Why elephants never forget - Alex Gendler

8,863,159 views ใƒป 2014-11-13

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืžืชืจื’ื: Ido Dekkers ืžื‘ืงืจ: Tal Dekkers
00:06
It's a common saying that elephants never forget,
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ื–ื• ืืžื™ืจื” ื ืคื•ืฆื” ืฉืคื™ืœื™ื ืœืขื•ืœื ืœื ืฉื•ื›ื—ื™ื,
00:10
but these magnificent animals are more than giant walking hard drives.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื—ื™ื•ืช ื”ื ืคืœืื•ืช ื”ืืœื• ื”ืŸ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื›ื•ื ื ื™ื ืงืฉื™ื—ื™ื ืžื”ืœื›ื™ื ืขื ืงื™ื.
00:14
The more we learn about elephants,
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ื›ื›ืœ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืœื•ืžื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขืœ ืคื™ืœื™ื,
00:16
the more it appears that their impressive memory
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ื›ืš ื ืจืื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉื”ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ื”ืžืจืฉื™ื ืฉืœื”ื
00:19
is only one aspect of an incredible intelligence
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ื”ื•ื ืจืง ืคืŸ ืื—ื“ ืฉืœ ืชื‘ื•ื ื” ืžื“ื”ื™ืžื”
00:22
that makes them some of the most social, creative,
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ืฉื”ื•ืคื›ืช ืื•ืชื ืœื›ืžื” ืžื”ื—ื™ื•ืช ื”ื›ื™ ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื•ืช,
00:24
and benevolent creatures on Earth.
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00:27
Unlike many proverbs, the one about elephant memory
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ื‘ื ื™ื’ื•ื“ ืœื”ืจื‘ื” ืคืชื’ืžื™ื, ื–ื” ืขืœ ื”ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืคื™ืœื™ื
00:30
is scientifically accurate.
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ื”ื•ื ืžื“ื•ื™ื™ืง ืžื“ืขื™ืช.
00:32
Elephants know every member in their herd,
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ืคื™ืœื™ื ืžื›ื™ืจื™ื ื›ืœ ื—ื‘ืจ ื‘ืขื“ืจ ืฉืœื”ื,
00:35
able to recognize as many as 30 companions by sight or smell.
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ื•ืžืกื•ื’ืœื™ื ืœื–ื”ื•ืช ืืคื™ืœื• 30 ื—ื‘ืจื™ื ืœืคื™ ืžืจืื” ื•ืจื™ื—.
00:39
This is a great help when migrating
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ื–ื” ืขื•ื–ืจ ืžืื•ื“ ื›ืฉื ื•ื“ื“ื™ื
00:41
or encountering other potentially hostile elephants.
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ืื• ื ืคื’ืฉื™ื ื‘ืคื™ืœื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืขื•ื™ื™ื ื™ื.
00:45
They also remember and distinguish particular cues that signal danger
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ื”ื ื’ื ื–ื•ื›ืจื™ื ื•ืžื‘ื“ื™ืœื™ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ืกื™ืžื ื™ื ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžื™ื ืฉืœ ืกื›ื ื”
00:49
and can recall important locations long after their last visit.
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ื•ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื–ื›ืจ ื‘ืžื™ืงื•ืžื™ื ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ื”ืจื‘ื” ืื—ืจื™ ื”ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจ ื”ืื—ืจื•ืŸ ื‘ื”ื.
00:53
But it's the memories unrelated to survival that are the most fascinating.
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ืื‘ืœ ืืœื” ื”ื–ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœื ืงืฉื•ืจื™ื ืœื”ืฉืจื“ื•ืช ืฉื”ื›ื™ ืžืจืชืงื™ื.
00:58
Elephants remember not only their herd companions
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ืคื™ืœื™ื ื–ื•ื›ืจื™ื ืœื ืจืง ืืช ื—ื‘ืจื™ื”ื ืœืขื“ืจ
01:01
but other creatures who have made a strong impression on them.
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ืืœื ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ืฉื”ืฉืื™ืจื• ืขืœื™ื”ื ืจื•ืฉื ื—ื–ืง.
01:06
In one case, two circus elephants that had briefly performed together
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ื‘ืžืงืจื” ืื—ื“, ืฉื ื™ ืคื™ืœื™ ืงืจืงืก ืฉื”ื•ืคื™ืขื• ื™ื—ื“ ืœื–ืžืŸ ืงืฆืจ
01:10
rejoiced when crossing paths 23 years later.
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ืฉืžื—ื• ื›ืฉื ืคื’ืฉื• 23 ืฉื ื™ื ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ.
01:14
This recognition isn't limited to others of their species.
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ื”ื”ื›ืจื” ืœื ืžื•ื’ื‘ืœืช ืœืื—ืจื™ื ืžืžื™ื ื.
01:18
Elephants have also recognized humans they've bonded with after decades apart.
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ืคื™ืœื™ื ื’ื ืžื–ื”ื™ื ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉื”ื ื ืงืฉืจื• ืืœื™ื”ื ืื—ืจื™ ืคืจื™ื“ื” ืฉืœ ืขืฉื•ืจื™ื.
01:23
All of this shows that elephant memory goes beyond responses to stimuli.
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ื›ืœ ื–ื” ืžืจืื” ืฉื”ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืคื™ืœื™ื ืžืชืงื“ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ืœื’ื™ืจื•ื™.
01:28
Looking inside their heads, we can see why.
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ื‘ื”ืฆืฆื” ืœืชื•ืš ืจืืฉื, ืืคืฉืจ ืœืจืื•ืช ืœืžื”,
01:31
The elephant boasts the largest brain of any land mammal,
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ื”ืคื™ืœื™ื ื”ื ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ืžื•ื— ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื—ื™ื•ืช ื”ื™ื‘ืฉื”,
01:34
as well as an impressive encephalization quotient.
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ื›ืžื• ื’ื ื™ื—ืก ืžืจืฉื™ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžืกืช ื”ื’ื•ืฃ ืœืžืกืช ื”ืžื•ื—.
01:37
This is the size of the brain relative to what we'd expect
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ื–ื” ื”ื’ื•ื“ืœ ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ื— ื™ื—ืกื™ืช ืœืžื” ืฉื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืžืฆืคื™ื
01:40
for an animal's body size,
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ืœื’ื•ื“ืœ ื’ื•ืฃ ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื”,
01:42
and the elephant's EQ is nearly as high as a chimpanzee's.
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ื•ื”ื™ื—ืก ืืฆืœ ืคื™ืœ ื’ื‘ื•ื” ื›ืžืขื˜ ื›ืžื• ืืฆืœ ืฉื™ืžืคื ื–ื™ื.
01:46
And despite the distant relation,
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ื•ืœืžืจื•ืช ื”ื”ืฉื•ื•ืื” ื”ืจื—ื•ืงื”,
01:48
convergent evolution has made it remarkably similar to the human brain,
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ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื” ืžืชื›ื ืกืช ื”ืคื›ื” ืื•ืชื• ืœื“ื•ืžื” ืœื”ืคืœื™ื ืœืžื•ื— ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™,
01:53
with as many neurons and synapses
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ืขื ืžืกืคืจ ื“ื•ืžื” ืฉืœ ื ื™ื•ืจื•ื ื™ื ื•ืกื™ื ืคืกื•ืช
01:55
and a highly developed hippocampus and cerebral cortex.
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ื•ื”ื™ืคื•ืงืžืคื•ืก ื•ืงืœื™ืคืช ืžื•ื— ืžืคื•ืชื—ื™ื.
01:59
It is the hippocampus, strongly associated with emotion, that aids recollection
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ื–ื” ื”ื”ื™ืคื•ืงืžืคื•ืก ืฉืžืฉื•ื™ื™ืš ื‘ื—ื•ื–ืงื” ืœืจื’ืฉื•ืช ืฉืขื•ื–ืจ ืœื–ื›ืจื•ืŸ
02:04
by encoding important experiences into long-term memories.
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืงื™ื“ื•ื“ ื—ื•ื•ื™ื•ืช ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื•ืช ืœืชื•ืš ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืœื˜ื•ื•ื— ืืจื•ืš.
02:08
The ability to distinguish this importance makes elephant memory
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ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืœื”ื‘ื“ื™ืœ ืืช ื”ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืช ื”ื–ื• ื”ื™ื ืžื” ืฉืขื•ืฉื” ืืช ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ื”ืคื™ืœ
02:12
a complex and adaptable faculty beyond rote memorization.
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ืœื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ืช ื•ืžื•ืชืืžืช ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœืฉื™ื ื•ืŸ ืจื’ื™ืœ.
02:16
It's what allows elephants who survived a drought in their youth
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ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉืžืืคืฉืจ ืœืคื™ืœ ืฉืฉืจื“ ื‘ืฆื•ืจืช ื‘ืฆืขื™ืจื•ืชื•
02:19
to recognize its warning signs in adulthood,
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ืœื”ื›ื™ืจ ื‘ืกื™ืžื ื™ ื”ืื–ื”ืจื” ื‘ื‘ื’ืจื•ืชื•.
02:22
which is why clans with older matriarchs have higher survival rates.
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ืœื›ืŸ ืœืขื“ืจื™ื ืขื ืžื˜ืจื™ืืจื›ื™ื•ืช ืžื‘ื•ื’ืจื•ืช ื™ืฉ ืกื™ื›ื•ื™ื™ ื”ืฉืจื“ื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ.
02:27
Unfortunately, it's also what makes elephants one of the few non-human animals
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ืœืžืจื‘ื” ื”ืฆืขืจ, ื–ื” ื’ื ืžื” ืฉื”ื•ืคืš ืคื™ืœื™ื ืœืื—ืช ื”ื—ื™ื•ืช ื”ืœื ืื ื•ืฉื™ื•ืช
02:31
to suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder.
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ืฉืกื•ื‘ืœื•ืช ืžื”ืคืจืขื” ืคื•ืกื˜ ื˜ืจืื•ืžื˜ื™ืช.
02:34
The cerebral cortex, on the other hand, enables problem solving,
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ืงืœื™ืคืช ื”ืžื•ื—, ืžืฆื“ ืฉื ื™, ืžืืคืฉืจืช ืคืชืจื•ืŸ ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช,
02:38
which elephants display in many creative ways.
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ืฉืคื™ืœื™ื ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ื”ืจื‘ื” ื“ืจื›ื™ื ื™ืฆื™ืจืชื™ื•ืช.
02:42
They also tackle problems cooperatively,
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ื”ื ื’ื ืžื˜ืคืœื™ื ื‘ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ื™ื—ื“,
02:44
sometimes even outwitting the researchers and manipulating their partners.
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ืœืคืขืžื™ื ืืคื™ืœื• ืžืขืจื™ืžื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ื•ืžืชืžืจื ื™ื ืืช ื”ื—ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืœื”ื.
02:49
And they've grasped basic arithmetic, keeping track of the relative amounts
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ื•ื”ื ื”ื‘ื™ื ื• ื—ืฉื‘ื•ืŸ ืคืฉื•ื˜, ื›ืฉื”ื ืขื•ืงื‘ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ ื›ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ื™ื—ืกื™ื•ืช
02:53
of fruit in two baskets after multiple changes.
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ืฉืœ ืคื™ืจื•ืช ื‘ืฉื ื™ ืกืœื™ื ืื—ืจื™ ืžืกืคืจ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื.
02:56
The rare combination of memory and problem solving
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ื”ืฉื™ืœื•ื‘ ื”ื ื“ื™ืจ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ื•ืคืชืจื•ืŸ ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช
02:59
can explain some of elephants' most clever behaviors,
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ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ื›ืžื” ืžื”ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ื›ื™ ื—ื›ืžื•ืช ืฉืœ ืคื™ืœื™ื,
03:03
but it doesn't explain some of the things we're just beginning to learn
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ืœื ืžืกื‘ื™ืจ ื›ืžื” ืžื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืจืง ืžืชื—ื™ืœื™ื ืœืœืžื•ื“
03:06
about their mental lives.
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ืขืœ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ืžื ื˜ืœื™ื™ื ืฉืœื”ื.
03:07
Elephants communicate using everything from body signals and vocalizations,
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ืคื™ืœื™ื ืžืชืงืฉืจื™ื ื‘ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ื”ื›ืœ ืžืกื™ืžื ื™ ื’ื•ืฃ ื•ืงื•ืœื•ืช,
03:12
to infrasound rumbles that can be heard kilometers away.
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ืœืจืขืžื™ื ืื™ื ืคืจื ืื“ื•ืžื™ื ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืฉืžืข ื‘ืžืจื—ืง ืงื™ืœื•ืžื˜ืจื™ื.
03:15
And their understanding of syntax suggests that they have their own language and grammar.
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ื•ื”ื”ื‘ื ื” ืฉืœื”ื ืฉืœ ืชื—ื‘ื™ืจ ืžืฆื™ืขื” ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื”ื ืฉืคื” ื•ื“ืงื“ื•ืง ืžืฉืœื”ื,
03:21
This sense of language may even go beyond simple communication.
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ื—ื•ืฉ ื–ื” ืฉืœ ืฉืคื” ืื•ืœื™ ืืคื™ืœื• ื”ื•ืœืš ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœืชืงืฉื•ืจืช ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ืช.
03:25
Elephants create art by carefully choosing and combining
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ืคื™ืœื™ื ื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ืื•ืžื ื•ืช ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื‘ื—ื™ืจื” ื–ื”ื™ืจื” ื•ืฉื™ืœื•ื‘
03:29
different colors and elements.
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ืฉืœ ืฆื‘ืขื™ื ื•ืืœืžื ื˜ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื.
03:31
They can also recognize twelve distinct tones of music and recreate melodies.
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ื”ื ื’ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื–ื”ื•ืช ืฉื ื™ื ืขืฉืจ ืฆืœื™ืœื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื•ื–ื™ืงื” ื•ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืžื—ื“ืฉ ืžืœื•ื“ื™ื•ืช.
03:36
And yes, there is an elephant band.
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ื•ื›ืŸ, ื™ืฉ ืœื”ืงืช ืคื™ืœื™ื.
03:39
But perhaps the most amazing thing about elephants
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ืื‘ืœ ืื•ืœื™ ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื›ื™ ืžื“ื”ื™ื ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืคื™ืœื™ื
03:42
is a capacity even more important than cleverness:
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ื–ื” ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ื”ืืคื™ืœื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื” ืžื—ื•ื›ืžื”:
03:45
their sense of empathy, altruism, and justice.
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ื—ื•ืฉ ื”ืืžืคืชื™ื” ืฉืœื”ื, ืืœื˜ืจื•ืื™ื–ื ื•ืฆื“ืง.
03:50
Elephants are the only non-human animals to mourn their dead,
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ืคื™ืœื™ื ื”ื ื”ื—ื™ื•ืช ื”ืœื ืื ื•ืฉื™ื•ืช ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื•ืช ืฉืžืชืื‘ืœื™ื ืขืœ ืžืชื™ื”ืŸ,
03:54
performing burial rituals and returning to visit graves.
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ื•ืžื‘ืฆืขื™ื ื˜ืงืกื™ ืงื‘ื•ืจื” ื•ื—ื•ื–ืจื™ื ืœื‘ืงืจ ืืช ื”ืงื‘ืจื™ื.
03:58
They have shown concern for other species, as well.
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ื”ื ื’ื ื”ืจืื• ื“ืื’ื” ืœืžื™ื ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื.
04:01
One working elephant refused to set a log down into a hole
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ืคื™ืœ ืขื•ื‘ื“ ืื—ื“ ืกืจื‘ ืœื”ื›ื ื™ืก ื’ื–ืข ืœื—ื•ืจ
04:05
where a dog was sleeping,
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ื‘ื• ื™ืฉืŸ ื›ืœื‘,
04:07
while elephants encountering injured humans have sometimes stood guard
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืคื™ืœื™ื ืฉื ืชืงืœื™ื ื‘ืื ืฉื™ื ืคืฆื•ืขื™ื ืขืžื“ื• ืคืขืžื™ื ืจื‘ื•ืช ืœืžืฉืžืจ
04:11
and gently comforted them with their trunk.
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ื•ื ื—ืžื• ืื•ืชื ื‘ืขื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืขื ื”ื—ื“ืง.
04:14
On the other hand, elephant attacks on human villages
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ืžืฆื“ ืฉื ื™, ืชืงื™ืคื•ืช ืคื™ืœื™ื ืขืœ ื›ืคืจื™ื
04:17
have usually occurred right after massive poachings or cullings,
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ื”ืชืจื—ืฉื• ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ืžื™ื™ื“ ืื—ืจื™ ืฆื™ื™ื“ ืื• ืœื›ื™ื“ื”,
04:21
suggesting deliberate revenge.
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ืžื” ืฉืžืฆื‘ื™ืข ืขืœ ื ืงืžื” ืžื›ื•ื•ื ืช.
04:23
When we consider all this evidence,
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ื›ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืฉื•ืงืœื™ื ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืขื“ื•ื™ื•ืช,
04:25
along with the fact that elephants are one of the few species
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ื™ื—ื“ ืขื ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ืฉืคื™ืœื™ื ื”ื ืื—ื“ ื”ืžื™ื ื™ื ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื™ื
04:28
who can recognize themselves in a mirror,
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ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื–ื”ื•ืช ืืช ืขืฆืžื ื‘ืžืจืื”,
04:31
it's hard to escape the conclusion
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ื–ื” ืงืฉื” ืœื”ืชืขืœื ืžื”ืžืกืงื ื”
04:32
that they are conscious, intelligent, and emotional beings.
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ืฉื”ื ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื ื”ื›ืจืชื™ื™ื, ืื™ื ื˜ื™ืœื™ื’ื ื˜ื™ื ื•ืจื’ืฉื™ื™ื.
04:37
Unfortunately, humanity's treatment of elephants does not reflect this,
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ืœืžืจื‘ื” ื”ืฆืขืจ, ื”ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ืฉืœ ื”ืื ื•ืฉื•ืช ื‘ืคื™ืœื™ื ืœื ืžืฉืงืฃ ืืช ื–ื”,
04:42
as they continue to suffer from habitat destruction in Asia,
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ื›ืฉื”ื ืžืžืฉื™ื›ื™ื ืœืกื‘ื•ืœ ืžื”ืจืก ืื–ื•ืจื™ ืžื—ื™ื” ื‘ืืกื™ื”,
04:45
ivory poaching in Africa, and mistreatment in captivity worldwide.
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ืฆื™ื“ ืœืฉื ื”ื‘ ื‘ืืคืจื™ืงื”, ื•ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ืœื ืžืชืื™ื ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ ืžืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืœืขื•ืœื.
04:50
Given what we now know about elephants
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ื‘ื”ืชื—ืฉื‘ ื‘ืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืขืœ ืคื™ืœื™ื
04:53
and what they continue to teach us about animal intelligence,
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ื•ืžื” ืฉื”ื ืžืžืฉื™ื›ื™ื ืœืœืžื“ ืื•ืชื ื• ืขืœ ืื™ื ื˜ื™ืœื™ื’ื ืฆื™ื” ื—ื™ื™ืชื™ืช,
04:56
it is more important than ever to ensure
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ื–ื” ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืื™ ืคืขื ืœื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื—
04:58
that what the English poet John Donne described as "nature's great masterpiece"
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ืฉืžื” ืฉื”ืžืฉื•ืจืจ ื”ืื ื’ืœื™ ื’'ื•ืŸ ื“ืืŸ ืชืืจ
05:03
does not vanish from the world's canvas.
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ื›"ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ื”ืžื•ืคืช ืฉืœ ื”ื˜ื‘ืข," ืœื ืชืขืœื ืžื”ืงื ื‘ืก ืฉืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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