ื ืฉ ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ืœืงื— ืืช ื”ื›ืจื™ืš ืฉืœ ื’'ื•ืฉื•ืข?
07:10
Child: No, because the wind should get in trouble.
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ื™ืœื“: ืœื, ื”ืจื•ื— ืฆืจื™ื›ื” ืœืงื‘ืœ ืขื•ื ืฉ.
07:12
He says the wind should get in trouble
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ืจ.ืก.: ื”ื•ื ืื•ืžืจ ืฉื”ืจื•ื— ืฆืจื™ื›ื” ืœืงื‘ืœ ืขื•ื ืฉ
07:15
for switching the sandwiches.
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ื›ื™ ื”ื™ื ื”ื—ืœื™ืคื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื›ืจื™ื›ื™ื.
07:17
(Laughter)
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[ืฆื—ื•ืง]
07:19
And now what we've started to do in my lab
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ื‘ืžืขื‘ื“ื” ืฉืœื™ ื”ืชื—ืœื ื•
07:21
is to put children into the brain scanner
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ืœื”ื›ื ื™ืก ื™ืœื“ื™ื ืœืกื•ืจืง ืžื•ื—
07:23
and ask what's going on in their brain
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ื•ืœื‘ืจืจ ืžื” ืžืชืจื—ืฉ ื‘ืžื•ื— ืฉืœื”ื
07:26
as they develop this ability to think about other people's thoughts.
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ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ื ืžืคืชื—ื™ื ืืช ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ืžื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื.
07:29
So the first thing is that in children we see this same brain region, the Right TPJ,
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ืจืืฉื™ืช - ืื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ืฉืืฆืœ ื™ืœื“ื™ื - ืื•ืชื• ืื™ื–ื•ืจ ื‘ืžื•ื—, ื”-RTPJ,
07:33
being used while children are thinking about other people.
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ื ืžืฆื ื‘ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื›ืฉื”ื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืขืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื.
07:36
But it's not quite like the adult brain.
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ืื‘ืœ ืื™ื–ื•ืจ ื–ื” ืฉื•ื ื” ืžืžื•ื— ืฉืœ ืžื‘ื•ื’ืจื™ื.
07:38
So whereas in the adults, as I told you,
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ืืฆืœ ืžื‘ื•ื’ืจื™ื, ื›ืคื™ ืฉื”ื–ื›ืจืชื™,
07:40
this brain region is almost completely specialized --
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ืื™ื–ื•ืจ ื”ืžื•ื— ื”ื–ื” ืžืชืžื—ื” ื‘ื ื•ืฉื ืกืคืฆื™ืคื™ ื›ืžืขื˜ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžื•ืฉืœื.
07:43
it does almost nothing else except for thinking about other people's thoughts --
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ื”ื•ื ื›ืžืขื˜ ืฉืœื ืขื•ืฉื” ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื, ื—ื•ืฅ ืžื—ืฉื™ื‘ื” ืขืœ ืžื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื.
07:46
in children it's much less so,
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ืืฆืœ ื™ืœื“ื™ื - ื–ื” ืœื ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื›ืš,
07:48
when they are age five to eight,
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ื›ืฉื”ื ื‘ื ื™ 5 ืขื“ 8,
07:50
the age range of the children I just showed you.
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ื˜ื•ื•ื— ื”ื’ื™ืœืื™ื ืฉื”ืฆื’ืชื™ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื.
07:52
And actually if we even look at eight to 11-year-olds,
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื‘ื“ืงื ื• ื’ื ื™ืœื“ื™ื ื‘ื ื™ 8 ืขื“ 11,
07:55
getting into early adolescence,
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ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื’ื™ืœ ื”ื”ืชื‘ื’ืจื•ืช,
07:57
they still don't have quite an adult-like brain region.
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ื•ื’ื ืืฆืœื ืื™ื–ื•ืจ ื”ืžื•ื— ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื•ื ื” ืžืžื•ื— ื”ืžื‘ื•ื’ืจื™ื.
08:00
And so, what we can see is that over the course of childhood
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ืื ื›ืš, ืื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ืฉื‘ืžืฉืš ื”ื™ืœื“ื•ืช
08:03
and even into adolescence,
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ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ื‘ืžืฉืš ื’ื™ืœ ื”ื”ืชื‘ื’ืจื•ืช,
08:05
both the cognitive system,
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ื’ื ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืงื•ื’ื ื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ืช,
08:07
our mind's ability to think about other minds,
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ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืฉืœ ื”ืชื•ื“ืขื” ืฉืœื ื• ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ืชื•ื“ืขื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช,
08:09
and the brain system that supports it
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ื•ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืžื•ื— ืฉืชื•ืžื›ืช ื‘ื›ืš,
08:11
are continuing, slowly, to develop.
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ืžืžืฉื™ื›ื•ืช ืœื”ืชืคืชื— ื‘ืื™ื˜ื™ื•ืช.
08:14
But of course, as you're probably aware,
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ืื‘ืœ, ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ, ื›ืคื™ ืฉืืชื ื‘ื•ื•ื“ืื™ ืžื•ื“ืขื™ื ืœื›ืš,
08:16
even in adulthood,
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ื’ื ื‘ื‘ื’ืจื•ืช,
08:18
people differ from one another in how good they are
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ื™ืฉ ื”ื‘ื“ืœ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ื‘ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืฉืœื”ื
08:20
at thinking of other minds, how often they do it
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ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ืชื•ื“ืขื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช, ื‘ืชื“ื™ืจื•ืช ื‘ื” ื”ื ืขื•ืฉื™ื ื–ืืช,
08:22
and how accurately.
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ื•ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืฉืœื”ื.
08:24
And so what we wanted to know was, could differences among adults
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ืจืฆื™ื ื• ืœื‘ืจืจ ื”ืื ื”ื‘ื“ืœื™ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื‘ื•ื’ืจื™ื
08:27
in how they think about other people's thoughts
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ื‘ื“ืจืš ื‘ื” ื”ื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืขืœ ืžื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื
08:29
be explained in terms of differences in this brain region?
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ืกื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ืžื•ื ื—ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ื“ืœื™ื ื‘ืื™ื–ื•ืจ ื”ืžื•ื— ื”ื–ื”.
08:32
So, the first thing that we did is we gave adults a version
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ืจืืฉื™ืช, ื”ืฆื’ื ื• ื‘ืคื ื™ ืžื‘ื•ื’ืจื™ื ื’ื™ืจืกื”
08:35
of the pirate problem that we gave to the kids.
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ืฉืœ ื‘ืขื™ื™ืช ืฉื•ื“ื“ื™-ื”ื™ื ืฉื”ืฆื’ื ื• ื‘ืคื ื™ ื”ื™ืœื“ื™ื.
08:37
And I'm going to give that to you now.
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ืืฆื™ื’ ืื•ืชื” ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื.
08:39
So Grace and her friend are on a tour of a chemical factory,
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ื’ืจื™ื™ืก ื•ื”ื—ื‘ืจื” ืฉืœื” ื ืžืฆืื•ืช ื‘ืกื™ื•ืจ ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื—ืจื•ืฉืช ืœื—ื•ืžืจื™ื ื›ื™ืžื™ื™ื.
08:42
and they take a break for coffee.
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ื”ืŸ ื ืžืฆืื•ืช ื‘ื”ืคืกืงืช ืงืคื”.
08:44
And Grace's friend asks for some sugar in her coffee.
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ื”ื—ื‘ืจื” ืฉืœ ื’ืจื™ื™ืก ืžื‘ืงืฉืช ืงืคื” ืขื ืกื•ื›ืจ.
08:47
Grace goes to make the coffee
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ื’ืจื™ื™ืก ื”ื•ืœื›ืช ืœื”ื›ื™ืŸ ืืช ื”ืงืคื”
08:50
and finds by the coffee a pot
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ื•ืžื•ืฆืืช ืœื™ื“ ืงื ืงืŸ ื”ืงืคื”
08:52
containing a white powder, which is sugar.
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ืฆื ืฆื ืช ืขื ืื‘ืงื” ืœื‘ื ื” ืฉืžื›ื™ืœื” ืกื•ื›ืจ.
08:55
But the powder is labeled "Deadly Poison,"
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ืื‘ืœ ืขืœ ื”ืฆื ืฆื ืช ื›ืชื•ื‘ "ืจืขืœ ืงื˜ืœื ื™".
08:58
so Grace thinks that the powder is a deadly poison.
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ื›ืœื•ืžืจ, ื’ืจื™ื™ืก ื—ื•ืฉื‘ืช ืฉื”ืื‘ืงื” ื”ื™ื ืจืขืœ ืงื˜ืœื ื™.
09:01
And she puts it in her friend's coffee.
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ื•ื”ื™ื ืฉืžื” ืื•ืชื” ื‘ืงืคื” ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื‘ืจื” ืฉืœื”.
09:03
And her friend drinks the coffee, and is fine.
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ื•ื”ื—ื‘ืจื” ืฉืœื” ืฉื•ืชื” ืืช ื”ืงืคื”, ื•ื”ื™ื ื‘ืกื“ืจ ื’ืžื•ืจ.
09:06
How many people think it was morally permissible
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ื›ืžื” ืื ืฉื™ื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืกื“ืจ ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ื” ืžื•ืกืจื™ืช
09:08
for Grace to put the powder in the coffee?
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ืฉื’ืจื™ื™ืก ื”ื›ื ื™ืกื” ืืช ื”ืื‘ืงื” ืœืงืคื”?
09:12
Okay. Good. (Laughter)
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ืื•ืงื™. ื˜ื•ื‘. [ืฆื—ื•ืง]
09:15
So we ask people, how much should Grace be blamed
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืฉื•ืืœื™ื ืื ืฉื™ื ืžื” ืžื™ื“ืช ื”ืืฉืžื” ืฉืœ ื’ืจื™ื™ืก
09:18
in this case, which we call a failed attempt to harm?
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ื‘ืžืงืจื” ื”ื–ื”, ืฉืื ื• ืžื›ื ื™ื "ื ื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื›ื•ืฉืœ ืœื”ื–ื™ืง".
09:20
And we can compare that to another case,
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ืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืฉื•ื•ืช ืื•ืชื• ืœืžืงืจื” ืื—ืจ
09:22
where everything in the real world is the same.
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ื‘ื• ื›ืœ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื”ืืžื™ืชื™ ื–ื”ื™ื -
09:24
The powder is still sugar, but what's different is what Grace thinks.
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ื”ืื‘ืงื” ื”ื™ื ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืกื•ื›ืจ, ืื‘ืœ ื”ืฉื•ื ื™ ื”ื•ื ื‘ืžื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื’ืจื™ื™ืก.
09:27
Now she thinks the powder is sugar.
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ื”ื™ื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ืช ืฉื”ืื‘ืงื” ื”ื™ื ืกื•ื›ืจ.
09:30
And perhaps unsurprisingly, if Grace thinks the powder is sugar
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ื•ืื•ืœื™ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืœื ืžืคืชื™ืข, ืื ื’ืจื™ื™ืก ื—ื•ืฉื‘ืช ืฉื”ืื‘ืงื” ื”ื™ื ืกื•ื›ืจ
09:33
and puts it in her friend's coffee,
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ื•ื”ื™ื ืžื›ื ื™ืกื” ืื•ืชื” ืœืงืคื” ืฉืœ ื—ื‘ืจืชื”,
09:35
people say she deserves no blame at all.
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ืื ืฉื™ื ืื•ืžืจื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื ื‘ื›ืœืœ ืœื ืืฉืžื”.
09:37
Whereas if she thinks the powder was poison, even though it's really sugar,
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื”ื™ื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ืช ืฉืื‘ืงื” ื”ื™ื ืจืขืœ, ื’ื ืื ื”ื™ื ื‘ืืžืช ืกื•ื›ืจ,
09:41
now people say she deserves a lot of blame,
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ืื ืฉื™ื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื ืžืื•ื“ ืืฉืžื”,
09:44
even though what happened in the real world was exactly the same.
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ื’ื ืื ื”ืชื•ืฆืื” ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื”ืืžื™ืชื™ ื”ื™ืชื” ื–ื”ื”.
09:47
And in fact, they say she deserves more blame
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ื•ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื”ื ืื•ืžืจื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืืฉืžื”
09:49
in this case, the failed attempt to harm,
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ื‘ืžืงืจื” ื”ื–ื” ืฉืœ "ื ื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื›ื•ืฉืœ ืœื”ื–ื™ืง",
09:51
than in another case,
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ืžืืฉืจ ื‘ืžืงืจื” ืื—ืจ,
09:53
which we call an accident.
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ืื•ืชื• ืื ื• ืžื›ื ื™ื "ืชืื•ื ื”",
09:55
Where Grace thought the powder was sugar,
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ื‘ื• ื’ืจื™ื™ืก ื—ืฉื‘ื” ืฉื”ืื‘ืงื” ื”ื™ื ืกื•ื›ืจ,
09:57
because it was labeled "sugar" and by the coffee machine,
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ื›ื™ ื”ื™ืชื” ืขืœื™ื” ืชื•ื•ื™ืช "ืกื•ื›ืจ" ื•ื”ื™ื ื”ื™ืชื” ืœื™ื“ ืžื›ื•ื ืช ื”ืงืคื”,
09:59
but actually the powder was poison.
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ืื‘ืœ ืœืžืขืฉื” ื”ื™ื ื”ื™ืชื” ืจืขืœ.
10:01
So even though when the powder was poison,
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ื•ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื›ืืฉืจ ื”ืื‘ืงื” ื”ื™ืชื” ืจืขืœ,
10:04
the friend drank the coffee and died,
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ื”ื—ื‘ืจื” ืฉืชืชื” ืืช ื”ืงืคื” ื•ืžืชื”,
10:07
people say Grace deserves less blame in that case,
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ืื ืฉื™ื ืื•ืžืจื™ื ืฉื’ืจื™ื™ืก ืคื—ื•ืช ืืฉืžื” ื‘ืžืงืจื” ื”ื–ื”,
10:10
when she innocently thought it was sugar,
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ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ื™ื ื—ืฉื‘ื” ื‘ืชื•ื ืœื‘ ืฉื–ื”ื• ืกื•ื›ืจ,
10:12
than in the other case, where she thought it was poison
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ืžืืฉืจ ื‘ืžืงืจื” ืฉื ื™, ื‘ื• ื”ื™ื ื—ืฉื‘ื” ืฉื–ื”ื• ืจืขืœ
10:14
and no harm occurred.
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ื•ืฉื•ื ื ื–ืง ืœื ื”ืชืจื—ืฉ.
10:17
People, though, disagree a little bit
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ืื‘ืœ, ื™ืฉ ืžื™ื“ื” ืฉืœ ื—ื•ืกืจ ื”ืกื›ืžื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื ืฉื™ื
10:19
about exactly how much blame Grace should get
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ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื›ืžื•ืช ื”ืืฉืžื” ืฉืœ ื’ืจื™ื™ืก
10:21
in the accident case.
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ื‘ืžืงืจื” ืฉืœ ื”ืชืื•ื ื”.
10:23
Some people think she should deserve more blame,
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ื™ืฉ ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืืฉืžื”,
10:25
and other people less.
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ื•ื™ืฉ ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื ืคื—ื•ืช ืืฉืžื”.
10:27
And what I'm going to show you is what happened when we look inside
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ืืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืžื” ืจืื™ื ื• ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ืžื•ื—ื•ืช
10:29
the brains of people while they're making that judgment.
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ืฉืœ ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ื›ืฉื”ื ื‘ื™ืฆืขื• ืืช ื”ืฉื™ืคื•ื˜ ื”ื–ื”.
10:31
So what I'm showing you, from left to right,
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ืืชื ืจื•ืื™ื ืžืฉืžืืœ ืœื™ืžื™ืŸ,
10:33
is how much activity there was in this brain region,
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ืืช ื›ืžื•ืช ื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื‘ืื™ื–ื•ืจ ื”ืžื•ื— ื”ื–ื”.
10:36
and from top to bottom, how much blame
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ื•ืžืœืžืขืœื” ืœืžื˜ื”, ืืช ื›ืžื•ืช ื”ืืฉืžื”
10:38
people said that Grace deserved.
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ืฉืื ืฉื™ื ื”ื˜ื™ืœื• ืขืœ ื’ืจื™ื™ืก.
10:40
And what you can see is, on the left
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ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืจืื•ืช, ื‘ืฆื“ ืฉืžืืœ
10:42
when there was very little activity in this brain region,
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ืฉื›ืฉื™ืฉ ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื ืžื•ื›ื” ืžืื•ื“ ื‘ืื™ื–ื•ืจ ื”ืžื•ื— ื”ื–ื”,
10:44
people paid little attention to her innocent belief
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ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืงื“ื™ืฉื• ืžืขื˜ ืžืื•ื“ ืชืฉื•ืžืช ืœื‘ ืœืชื•ื ื”ืœื‘ ืฉืœื”
10:47
and said she deserved a lot of blame for the accident.
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ื•ืืžืจื• ืฉืžื•ื˜ืœืช ืขืœื™ื” ืืฉืžื” ืจื‘ื” ื‘ืฉืœ ื”ืชืื•ื ื”.
10:50
Whereas on the right, where there was a lot of activity,
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืฉื‘ืฆื“ ื™ืžื™ืŸ, ื›ืฉื™ืฉ ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ืจื‘ื”,
10:52
people paid a lot more attention to her innocent belief,
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ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืงื“ื™ืฉื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ืชืฉื•ืžืช ืœื‘ ืœืชื•ื ื”ืœื‘ ืฉืœื”,
10:55
and said she deserved a lot less blame
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ื•ืืžืจื• ืฉืžื•ื˜ืœืช ืขืœื™ื” ืคื—ื•ืช ืืฉืžื”
10:57
for causing the accident.
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ื‘ื’ืจื™ืžืช ื”ืชืื•ื ื”.
10:59
So that's good, but of course
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ื–ื” ื˜ื•ื‘, ืื‘ืœ, ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ,
11:01
what we'd rather is have a way to interfere
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ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืžืขื“ื™ืคื™ื ืœืžืฆื•ื ื“ืจืš ืœื”ืชืขืจื‘
11:03
with function in this brain region,
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ื‘ืชืคืงื•ื“ ืื™ื–ื•ืจ ื”ืžื•ื— ื”ื–ื”,
11:05
and see if we could change people's moral judgment.
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ื•ืœืจืื•ืช ืื ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืฉื ื•ืช ืฉื™ืคื•ื˜ื™ื ืžื•ืกืจื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื.
11:08
And we do have such a tool.
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ืงื™ื™ื ื‘ืจืฉื•ืชื ื• ืžื›ืฉื™ืจ ื›ื–ื”.
11:10
It's called Trans-Cranial Magnetic Stimulation,
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ื”ื•ื ื ืงืจื ื’ื™ืจื•ื™ ืžื’ื ื˜ื™ ื—ื•ืฅ ื’ื•ืœื’ืœืชื™,
11:12
or TMS.
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ืื• TMS.
11:14
This is a tool that lets us pass a magnetic pulse
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ื–ื”ื• ืžื›ืฉื™ืจ ืฉืžืืคืฉืจ ืœื ื• ืœื”ืขื‘ื™ืจ ืคื•ืœืก ืžื’ื ื˜ื™
11:16
through somebody's skull, into a small region of their brain,
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ื“ืจืš ื”ื’ื•ืœื’ื•ืœืช ืœืื™ื–ื•ืจ ืงื˜ืŸ ื‘ืžื•ื—,
11:20
and temporarily disorganize the function of the neurons in that region.
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ื•ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื–ืžื ื™ ืœืฉื‘ืฉ ืืช ืชืคืงื•ื“ ืชืื™ ื”ืขืฆื‘ ื‘ืื™ื–ื•ืจ ื”ื–ื”.
11:24
So I'm going to show you a demo of this.
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ืืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ื”ื“ื’ืžื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžื›ืฉื™ืจ.
11:26
First, I'm going to show you that this is a magnetic pulse.
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ืจืืฉื™ืช, ืืจืื” ืœื›ื ืฉื–ื”ื• ืคื•ืœืก ืžื’ื ื˜ื™.
11:29
I'm going to show you what happens when you put a quarter on the machine.
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ืืจืื” ืœื›ื ืžื” ืงื•ืจื” ื›ืฉืžื ื™ื—ื™ื ืžื˜ื‘ืข ืขืœ ื”ืžื›ืฉื™ืจ.
11:32
When you hear clicks, we're turning the machine on.
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ื›ืฉืฉื•ืžืขื™ื ืงืœื™ืงื™ื ื”ืžื›ืฉื™ืจ ื‘ืคืขื•ืœื”.
11:42
So now I'm going to apply that same pulse to my brain,
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ื›ืขืช, ืืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ืื•ืชื• ื”ืคื•ืœืก ืขืœ ื”ืžื•ื— ืฉืœื™,
11:45
to the part of my brain that controls my hand.
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ืืœ ื”ื—ืœืง ื‘ืžื•ื— ืฉืฉื•ืœื˜ ืขืœ ื”ื™ื“ ืฉืœื™.
11:47
So there is no physical force, just a magnetic pulse.
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ืื™ืŸ ื›ืืŸ ื›ื•ื— ืคื™ื–ื™, ืจืง ืคื•ืœืก ืžื’ื ื˜ื™.
11:54
Woman (Video): Ready, Rebecca? RS: Yes.
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ื•ื™ื“ื™ืื•: ืืฉื”: ืžื•ื›ื ื”? ืจื‘ืงื” ืกืืงืก: ื›ืŸ.
11:57
Okay, so it causes a small involuntary contraction in my hand
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ืื•ืงื™, ื”ืžื›ืฉื™ืจ ื’ืจื ืœื›ื™ื•ื•ืฅ ื‘ืœืชื™ ืจืฆื•ื ื™ ืงื˜ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื“ ืฉืœื™
12:00
by putting a magnetic pulse in my brain.
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ืข"ื™ ืฉืœื™ื—ืช ืคื•ืœืก ืžื’ื ื˜ื™ ืœืžื•ื— ืฉืœื™.
12:03
And we can use that same pulse,
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ืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืื•ืชื• ื”ืคื•ืœืก,
12:05
now applied to the RTPJ,
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ืขืœ ื”-RTPJ,
12:07
to ask if we can change people's moral judgments.
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ื•ืœื‘ืจืจ ื”ืื ืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืฉื ื•ืช ืฉื™ืคื•ื˜ื™ื ืžื•ืกืจื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื.
12:10
So these are the judgments I showed you before, people's normal moral judgments.
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ืืœื• ื”ืฉื™ืคื•ื˜ื™ื ืฉื”ืฆื’ืชื™ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื - ืฉื™ืคื•ื˜ื™ื ืžื•ืกืจื™ื™ื ืจื’ื™ืœื™ื ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื.
12:12
And then we can apply TMS to the RTPJ
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ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ ื”ืคืขืœื ื• TMS ืขืœ ื”-RTPJ
12:15
and ask how people's judgments change.
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ื•ื‘ืจืจื ื• ืื™ื–ื” ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื—ืœื• ื‘ืฉื™ืคื•ื˜ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืื ืฉื™ื.
12:17
And the first thing is, people can still do this task overall.
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ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื”ื•ื, ืฉืื ืฉื™ื ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืžืกื•ื’ืœื™ื ืœื‘ืฆืข ืืช ื”ืžืฉื™ืžื”.
12:21
So their judgments of the case when everything was fine
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ื”ืฉื™ืคื•ื˜ื™ื ืฉืœื”ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžืงืจื” ื‘ื• ื”ื›ืœ ื”ื™ื” ืชืงื™ืŸ
12:23
remain the same. They say she deserves no blame.
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ื ื•ืชืจื• ืœืœื ืฉื™ื ื•ื™. ื”ื ืื•ืžืจื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื ืœื ืืฉืžื”.
12:26
But in the case of a failed attempt to harm,
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืžืงืจื” ืฉืœ ื”ื ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื”ื›ื•ืฉืœ ืœื’ืจื™ืžืช ื ื–ืง,
12:30
where Grace thought that it was poison, although it was really sugar,
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ื›ืฉื’ืจื™ื™ืก ื—ืฉื‘ื” ืฉื–ื” ืจืขืœ ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืกื•ื›ืจ,
12:33
people now say it was more okay, she deserves less blame
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ืื ืฉื™ื ืื•ืžืจื™ื ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืฉื–ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืกื“ืจ, ื•ืžื˜ื™ืœื™ื ืขืœื™ื” ืคื—ื•ืช ืืฉืžื”
12:36
for putting the powder in the coffee.
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ื‘ื”ื›ื ืกืช ื”ืื‘ืงื” ืœืงืคื”.
12:39
And in the case of the accident, where she thought that it was sugar,
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ื•ื‘ืžืงืจื” ืฉืœ ื”ืชืื•ื ื”, ื›ืฉื”ื™ื ื—ืฉื‘ื” ืฉื–ื” ืกื•ื›ืจ
12:41
but it was really poison and so she caused a death,
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืจืขืœ, ื•ื”ื™ื ื’ืจืžื” ืœืžื•ื•ืช,
12:44
people say that it was less okay, she deserves more blame.
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ืื ืฉื™ื ืื•ืžืจื™ื ืฉื–ื” ืคื—ื•ืช ื‘ืกื“ืจ, ื•ืžื˜ื™ืœื™ื ืขืœื™ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืืฉืžื”.
12:50
So what I've told you today is that
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ื”ืจืืชื™ ืœื›ื ื”ื™ื•ื
12:52
people come, actually, especially well equipped
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ืฉืœืื ืฉื™ื ื™ืฉ ืžื ื’ื ื•ื ื™ื ื˜ื•ื‘ื™ื
12:56
to think about other people's thoughts.
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ืœื—ืฉื™ื‘ื” ืขืœ ืžื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื.
12:58
We have a special brain system
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ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืื™ื–ื•ืจ ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ื‘ืžื•ื—
13:00
that lets us think about what other people are thinking.
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ืฉืžืืคืฉืจ ืœื ื• ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ืžื” ืื ืฉื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื.
13:03
This system takes a long time to develop,
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ื“ืจื•ืฉ ื–ืžืŸ ืจื‘ ืœื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ืช ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื–ืืช.
13:05
slowly throughout the course of childhood and into early adolescence.
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ื”ื™ื ืžืชืคืชื—ืช ื‘ืื™ื˜ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืžืฉืš ื”ื™ืœื“ื•ืช ื•ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื’ื™ืœ ื”ื”ืชื‘ื’ืจื•ืช.
13:08
And even in adulthood, differences in this brain region
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ื•ื’ื ื‘ื‘ื’ืจื•ืช, ื”ื‘ื“ืœื™ื ื‘ืื™ื–ื•ืจ ื”ืžื•ื— ื”ื–ื”
13:11
can explain differences among adults
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ื”ื‘ื“ืœื™ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื‘ื•ื’ืจื™ื
13:13
in how we think about and judge other people.
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ื‘ื“ืจืš ื”ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื” ืขืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ื•ื‘ืฉื™ืคื•ื˜ ืฉืœื”ื.
13:16
But I want to give the last word back to the novelists,
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ืืฉืื™ืจ ืืช ืžื™ืœื•ืช ื”ืกื™ื•ื ืœืกื•ืคืจื™ื.
13:19
and to Philip Roth, who ended by saying,
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ื•ืœืคื™ืœื™ืค ืจื•ืช, ืฉืกื™ื™ื ื‘ืื•ืžืจื•,
13:22
"The fact remains that getting people right
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"ื ื•ืชืจืช ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ื›ื™, ื‘ื›ืœ ืžืงืจื”, ืžื”ื•ืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืื™ื ื”
13:24
is not what living is all about anyway.
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ื”ื‘ื ืชื ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื.
13:26
It's getting them wrong that is living.
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ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ื, ื“ื•ื•ืงื, ื˜ืขื™ื™ื” ื‘ื”ื‘ื ืชื.
13:28
Getting them wrong and wrong and wrong,
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ื˜ืขื™ื™ื” ื•ืขื•ื“ ื˜ืขื™ื™ื” ื•ืขื•ื“ ื˜ืขื™ื™ื”,
13:31
and then on careful reconsideration,
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ื•ืื– ืœืื—ืจ ื‘ื—ื™ื ื” ืงืคื“ื ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ,
13:33
getting them wrong again."
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ืœืฉื•ื‘ ื•ืœื˜ืขื•ืช ื‘ื”ื‘ื ืชื."
13:35
Thank you.
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ืชื•ื“ื”.
13:37
(Applause)
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[ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื]
13:47
Chris Anderson: So, I have a question. When you start talking about using
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ื›ืจื™ืก ืื ื“ืจืกื•ืŸ: ื›ืฉืืช ืžื“ื‘ืจืช ืขืœ ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ
13:49
magnetic pulses to change people's moral judgments,
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ื‘ืคื•ืœืกื™ื ืžื’ื ื˜ื™ื™ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœืฉื ื•ืช ืฉื™ืคื•ื˜ื™ื ืžื•ืกืจื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื,
13:52
that sounds alarming.
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ื–ื” ื ืฉืžืข ืžื“ืื™ื’.
13:55
(Laughter)
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[ืฆื—ื•ืง]
13:56
Please tell me that you're not taking phone calls from the Pentagon, say.
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ื‘ื‘ืงืฉื” ืชื‘ื˜ื™ื—ื™ ืœื™ ืฉืืช ืœื ืขื•ื ื” ืœืฉื™ื—ื•ืช ื˜ืœืคื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืคื ื˜ื’ื•ืŸ.
14:00
RS: I'm not.
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ืจื‘ืงื” ืกืืงืก: ืื ื™ ืœื ืขื•ื ื”.
14:02
I mean, they're calling, but I'm not taking the call.
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ื›ืœื•ืžืจ, ื”ื ืžืชืงืฉืจื™ื, ืื‘ืœ ืื ื™ ืœื ืขื•ื ื”.
14:05
(Laughter)
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[ืฆื—ื•ืง]
14:06
CA: They really are calling?
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ื›.ื.: ื”ื ื‘ืืžืช ืžืชืงืฉืจื™ื?
14:08
So then seriously,
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ืื– ื‘ืจืฆื™ื ื•ืช,
14:11
you must lie awake at night sometimes
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ืืช ื‘ื˜ื— ืกื•ื‘ืœืช ืžื“ื™ ืคืขื ืžื ื“ื•ื“ื™ ืฉื™ื ื”
14:14
wondering where this work leads.
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ื•ืชื•ื”ื” ืœืืŸ ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื”ื–ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ.
14:16
I mean, you're clearly an incredible human being,
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ืื™ืŸ ืกืคืง ืฉืืช ืื“ื ื ืคืœื.
14:18
but someone could take this knowledge
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ืื‘ืœ ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืื—ืจ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื ืฆืœ ืืช ื”ื™ื“ืข ื”ื–ื”
14:21
and in some future
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ื•ื‘ืขืชื™ื“ ื›ืœืฉื”ื•,
14:23
not-torture chamber,
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ืœืœื ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ื—ื“ืจ ืขื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื,
14:25
do acts that people here might be worried about.
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ืœื‘ืฆืข ืคืขื•ืœื•ืช ืฉืื ืฉื™ื ื›ืืŸ ืขืœื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ื“ืื’ื™ื ืžืคื ื™ื”ืŸ.
14:28
RS: Yeah, we worry about this.
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ืจ.ืก.: ื›ืŸ, ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื•ื“ืื’ื™ื ืžื›ืš.
14:30
So, there's a couple of things to say about TMS.
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ื™ืฉ ื›ืžื” ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ TMS.
14:33
One is that you can't be TMSed without knowing it.
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ืจืืฉื™ืช, ืœื ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื‘ืฆืข ืœืš TMS ื‘ืœื™ ืžื•ื“ืขื•ืช ืฉืœืš ืœืขื ื™ื™ืŸ.
14:35
So it's not a surreptitious technology.
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ื•ื–ื•ื”ื™ ืœื ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื—ืฉืื™ืช.
14:38
It's quite hard, actually, to get those very small changes.
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ืงืฉื” ืžืื•ื“ ืœื”ืฉื™ื’ ืืช ื”ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื”ืงื˜ื ื™ื ื”ืืœื”.
14:41
The changes I showed you are impressive to me
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ื”ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ืฉื”ืฆื’ืชื™ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืžืื•ื“ ืžืจืฉื™ืžื™ื
14:44
because of what they tell us about the function of the brain,
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืžื” ืฉืื ื• ืœื•ืžื“ื™ื ืžื”ื ืขืœ ืชื™ืคืงื•ื“ ื”ืžื•ื—.
14:46
but they're small on the scale
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื ืงื˜ื ื™ื ื‘ืงื ื” ื”ืžื™ื“ื”
14:48
of the moral judgments that we actually make.
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ืฉืœ ื”ืฉื™ืคื•ื˜ื™ื ื”ืžื•ืกืจื™ื™ื ืฉืื ื• ืžื‘ืฆืขื™ื ื‘ืคื•ืขืœ.
14:50
And what we changed was not people's
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ืœื ืฉื™ื ื™ื ื• ืืช ื”ืฉื™ืคื•ื˜ื™ื ื”ืžื•ืกืจื™ื™ื
14:52
moral judgments when they're deciding what to do,
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ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ื›ืฉื”ื ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ื• ืขืœ ื“ืจื›ื™ ืคืขื•ืœื”,
14:55
when they're making action choices.
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ื›ืฉื”ื ื‘ื—ืจื• ื“ืจื›ื™ ืคืขื•ืœื”.
14:57
We changed their ability to judge other people's actions.
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ืฉื™ื ื™ื ื• ืืช ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืฉืœื”ื ืœืฉืคื•ื˜ ืคืขื•ืœื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื.
15:00
And so, I think of what I'm doing not so much as
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ื•ืœื›ืŸ ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ืช ืขืœ ืžื” ืฉืื ื™ ืขื•ืฉื”
15:02
studying the defendant in a criminal trial,
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ืœื ื›ืขืœ ืžื—ืงืจ ืฉืœ ื ืืฉื ื‘ืžืฉืคื˜ ืคืœื™ืœื™,
15:04
but studying the jury.
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ืืœื ื›ืขืœ ืžื—ืงืจ ืฉืœ ื—ื‘ืจ ื”ืžื•ืฉื‘ืขื™ื.
15:06
CA: Is your work going to lead to any recommendations
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ื›.ื.: ื”ืื ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืฉืœืš ืชื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืœื”ืžืœืฆื•ืช
15:09
in education, to perhaps bring up
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ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœื—ื™ื ื•ืš, ื•ืื•ืœื™ ืœื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ืฉืœ
15:12
a generation of kids able to make fairer moral judgments?
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ื“ื•ืจ ืฉืœ ื™ืœื“ื™ื ืฉื™ื•ื›ืœื• ืœื‘ืฆืข ืฉื™ืคื•ื˜ื™ื ืžื•ืกืจื™ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื”ื•ื’ื ื™ื?
15:17
RS: That's one of the idealistic hopes.
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ืจ.ืก.: ื–ื•ื”ื™ ืื—ืช ืžื”ืชืงื•ื•ืช ื”ืื™ื“ื™ืืœื™ืกื˜ื™ื•ืช.
15:20
The whole research program here of studying
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ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื”ืžื—ืงืจ ื›ื•ืœื” ืฉืœ ื—ืงืจ ื”ืื™ื–ื•ืจื™ื ื”ืฉื•ื ื™ื
15:24
the distinctive parts of the human brain is brand new.
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ื‘ืžื•ื— ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ ื”ื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื” ืœื’ืžืจื™.
15:28
Until recently, what we knew about the brain
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ืขื“ ืœืื—ืจื•ื ื” ื™ื“ืขื ื• ืขืœ ื”ืžื•ื—
15:30
were the things that any other animal's brain could do too,
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ืจืง ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืžื•ื—ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื—ื™ื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช ื’ื ื›ืŸ ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื‘ืฆืข.
15:33
so we could study it in animal models.
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ื•ื™ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืœื‘ืฆืข ืืช ื”ืžื—ืงืจ ืขืœ ืžื•ื“ืœื™ื ืฉืœ ื—ื™ื•ืช.
15:35
We knew how brains see, and how they control the body
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ื™ื“ืขื ื• ืื™ืš ื”ืžื•ื—ื•ืช ืจื•ืื™ื, ื•ืื™ืš ื”ื ืฉื•ืœื˜ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื’ื•ืฃ,
15:37
and how they hear and sense.
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ื•ืื™ืš ื”ื ืฉื•ืžืขื™ื ื•ื—ืฉื™ื.
15:39
And the whole project of understanding
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ื”ืคืจื•ื™ื™ืงื˜ ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ื ืช ื”ื“ืจืš ื‘ื”
15:42
how brains do the uniquely human things --
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ืžื•ื—ื•ืช ืžื‘ืฆืขื™ื ืืช ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ื™ื ืœื‘ื ื™ ื”ืื“ื,
15:44
learn language and abstract concepts,
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ืœืžื™ื“ื” ืฉืœ ืฉืคื” ื•ืžื•ืฉื’ื™ื ืžื•ืคืฉื˜ื™ื,
15:47
and thinking about other people's thoughts -- that's brand new.
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ื•ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื” ืขืœ ืžื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื - ื–ื”ื• ื ื•ืฉื ื—ื“ืฉ ืžืื•ื“.
15:49
And we don't know yet what the implications will be
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื, ืžื” ื™ื”ื™ื• ื”ื”ืฉืœื›ื•ืช
15:51
of understanding it.
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ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ื ืช ื”ื ื•ืฉืื™ื ื”ืืœื”.
15:53
CA: So I've got one last question. There is this thing called
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ื›.ื.: ืฉืืœื” ืื—ืจื•ื ื”. ืงื™ื™ื ื”ื ื•ืฉื ืฉืœ
15:55
the hard problem of consciousness,
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"ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ืงืฉื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ื“ืขื•ืช",
15:57
that puzzles a lot of people.
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ืฉืžื˜ืจื™ื“ ืื ืฉื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื.
15:59
The notion that you can understand
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ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืื•ืœื™ ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ
16:02
why a brain works, perhaps.
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ืœืžื” ืžื•ื— ืคื•ืขืœ.
16:04
But why does anyone have to feel anything?
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ืื‘ืœ ืœืžื” ื™ืฉ ืฆื•ืจืš ื‘ืชื—ื•ืฉื•ืช?
16:07
Why does it seem to require these beings who sense things
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ืœืžื” ื ืจืื” ืฉื“ืจื•ืฉื•ืช ืœื ื• ืžื™ืŸ ื™ืฉื•ื™ื•ืช ื›ืืœื” ืฉื—ืฉื•ืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ื
16:10
for us to operate?
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ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ืœืคืขื•ืœ?
16:12
You're a brilliant young neuroscientist.
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ืืช ืžื“ืขื ื™ืช ืžื•ื— ืฆืขื™ืจื” ื•ืžื‘ืจื™ืงื”.
16:15
I mean, what chances do you think there are
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ืžื”ื ืœื“ืขืชืš ื”ืกื™ื›ื•ื™ื™ื ืœื›ืš
16:17
that at some time in your career,
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ืฉื‘ื ืงื•ื“ื” ื›ืœืฉื”ื™ ื‘ืงืจื™ื™ืจื” ืฉืœืš,
16:19
someone, you or someone else,
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ืžื™ืฉื”ื•, ืืช ืื• ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืื—ืจ,
16:21
is going to come up with some paradigm shift
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ื™ื’ื™ืข ืœืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื‘ืคืจื“ื™ื’ืžื•ืช
16:23
in understanding what seems an impossible problem?
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ืฉืœ ื”ื”ื‘ื ื” ืฉืœ ืžื” ืฉื ืจืื” ื›ื‘ืขื™ื” ื‘ืœืชื™ ืคืชื™ืจื”.
16:27
RS: I hope they do. And I think they probably won't.
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ืจ.ืก.: ืื ื™ ืžืื•ื“ ืžืงื•ื•ื” ืฉื™ืขืฉื• ื–ืืช. ืื‘ืœ ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ืช ืฉืกื‘ื™ืจ ืœื”ื ื™ื— ืฉื–ื” ืœื ื™ืงืจื”.
16:31
CA: Why?
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ื›.ื.: ืœืžื”?
16:34
RS: It's not called the hard problem of consciousness for nothing.
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ืจ.ืก.: ื™ืฉ ืกื™ื‘ื” ื˜ื•ื‘ื” ืœื›ืš ืฉื–ืืช ื ืงืจืืช "ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ืงืฉื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ื“ืขื•ืช".
16:37
(Laughter)
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[ืฆื—ื•ืง]
16:39
CA: That's a great answer. Rebecca Saxe, thank you very much. That was fantastic.
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ื›.ื.: ื–ืืช ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืžืขื•ืœื”. ืจื‘ืงื” ืกืืงืก, ืื ื™ ืžื•ื“ื” ืœืš ืžืื•ื“. ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื ื”ื“ืจ.
16:42
(Applause)
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[ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื]
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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