Pawan Sinha on how brains learn to see

64,948 views ใƒป 2010-02-25

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืžืชืจื’ื: Yana Zhivin ืžื‘ืงืจ: Sigal Tifferet
00:15
If you are a blind child in India,
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ืื ืืชื” ื™ืœื“ ืขื™ื•ื•ืจ ื‘ื”ื•ื“ื•,
00:19
you will very likely have to contend with
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ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืกื™ื›ื•ื™ื™ื ืฉืชืฆื˜ืจืš ืœื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ ืขื
00:22
at least two big pieces of bad news.
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ืœืคื—ื•ืช ืฉืชื™ ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ืจืขื•ืช.
00:25
The first bad news
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ื”ื—ื“ืฉื” ื”ืจืขื” ืจืืฉื•ื ื”
00:27
is that the chances of getting treatment
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ื”ื™ื ืฉื”ืกื™ื›ื•ื™ ืœืงื‘ืœ ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ
00:30
are extremely slim to none,
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ื”ื•ื ืงื˜ืŸ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ, ืขื“ ืืคืกื™,
00:33
and that's because most of the blindness
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ื•ื–ืืช ืžืฉื•ื ืฉืจื•ื‘ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ื•ืช ื”ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ
00:35
alleviation programs in the country
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ื‘ืขื™ื•ื•ืจื•ืŸ ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื”
00:37
are focused on adults,
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ืžื›ื•ื•ื ื•ืช ืœืžื‘ื•ื’ืจื™ื,
00:39
and there are very, very few hospitals
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ื•ื™ืฉ ืžืขื˜ ืžืื•ื“ ื‘ืชื™ ื—ื•ืœื™ื
00:42
that are actually equipped to treat children.
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ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื”ื ืืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื“ ื”ื“ืจื•ืฉ ืœื˜ืคืœ ื‘ื™ืœื“ื™ื.
00:46
In fact, if you were to be treated,
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ืื ื‘ื›ืœืœ ื™ื˜ืคืœื• ื‘ืš,
00:51
you might well end up being treated
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ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืฉืชื˜ื•ืคืœ
00:54
by a person who has no medical credentials
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืื“ื ืฉืื™ืŸ ืœื• ืฉื•ื ื”ืฉื›ืœื” ืจืคื•ืื™ืช,
00:57
as this case from Rajasthan illustrates.
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ื›ืžื• ืฉื”ืžืงืจื” ื”ื–ื” ืžืจืื’'ืกื˜ืืŸ ืžืžื—ื™ืฉ.
01:00
This is a three-year-old orphan girl
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ื–ื•ื”ื™ ื™ืชื•ืžื” ื‘ืช ืฉืœื•ืฉ
01:02
who had cataracts.
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ืฉื”ื™ื” ืœื” ืงื˜ืจืงื˜
01:04
So, her caretakers took her
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ื•ืžื˜ืคืœื™ื” ืœืงื—ื• ืื•ืชื”
01:06
to the village medicine man,
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ืœืžืจืคื ืฉืœ ื”ื›ืคืจ.
01:08
and instead of suggesting to the caretakers
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ื•ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืฉื”ื•ื ื™ืฆื™ืข ืœื”ื
01:11
that the girl be taken to a hospital,
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ืœืงื—ืช ืื•ืชื” ืœื‘ื™ืช ื—ื•ืœื™ื,
01:14
the person decided to burn her abdomen
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ื”ื•ื ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ืœืฉืจื•ืฃ ืืช ื‘ื˜ื ื”
01:16
with red-hot iron bars
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ืขื ืžื•ื˜ื•ืช ื‘ืจื–ืœ ื—ืžื™ื
01:18
to drive out the demons.
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ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœื’ืจืฉ ืืช ื”ืฉื“ื™ื.
01:20
The second piece of bad news
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ืืช ื”ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ื”ืจืขื•ืช ื”ื ื•ืกืคื•ืช
01:23
will be delivered to you
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ืชืงื‘ืœ ืžืคื™
01:25
by neuroscientists, who will tell you
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ืžื“ืขื ื™ ืžื•ื—, ืฉื™ื’ื™ื“ื• ืœืš
01:28
that if you are older than four or five years of age,
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ืฉืื ืืชื” ืžื‘ื•ื’ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื’ื™ืœ ืืจื‘ืข ืื• ื—ืžืฉ,
01:31
that even if you have your eye corrected,
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ืื– ืืคื™ืœื• ืื ืขื™ื ื™ืš ื™ืชื•ืงื ื•,
01:34
the chances of your brain learning how to see
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ื”ืกื™ื›ื•ื™ื™ื ืฉืžื•ื—ืš ื™ืœืžื“ ืœืจืื•ืช
01:37
are very, very slim --
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ืžืื•ื“ ืžืื•ื“ ืงืœื•ืฉื™ื.
01:39
again, slim or none.
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ืฉื•ื‘, ืงืœื•ืฉื™ื ืื• ืืคืกื™ื™ื.
01:42
So when I heard these two things,
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ืื– ื›ืฉืฉืžืขืชื™ ืืช ืฉื ื™ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืœืœื•,
01:44
it troubled me deeply,
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ื”ื ื”ื˜ืจื™ื“ื• ืื•ืชื™ ืžืื•ื“,
01:46
both because of personal reasons
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ื”ืŸ ืžืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ืื™ืฉื™ื•ืช
01:48
and scientific reasons.
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ื•ื”ืŸ ืžืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ืžื“ืขื™ื•ืช.
01:50
So let me first start with the personal reason.
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ืชื ื• ืœื™ ืจืืฉื™ืช ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืžื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ื”ืื™ืฉื™ืช.
01:53
It'll sound corny, but it's sincere.
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ื–ื” ื ืฉืžืข ื ื“ื•ืฉ ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ื›ืŸ.
01:56
That's my son, Darius.
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ื–ื”ื• ื”ื‘ืŸ ืฉืœื™, ื“ืจื™ื•ืก.
01:58
As a new father,
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ื›ืื‘ ื˜ืจื™,
02:00
I have a qualitatively different sense
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ื™ืฉ ืœื™ ืชืคื™ืกื” ืฉื•ื ื” ืื™ื›ื•ืชื™ืช
02:04
of just how delicate babies are,
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ืขืœ ื›ืžื” ืขื“ื™ื ื™ื ื”ื ื”ืชื™ื ื•ืงื•ืช,
02:07
what our obligations are towards them
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ืื™ืœื• ื”ืชื—ื™ื™ื‘ื•ืช ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื›ืœืคื™ื”ื,
02:10
and how much love
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ื•ื›ืžื” ืื”ื‘ื”
02:12
we can feel towards a child.
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ืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืจื’ื™ืฉ ื›ืœืคื™ ื™ืœื“.
02:15
I would move heaven and earth
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ืื ื™ ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืžื–ื™ื– ืฉืžื™ื ื•ืืจืฅ
02:17
in order to get treatment for Darius,
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ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœื”ืฉื™ื’ ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ืœื“ืจื™ื•ืก.
02:20
and for me to be told
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ื•ื›ืฉืื•ืžืจื™ื ืœื™
02:22
that there might be other Dariuses
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ืฉื™ืฉื ื ืื•ืœื™ ื“ืจื™ื•ืกื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื
02:24
who are not getting treatment,
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ืฉืื™ื ื ืžืงื‘ืœื™ื ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ,
02:26
that's just viscerally wrong.
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ื–ื” ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืขื•ื•ืœ ื ื•ืจืื™.
02:29
So that's the personal reason.
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ืื– ื–ื•ื”ื™ ื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ื”ืื™ืฉื™ืช.
02:31
Scientific reason is that this notion
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ื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ื”ืžื“ืขื™ืช ื”ื™ื ืฉืื•ืชื” ืชืคื™ืกื”
02:34
from neuroscience of critical periods --
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ืฉืœ ืžื“ืขื™ ื”ืžื•ื—, ืฉืœ ืชืงื•ืคื•ืช ืงืจื™ื˜ื™ื•ืช,
02:36
that if the brain is older
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ื–ื•, ืฉืื ื”ืžื•ื— ืžื‘ื•ื’ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ
02:39
than four or five years of age,
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ืžื’ื™ืœ ืืจื‘ืข ืื• ื—ืžืฉ
02:41
it loses its ability to learn --
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ื”ื•ื ืžืื‘ื“ ืืช ื™ื›ื•ืœืชื• ืœืœืžื•ื“,
02:43
that doesn't sit well with me,
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ื–ื” ืœื ืžืกืชื“ืจ ืœื™ ื˜ื•ื‘,
02:45
because I don't think that idea
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ื›ื™ ืื ื™ ืœื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื”ื ื•ืฉื
02:47
has been tested adequately.
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ื ื‘ื“ืง ื›ื”ืœื›ื”.
02:50
The birth of the idea is from
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ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื ื•ืœื“ ืžืชื•ืš
02:52
David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel's work,
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ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื ืฉืœ ื“ื™ื™ื•ื™ื“ ื”ื•ื‘ืœ ื•ื˜ื•ืจืกื˜ืŸ ื•ื™ื–ืœ,
02:54
two researchers who were at Harvard,
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ืฉื ื™ ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ืžื”ืจื•ื•ืืจื“
02:56
and they got the Nobel Prize in 1981
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ืฉืงื™ื‘ืœื• ืคืจืก ื ื•ื‘ืœ ื‘-1981
02:59
for their studies of visual physiology,
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ืขืœ ืžื—ืงืจื™ื”ื ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ืคื™ื–ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ืช ื”ืจืื™ื™ื”,
03:01
which are remarkably beautiful studies,
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ืฉื”ื ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ืžืื•ื“ ื™ืคื™ื,
03:03
but I believe some of their work
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ืืš ืื ื™ ืžืืžื™ืŸ ืฉื—ืœืง ืžืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื
03:05
has been extrapolated
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ื”ื•ืฉืœื›ื”
03:07
into the human domain prematurely.
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ืขืœ ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื ื‘ื˜ืจื ืขืช.
03:09
So, they did their work with kittens,
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ื”ื ื‘ื™ืฆืขื• ืืช ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื ืขื ื’ื•ืจื™ ื—ืชื•ืœื™ื,
03:11
with different kinds of deprivation regiments,
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ืขื ืกื•ื’ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื—ืกื›ื™ื ื•ื™ื–ื•ืืœื™ื™ื,
03:13
and those studies,
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ื•ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ืืœื”,
03:15
which date back to the '60s,
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ืฉื ืขืจื›ื• ืื™ ืื– ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”ืฉื™ืฉื™ื,
03:17
are now being applied to human children.
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ืžื™ื•ืฉืžื™ื ื›ืขืช ืขืœ ื™ืœื“ื™ื.
03:20
So I felt that I needed to do two things.
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ืื– ื”ืจื’ืฉืชื™ ืฉืื ื™ ืฆืจื™ืš ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืฉื ื™ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื.
03:23
One: provide care
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ื”ืื—ื“: ืœืกืคืง ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ
03:26
to children who are currently
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ืœื™ืœื“ื™ื ืฉื›ืจื’ืข
03:28
being deprived of treatment.
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ื ืžื ืข ืžื”ื ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ.
03:30
That's the humanitarian mission.
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ื–ื•ื”ื™ ื”ืฉืœื™ื—ื•ืช ื”ื”ื•ืžื ื™ื˜ืจื™ืช.
03:32
And the scientific mission would be
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ื•ื”ืฉืœื™ื—ื•ืช ื”ืžื“ืขื™ืช ื”ื™ื ื”
03:34
to test the limits
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ืœื‘ื“ื•ืง ืืช ื”ื’ื‘ื•ืœื•ืช
03:36
of visual plasticity.
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ืฉืœ ืคืœืืกื˜ื™ื•ืช ื”ืจืื™ื”.
03:38
And these two missions, as you can tell,
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ืฉืชื™ ื”ืฉืœื™ื—ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืœืœื•, ื›ืคื™ ืฉืืชื ื‘ื•ื•ื“ืื™ ืจื•ืื™ื,
03:41
thread together perfectly. One adds to the other;
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ืžืฉืชืœื‘ื•ืช ื–ื• ื‘ื–ื• ื”ื™ื˜ื‘, ืื—ืช ืžื•ืกื™ืคื” ืœืฉื ื™ื”.
03:44
in fact, one would be impossible without the other.
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ืื—ืช ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื‘ืœืชื™ ืืคืฉืจื™ืช ื‘ืœื™ ื”ืฉื ื™ื”.
03:49
So, to implement
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ืื–, ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœืžืžืฉ
03:51
these twin missions,
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ืืช ื”ืฉืœื™ื—ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืชืื•ืžื•ืช ื”ืœืœื•
03:53
a few years ago, I launched Project Prakash.
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ื”ืฉืงืชื™ ืœืคื ื™ ื›ืžื” ืฉื ื™ื ืืช ื”ืคืจื•ื™ืงื˜ "ืคืจืืงืืฉ".
03:56
Prakash, as many of you know,
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"ืคืจืืงืืฉ", ื›ืคื™ ืฉืจื‘ื™ื ื•ื“ืื™ ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื,
03:58
is the Sanskrit word for light,
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ื”ื™ื ื”ืžื™ืœื” ื‘ืกื ืกืงืจื™ื˜ ืฉืคื™ืจื•ืฉื” ืื•ืจ
04:00
and the idea is that
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ื•ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื”ื•ื
04:02
in bringing light into the lives of children,
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ืฉื‘ื”ื‘ื™ืื ื• ืื•ืจ ืœื—ื™ื™ื”ื ืฉืœ ื™ืœื“ื™ื,
04:05
we also have a chance
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ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืกื™ื›ื•ื™ ื’ื
04:07
of shedding light on some of the
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ืœื”ื˜ื™ืœ ืื•ืจ ืขืœ ื›ืžื”
04:09
deepest mysteries of neuroscience.
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ืžื”ืชืขืœื•ืžื•ืช ื”ืขืžื•ืงื•ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืœ ืžื“ืขื™ ื”ืžื•ื—.
04:12
And the logo -- even though it looks extremely Irish,
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ื•ื”ืœื•ื’ื•, ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื”ื•ื ื ืจืื” ืžืื•ื“ ืื™ืจื™,
04:15
it's actually derived from
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ืœืžืขืฉื” ืœืงื•ื— ืžืชื•ืš
04:17
the Indian symbol of Diya, an earthen lamp.
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ื”ืกืžืœ ื”ื”ื•ื“ื™ "ื“ื™ืื”", ืžื ื•ืจืช ืขืคืจ.
04:21
The Prakash, the overall effort
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"ืคืจืืงืืฉ", ื”ืžืืžืฅ ื”ื›ื•ืœืœ,
04:24
has three components:
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ื‘ื ื•ื™ ืžืฉืœื•ืฉื” ื—ืœืงื™ื.
04:26
outreach, to identify children in need of care;
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ื”ื•ืฉื˜ืช ื™ื“, ื–ื™ื”ื•ื™ ื™ืœื“ื™ื ื”ื–ืงื•ืงื™ื ืœื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ,
04:30
medical treatment; and in subsequent study.
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ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ืจืคื•ืื™, ื•ืžื—ืงืจ.
04:33
And I want to show you a short video clip
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ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ืจืื•ืช ืœื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืงืฆืจ
04:36
that illustrates the first two components of this work.
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ืฉื™ืžื—ื™ืฉ ืืช ืฉื ื™ ื”ืžืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื–ื•.
04:41
This is an outreach station
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ื–ื•ื”ื™ ืชื—ื ื” ืฉืœ ื”ื•ืฉื˜ืช ื™ื“,
04:43
conducted at a school for the blind.
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ืฉื”ื•ืงืžื” ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ืกืคืจ ืœืขื™ื•ื•ืจื™ื.
04:46
(Text: Most of the children are profoundly and permanently blind ...)
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(ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ืช: ืจื•ื‘ ื”ื™ืœื“ื™ื ืขื™ื•ื•ืจื™ื ืœืชืžื™ื“ ...)
04:51
Pawan Sinha: So, because this is a school for the blind,
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ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื–ื”ื• ื‘ื™ืช ืกืคืจ ืœืขื™ื•ื•ืจื™ื,
04:56
many children have permanent conditions.
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ืœื“ื™ื ืกื•ื‘ืœื™ื ืžื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ื›ืจื•ื ื™ื•ืช.
04:58
That's a case of microphthalmos,
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ื–ื”ื• ืžืงืจื” ืฉืœ ืžื™ืงืจื•ืคื˜ืœืžื•ืก,
05:01
which is malformed eyes,
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ืขื™ืŸ ืฉืฆื•ืจืชื” ืžืขื•ื•ืชืช,
05:03
and that's a permanent condition;
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ื•ื–ื”ื• ืžืฆื‘ ืชืžื™ื“ื™.
05:05
it cannot be treated.
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ืœื ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื˜ืคืœ ื‘ื•.
05:07
That's an extreme of micropthalmos
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ื–ื”ื• ืžืงืจื” ืงื™ืฆื•ื ื™ ืฉืœ ืžื™ืงืจื•ืคื˜ืœืžื•ืก,
05:09
called enophthalmos.
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ืฉื ืงืจื ืื ื•ืคื˜ืœืžื•ืก.
05:11
But, every so often, we come across children
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ืื‘ืœ, ืžื“ื™ ืคืขื, ืื ื• ื ืชืงืœื™ื ื‘ื™ืœื“ื™ื,
05:13
who show some residual vision,
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ืฉืžืจืื™ื ืฉืจื™ื“ื™ ืจืื™ื”,
05:16
and that is a very good sign
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ื•ื–ื”ื• ืกื™ืžืŸ ืžืื•ื“ ื˜ื•ื‘ ืœื›ืš
05:19
that the condition might actually be treatable.
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ืฉืื•ืœื™ ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื˜ืคืœ ื‘ืžืฆื‘.
05:21
So, after that screening, we bring the children to the hospital.
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ืื ื›ืŸ, ืื—ืจื™ ื”ืžื™ื•ืŸ, ืื ื• ืžื‘ื™ืื™ื ืืช ื”ื™ืœื“ื™ื ืœื‘ื™ืช ื”ื—ื•ืœื™ื.
05:24
That's the hospital we're working with in Delhi,
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ื–ื”ื• ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื—ื•ืœื™ื ืฉืื ื• ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ืื™ืชื• ื‘ื“ืœื”ื™,
05:26
the Schroff Charity Eye Hospital.
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ื‘ื™ืช ื—ื•ืœื™ื ืฆื“ืงื” ืœืขื™ื ื™ื™ื, ืข"ืฉ ืฉืจื•ืฃ.
05:29
It has a very well-equipped
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ื™ืฉ ื‘ื• ืžืจื›ื– ืžืฆื•ื™ื“ ื”ื™ื˜ื‘
05:31
pediatric ophthalmic center,
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ืœื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ื‘ืžื—ืœื•ืช ืขื™ื ื™ื™ื ื‘ื™ืœื“ื™ื,
05:35
which was made possible in part
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ืฉื”ืชืืคืฉืจ, ื—ืœืงื™ืช,
05:37
by a gift from the Ronald McDonald charity.
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ื”ื•ื“ื•ืช ืœืชืจื•ืžื” ืฉืœ ืืจื’ื•ืŸ ื”ืฆื“ืงื” ืจื•ื ืœื“ ืžืง'ื“ื•ื ืœื“.
05:41
So, eating burgers actually helps.
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ืื–, ืœืื›ื•ืœ ื”ืžื‘ื•ืจื’ืจื™ื ืขื•ื–ืจ.
05:45
(Text: Such examinations allow us to improve
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(ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ืช: ื‘ื“ื™ืงื•ืช ืืœื” ืžืืคืฉืจื•ืช ืœื ื• ืœืฉืคืจ
05:47
eye-health in many children, and ...
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ืืช ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช ื”ืขื™ื ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ืœื“ื™ื, ื•...
05:54
... help us find children who can participate in Project Prakash.)
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ืขื•ื–ืจื•ืช ืœื ื• ืœืžืฆื•ื ื™ืœื“ื™ื ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืฉืชืชืฃ ื‘ืคืจื•ื™ืงื˜ "ืคืจืืงืืฉ".)
05:57
PS: So, as I zoom in to the eyes of this child,
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ื™ ืขื•ืฉื” ื–ื•ื ืขืœ ืขื™ื ื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“,
05:59
you will see the cause of his blindness.
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ืืชื ืชืจืื• ืืช ื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ืœืขื•ื•ืจื•ื ื•.
06:03
The whites that you see in the middle of his pupils
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ื”ืœื‘ื ื™ื ืฉืืชื ืจื•ืื™ื ื‘ืžืจื›ื– ื”ืื™ืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœื•,
06:06
are congenital cataracts,
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ื”ื ืงื˜ืจืงื˜ื™ื ืžื•ืœื“ื™ื,
06:09
so opacities of the lens.
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ืขื›ื™ืจื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืขื“ืฉื”.
06:11
In our eyes, the lens is clear,
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ื‘ืขื™ื ื™ื™ื ืฉืœื ื• ื”ืขื“ืฉื” ืฆืœื•ืœื”,
06:14
but in this child, the lens has become opaque,
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ื•ืืฆืœ ื”ื™ืœื“ ื”ื–ื”, ื”ื™ื ื ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืขื›ื•ืจื”,
06:16
and therefore he can't see the world.
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ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื”ื•ื ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ื”ืขื•ืœื.
06:19
So, the child is given treatment. You'll see shots of the eye.
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ืื–, ื ื•ืชื ื™ื ืœื™ืœื“ ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ. ืืชื ืชืจืื• ืฆื™ืœื•ืžื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืขื™ืŸ.
06:22
Here's the eye with the opaque lens,
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ื”ื ื” ื”ืขื™ืŸ ืขื ืขื“ืฉื” ืขื›ื•ืจื”,
06:24
the opaque lens extracted
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ืžื•ืฆื™ืื™ื ืืช ื”ืขื“ืฉื” ื”ืขื›ื•ืจื”,
06:26
and an acrylic lens inserted.
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ื•ืžื—ื“ื™ืจื™ื ืขื“ืฉื” ืืงืจื™ืœื™ืช.
06:29
And here's the same child
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ื•ื”ื ื” ืื•ืชื• ื™ืœื“,
06:31
three weeks post-operation,
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ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช ืื—ืจื™ ื”ื ื™ืชื•ื—.
06:34
with the right eye open.
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ื›ืฉืขื™ื ื• ื”ื™ืžื ื™ืช ืคืงื•ื—ื”.
06:40
(Applause)
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
06:46
Thank you.
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ืชื•ื“ื”.
06:48
So, even from that little clip, you can begin to get the sense
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ืืคื™ืœื• ืžื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ื”ืงืฆืจ ื”ื–ื”, ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ
06:51
that recovery is possible,
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ืฉื”ื”ื—ืœืžื” ืืคืฉืจื™ืช,
06:53
and we have now
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ื•ืขื“ ืขื›ืฉื™ื•,
06:55
provided treatment to over 200 children,
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ื ืชื ื• ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ืœื™ื•ืชืจ ืž-200 ื™ืœื“ื™ื,
06:58
and the story repeats itself.
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ื•ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ื—ื•ื–ืจ ืขืœ ืขืฆืžื•.
07:00
After treatment, the child
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ืœืื—ืจ ื”ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ, ื”ื™ืœื“
07:02
gains significant functionality.
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ืจื•ื›ืฉ ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ื ื™ื›ืจืช.
07:05
In fact, the story holds true
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ื ื›ื•ืŸ
07:08
even if you have a person who got sight
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ื’ื ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืฉื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœืจืื•ืช
07:10
after several years of deprivation.
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ืœืื—ืจ ื”ืจื‘ื” ืฉื ื™ื ื‘ื”ืŸ ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ื”ื™ื”.
07:12
We did a paper a few years ago
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ื›ืชื‘ื ื• ืžืืžืจ ืœืคื ื™ ื›ืžื” ืฉื ื™ื,
07:14
about this woman that you see on the right, SRD,
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ืขืœ ื”ืื™ืฉื” ื”ื–ื•, ืฉืืชื ืจื•ืื™ื ืžื™ืžื™ืŸ,
07:18
and she got her sight late in life,
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ื”ื™ื ื”ื—ืœื” ืœืจืื•ืช ื‘ื’ื™ืœ ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื,
07:20
and her vision is remarkable at this age.
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ื•ืจืื™ื™ืชื” ื™ื•ืฆืืช ืžืŸ ื”ื›ืœืœ ื‘ื’ื™ืœื”.
07:24
I should add a tragic postscript to this --
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ืขืœื™ ืœื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ื”ืขืจื” ื˜ืจื’ื™ืช ืœืกื™ืคื•ืจ ื–ื”,
07:27
she died two years ago
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ื”ื™ื ื ื”ืจื’ื” ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื ืชื™ื™ื
07:29
in a bus accident.
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ื‘ืชืื•ื ืช ืื•ื˜ื•ื‘ื•ืก.
07:31
So, hers is just a truly inspiring story --
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ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืฉืœื” ื”ื•ื ื‘ืืžืช ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืžืขื•ืจืจ ื”ืฉืจืื”,
07:35
unknown, but inspiring story.
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ืœื ืžื•ื›ืจ, ืืš ืžืขื•ืจืจ ื”ืฉืจืื”.
07:38
So when we started finding these results,
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ื›ืฉื”ืชื—ืœื ื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ื”ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช ื”ืœืœื•,
07:40
as you might imagine, it created quite a bit of stir
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ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื“ืžื™ื™ืŸ, ื–ื” ืขื•ืจืจ ืžื”ื•ืžื” ืœื ืงื˜ื ื”
07:43
in the scientific and the popular press.
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ื‘ืคืจืกื•ืžื™ื ืžื“ืขื™ื™ื, ื•ืคื•ืคื•ืœืจื™ื™ื.
07:46
Here's an article in Nature
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ื”ื ื” ืžืืžืจ ื‘- Nature,
07:48
that profiled this work,
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ืฉืชื™ืืจ ืืช ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื”ื–ื•,
07:50
and another one in Time.
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ื•ืื—ื“ ืื—ืจ ื‘- Time.
07:52
So, we were fairly convinced -- we are convinced --
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ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื“ื™ ืžืฉื•ื›ื ืขื™ื, ืื ื• ืžืฉื•ื›ื ืขื™ื
07:54
that recovery is feasible,
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ืฉื”ื”ื—ืœืžื” ืืคืฉืจื™ืช,
07:56
despite extended visual deprivation.
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ื”ื™ืขื“ืจ ื”ืจืื™ื” ื‘ืคืจืง ื–ืžืŸ ืืจื•ืš.
07:59
The next obvious question to ask:
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ื”ืฉืืœื” ื”ืžืชื‘ืงืฉืช ื”ื‘ืื” ื”ื™ื ื”:
08:01
What is the process of recovery?
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ืžื”ื• ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ื”ื—ืœืžื”?
08:04
So, the way we study that is,
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ืื ื• ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ื–ืืช ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ื”ื‘ืื”:
08:07
let's say we find a child who has light sensitivity.
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ื ื ื™ื— ืฉืื ื• ืžื•ืฆืื™ื ื™ืœื“ ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื• ืจื’ื™ืฉื•ืช ืœืื•ืจ.
08:09
The child is provided treatment,
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ืื ื• ืžืกืคื™ืง ืœื™ืœื“ ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ,
08:11
and I want to stress that the treatment
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ื•ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ื“ื’ื™ืฉ, ืฉื”ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ
08:13
is completely unconditional;
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ื”ื•ื ืœืœื ืชื ืื™ื.
08:15
there is no quid pro quo.
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ืื™ืŸ ืคื” ืขืกืงืช ื—ืœื™ืคื™ืŸ.
08:17
We treat many more children then we actually work with.
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ืื ื• ืžื˜ืคืœื™ื ื‘ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ื™ืœื“ื™ื ืžืืœื” ืฉืื ื• ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ืื™ืชื.
08:20
Every child who needs treatment is treated.
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ื›ืœ ื™ืœื“ ืฉื–ืงื•ืง ืœื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ, ืžื˜ื•ืคืœ.
08:23
After treatment, about every week,
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ืื—ืจื™ ื”ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ, ื‘ืขืจืš ื›ืœ ืฉื‘ื•ืข,
08:25
we run the child
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ืื ื• ืžื‘ืฆืขื™ื ืขื ื”ื™ืœื“,
08:27
on a battery of simple visual tests
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ืกื“ืจื” ืฉืœ ืžื‘ื—ื ื™ ืจืื™ื™ื” ืคืฉื•ื˜ื™ื,
08:30
in order to see how their visual skills
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ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœืจืื•ืช ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื›ื™ืฉื•ืจื™ ื”ืจืื™ื™ื” ืฉืœื”ื
08:32
are coming on line.
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ืžืชื”ื•ื•ื™ื.
08:34
And we try to do this for as long as possible.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื ืกื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื–ืืช ืœืื•ืจืš ื›ืžื” ืฉื™ื•ืชืจ ื–ืžืŸ.
08:37
This arc of development
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ืขืงื•ืžื” ื–ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ืช,
08:39
gives us unprecedented
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ื ื•ืชื ืช ืœื ื• ืžื™ื“ืข ื—ืกืจ ืชืงื“ื™ื
08:41
and extremely valuable information
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ื•ื™ืงืจ ืžืื•ื“, ืขืœ
08:43
about how the scaffolding of vision
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ื”ืื•ืคืŸ ืฉื‘ื• ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื™ืกื•ื“ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืจืื™ื”
08:45
gets set up.
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ื ื‘ื ื™ืช.
08:47
What might be the causal connections
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ืžื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื”ืงืฉืจ ื”ืกื™ื‘ืชื™
08:49
between the early developing skills
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ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืžืชืคืชื—ื•ืช ืžื•ืงื“ื
08:51
and the later developing ones?
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ืœื‘ื™ืŸ ืืœื” ื”ืžืชืคืชื—ื•ืช ืžืื•ื—ืจ?
08:53
And we've used this general approach to study
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ื”ืฉืชืžืฉื ื• ื‘ื’ื™ืฉื” ื›ืœืœื™ืช ื–ื• ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœื—ืงื•ืจ
08:55
many different visual proficiencies,
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ืžื™ื•ืžื ื•ื™ื•ืช ืจืื™ื” ืฉื•ื ื•ืช.
08:58
but I want to highlight one particular one,
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ื“ื’ื™ืฉ ืื—ืช ืกืคืฆื™ืคื™ืช,
09:02
and that is image parsing into objects.
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ื•ื–ื•ื”ื™ ื—ืœื•ืงืช ืชืžื•ื ื” ืœืื•ื‘ื™ื™ืงื˜ื™ื.
09:05
So, any image of the kind that you see on the left,
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ื›ืœ ืชืžื•ื ื” ืžื”ืกื•ื’ ืฉืืชื ืจื•ืื™ื ืžืฉืžืืœ,
09:07
be it a real image or a synthetic image,
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ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื ื–ื• ืชืžื•ื ื” ืืžื™ืชื™ืช ืื• ืกื™ื ื˜ื˜ื™ืช,
09:10
it's made up of little regions
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ื‘ื ื•ื™ื” ืžืื™ื–ื•ืจื™ื ืงื˜ื ื™ื
09:12
that you see in the middle column,
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ืฉืืชื ืจื•ืื™ื ื‘ืขืžื•ื“ื” ื”ืืžืฆืขื™ืช.
09:14
regions of different colors, different luminances.
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ืื™ื–ื•ืจื™ื ื‘ืฆื‘ืขื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื, ื•ื‘ื•ื”ืง ืฉื•ื ื”.
09:17
The brain has this complex task
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ืœืžื•ื— ื™ืฉ ืืช ื”ืžืฉื™ืžื” ื”ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ืช,
09:20
of putting together, integrating,
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ืฉืœ ืœืฉื™ื ื‘ื™ื—ื“, ืœืฉืœื‘
09:23
subsets of these regions
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ืชืชื™ ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื™ื–ื•ืจื™ื ืืœื”
09:25
into something that's more meaningful,
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ืœืžืฉื”ื• ื‘ืขืœ ืžืฉืžืขื•ืช ื ื•ืกืคืช,
09:27
into what we would consider to be objects,
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ืœืžืฉื”ื• ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื ืงืจื ืœื• ืื•ื‘ื™ื™ืงื˜,
09:29
as you see on the right.
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ื›ืคื™ ืฉืืชื ืจื•ืื™ื ืžื™ืžื™ืŸ.
09:31
And nobody knows how this integration happens,
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ื•ืืฃ ืื—ื“ ืœื ื™ื•ื“ืข ืื™ืš ื”ื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื”ื–ื” ืžืชืจื—ืฉ.
09:33
and that's the question we asked with Project Prakash.
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ื–ื•ื”ื™ ื”ืฉืืœื” ืฉืฉืืœื ื• ื‘ืคืจื•ื™ืงื˜ "ืคืจืืงืืฉ".
09:37
So, here's what happens
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ื”ื ื” ืžื” ืฉืงื•ืจื”
09:39
very soon after the onset of sight.
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ืžืขื˜ ืžืื•ื“ ืœืื—ืจ ื›ื™ื ื•ืŸ ื”ืจืื™ื”.
09:42
Here's a person who had gained sight just a couple of weeks ago,
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ื”ื ื” ืื“ื ืฉื”ื—ืœ ืœืจืื•ืช ืจืง ืœืคื ื™ ื›ืžื” ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช.
09:45
and you see Ethan Myers, a graduate student from MIT,
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ืืชื ืจื•ืื™ื ืืช ืื™ืช'ืŸ ืžืื™ื™ืจืก, ื‘ื•ื’ืจ ืž-MIT,
09:48
running the experiment with him.
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ืžืจื™ืฅ ืขืžื• ืืช ื”ื ื™ืกื•ื™.
09:51
His visual-motor coordination is quite poor,
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ื”ืงื•ืื•ืจื“ื™ื ืฆื™ื” ื”ืžื•ื˜ื•ืจื™ืช-ืจืื™ื™ืชื™ืช ืฉืœื• ืžืื•ื“ ื—ืœืฉื”,
09:55
but you get a general sense
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ืื‘ืœ ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืงื‘ืœ ืชืžื•ื ื” ื›ืœืœื™ืช
09:57
of what are the regions that he's trying to trace out.
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ืฉืœ ื”ืื™ื–ื•ืจื™ื ืฉื”ื•ื ืžื ืกื” ืœืกืžืŸ.
10:00
If you show him real world images,
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ืื ืชืจืื• ืœื• ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืืžื™ืชื™,
10:02
if you show others like him real world images,
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ืื ืชืจืื• ืœืื ืฉื™ื ื›ืžื•ื”ื• ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืืžื™ืชื™,
10:05
they are unable to recognize most of the objects
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ื”ื ืื™ื ื ืžืกื•ื’ืœื™ื ืœื–ื”ื•ืช ืืช ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืื•ื‘ื™ื™ืงื˜ื™ื
10:07
because the world to them is over-fragmented;
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ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœื ื”ืขื•ืœื ืžื—ื•ืœืง ืœื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื“ื™ ืคืจื’ืžื ื˜ื™ื,
10:10
it's made up of a collage, a patchwork,
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ื”ื•ื ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ ืžืงื•ืœืื–', ืขื‘ื•ื“ืช ื˜ืœืื™ื,
10:13
of regions of different colors and luminances.
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ืฉืœ ืื™ื–ื•ืจื™ื ื‘ืฆื‘ืขื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ื•ื‘ื•ื”ืง ืฉื•ื ื”.
10:15
And that's what's indicated in the green outlines.
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ื•ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉืžืกื•ืžืŸ ื‘ืงื•ื™ื ื”ื™ืจื•ืงื™ื.
10:17
When you ask them,
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ื›ืฉืฉื•ืืœื™ื ืื•ืชื:
10:19
"Even if you can't name the objects, just point to where the objects are,"
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ืชืฆื‘ื™ืข ืขืœ ืžื™ืงื•ื ื”ืื•ื‘ื™ื™ืงื˜, ื’ื ืื ืื™ื ืš ื™ื•ื“ืข ืืช ืฉืžื•
10:22
these are the regions that they point to.
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ืืœื” ื”ื ื”ืื™ื–ื•ืจื™ื ืฉื”ื ืžืฆื‘ื™ืขื™ื ืขืœื™ื”ื.
10:24
So the world is this complex
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ืื– ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ื•ื
10:26
patchwork of regions.
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ืขื‘ื•ื“ืช ื˜ืœืื™ื ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ืช ืฉืœ ืื™ื–ื•ืจื™ื.
10:28
Even the shadow on the ball
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ืืคื™ืœื• ื”ืฆืœ ืขืœ ื”ื›ื“ื•ืจ
10:30
becomes its own object.
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ื”ื•ืคืš ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืื•ื‘ื™ื™ืงื˜ ื‘ืคื ื™ ืขืฆืžื•.
10:33
Interestingly enough,
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ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืœืžื“ื™,
10:35
you give them a few months,
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ืชื ื• ืœื”ื ืžืกืคืจ ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื,
10:37
and this is what happens.
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ื•ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉืงื•ืจื”.
10:43
Doctor: How many are these?
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ื“ื•ืงื˜ื•ืจ: ื›ืžื” ืืœื”?
10:45
Patient: These are two things.
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ืžื˜ื•ืคืœ: ืืœื” ืฉื ื™ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื.
10:47
Doctor: What are their shapes?
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ื“ื•ืงื˜ื•ืจ: ืžื”ืŸ ื”ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื?
10:49
Patient: Their shapes ...
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ืžื˜ื•ืคืœ: ื”ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื...
10:51
This one is a circle,
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ื–ื” ืขื™ื’ื•ืœ
10:54
and this
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ื•ื–ื”
10:56
is a square.
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ืจื™ื‘ื•ืข.
10:58
PS: A very dramatic transformation has come about.
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ืคืื•ื•ืืŸ ืกื™ื ื”ื: ื—ืœ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ืžืื•ื“ ื“ืจืžื˜ื™.
11:01
And the question is:
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ื•ื”ืฉืืœื” ื”ื™ื:
11:03
What underlies this transformation?
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ืžื”ื• ื”ื’ื•ืจื ืœืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื”ื–ื”?
11:05
It's a profound question,
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ื–ื•ื”ื™ ืฉืืœื” ืขืžื•ืงื”,
11:07
and what's even more amazing is how simple
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ื•ืžื” ืฉืขื•ื“ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื“ื”ื™ื ื”ื•ื ื›ืžื” ืคืฉื•ื˜ื”
11:09
the answer is.
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ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื”.
11:11
The answer lies in motion
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ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื˜ืžื•ื ื” ื‘ืชื ื•ืขื”
11:13
and that's what I want to show you in the next clip.
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ื•ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ืจืื•ืช ืœื›ื ื‘ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ื”ื‘ื.
11:18
Doctor: What shape do you see here?
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ื“ื•ืงื˜ื•ืจ: ืื™ื–ื• ืฆื•ืจื” ืืชื” ืจื•ืื” ืคื”?
11:20
Patient: I can't make it out.
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ืžื˜ื•ืคืœ: ืื ื™ ืœื ืžืฆืœื™ื— ืœื”ื‘ื—ื™ืŸ.
11:28
Doctor: Now?
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ื“ื•ืงื˜ื•ืจ: ืขื›ืฉื™ื•?
11:31
Patient: Triangle.
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ืžื˜ื•ืคืœ: ืžืฉื•ืœืฉ.
11:35
Doctor: How many things are these?
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ื“ื•ืงื˜ื•ืจ: ื›ืžื” ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืืœื”?
11:48
Now, how many things are these?
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื›ืžื” ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืืœื”?
11:51
Patient: Two.
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ืžื˜ื•ืคืœ: ืฉื ื™ื™ื.
11:53
Doctor: What are these things?
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ื“ื•ืงื˜ื•ืจ: ืžื”ื ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืืœื”?
11:56
Patient: A square and a circle.
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ืžื˜ื•ืคืœ: ืจื™ื‘ื•ืข ื•ืขื™ื’ื•ืœ.
11:58
PS: And we see this pattern over and over again.
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ื•ืื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ืืช ื”ืชื‘ื ื™ืช ื”ื–ืืช ืฉื•ื‘ ื•ืฉื•ื‘.
12:01
The one thing the visual system needs
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ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ ืฉืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืจืื™ื” ืฆืจื™ื›ื”
12:04
in order to begin parsing the world
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ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœืขื‘ื“ ืืช ื”ืขื•ืœื
12:06
is dynamic information.
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ื”ื•ื ืžื™ื“ืข ื“ื™ื ืืžื™.
12:08
So the inference we are deriving from this,
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ืื– ืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžืกื™ืงื™ื ืžืคื”,
12:10
and several such experiments,
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ื•ืžืขื•ื“ ื›ืžื” ื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื ื›ืืœื”,
12:12
is that dynamic information processing,
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ื”ื™ื ืฉืขื™ื‘ื•ื“ ืžื™ื“ืข ื“ื™ื ืืžื™
12:14
or motion processing,
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ืื• ืขื™ื‘ื•ื“ ืชื ื•ืขื”,
12:16
serves as the bedrock for building
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ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ืกื•ื“ ืœื‘ื ื™ื™ืช
12:18
the rest of the complexity of visual processing;
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ืฉืืจ ื”ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืขื™ื‘ื•ื“ ื•ื™ื–ื•ืืœื™.
12:22
it leads to visual integration
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ื”ื•ื ืžื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืœืื™ื ื˜ื’ืจืฆื™ื” ื•ื™ื–ื•ืืœื™ืช,
12:24
and eventually to recognition.
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ื•ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ืœื–ื™ื”ื•ื™.
12:27
This simple idea has far reaching implications.
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ืœืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืคืฉื•ื˜ ื”ื–ื” ื™ืฉ ื”ืฉืœื›ื•ืช ืžืจื—ื™ืงื•ืช ืœื›ืช.
12:30
And let me just quickly mention two,
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ืื ื™ ืื–ื›ื™ืจ ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉืชื™ื™ื.
12:33
one, drawing from the domain of engineering,
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ื”ืื—ืช, ืœืงื•ื—ื” ืžืชื—ื•ื ื”ื”ื ื“ืกื”,
12:35
and one from the clinic.
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ื•ืื—ืช, ืžื”ืชื—ื•ื ื”ืงืœื™ื ื™.
12:37
So, from the perspective of engineering,
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ืื ื›ืš, ืžื”ื”ื™ื‘ื˜ ื”ื”ื ื“ืกื™,
12:39
we can ask: Goven that we know
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ืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืฉืื•ืœ, ื‘ื”ื™ื ืชืŸ ืฉืื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื
12:42
that motion is so important for the human visual system,
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ืฉืชื ื•ืขื” ื›"ื› ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื” ืœืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืจืื™ื™ื” ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช,
12:44
can we use this as a recipe
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ื”ืื ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื–ื” ื›ืžืชื›ื•ืŸ,
12:47
for constructing machine-based vision systems
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ืœื‘ื ื™ื™ืช ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ืจืื™ื” ืžืžื•ื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช
12:50
that can learn on their own, that don't need to be programmed
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ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœืœืžื•ื“ ื‘ืขืฆืžืŸ, ืฉืžืชื›ื ืช
12:53
by a human programmer?
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ืœื ืฆืจื™ืš ืœืชื›ื ืชืŸ.
12:55
And that's what we're trying to do.
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ื•ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžื ืกื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช.
12:57
I'm at MIT, at MIT you need to apply
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ืื ื™ ื‘-MIT, ื‘-MIT ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ
13:00
whatever basic knowledge you gain.
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ื‘ื›ืœ ืžื™ื“ืข ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ ืฉืืชื” ืจื•ื›ืฉ.
13:02
So we are creating Dylan,
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ืื– ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ืืช ื“ื™ืœืŸ,
13:04
which is a computational system
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ืฉื”ื™ื ืžืขืจื›ืช ืžืžื—ื•ืฉื‘ืช
13:06
with an ambitious goal
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ืขื ืžื˜ืจื” ืฉืืคืชื ื™ืช
13:08
of taking in visual inputs
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ืœืงื—ืช ืงืœื˜ื™ื ื•ื™ื–ื•ืืœื™ื™ื
13:10
of the same kind that a human child would receive,
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ืžืื•ืชื• ืกื•ื’ ืฉื™ืœื“ ืื ื•ืฉื™ ื”ื™ื” ืžืงื‘ืœ,
13:13
and autonomously discovering:
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ื•ืœื’ืœื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืขืฆืžืื™
13:15
What are the objects in this visual input?
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ืžื”ื ื”ืื•ื‘ื™ื™ืงื˜ื™ื ื‘ืงืœื˜ ื”ื•ื™ื–ื•ืืœื™.
13:18
So, don't worry about the internals of Dylan.
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ืืœ ืชื“ืื’ื• ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœื—ืœืงื™ื• ื”ืคื ื™ืžื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื“ื™ืœืŸ,
13:21
Here, I'm just going to talk about
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ื›ืืŸ ืื ื™ ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœ
13:24
how we test Dylan.
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ืื™ืš ืฉืื ื• ื‘ื•ื—ื ื™ื ืืช ื“ื™ืœืŸ.
13:26
The way we test Dylan is by giving it
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ื”ื“ืจืš ืฉื‘ื” ืื ื• ื‘ื•ื—ื ื™ื ืืช ื“ื™ืœืŸ ื”ื™ื ืข"ื™
13:28
inputs, as I said, of the same kind
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ื ืชื™ื ื” ืฉืœ ืงืœื˜ื™ื, ืฉื›ืคื™ ืฉืืžืจืชื™, ื”ื ืžืื•ืชื• ืกื•ื’
13:31
that a baby, or a child in Project Prakash would get.
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ืฉืชื™ื ื•ืง, ืื• ื™ืœื“ ื‘ืคืจื•ื™ืงื˜ "ืคืจืืงืืฉ" ืฆืคื•ื™ ืœืงื‘ืœ.
13:34
But for a long time we couldn't quite figure out:
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ืื‘ืœ ื“ื™ ื”ืจื‘ื” ื–ืžืŸ ืœื ื”ืฆืœื—ื ื• ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ
13:37
Wow can we get these kinds of video inputs?
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ืื™ืš ื ืฉื™ื’ ืืช ืงืœื˜ื™ ื”ื•ื™ื“ื™ืื• ื”ืืœื”.
13:41
So, I thought,
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ืื– ืขื›ืฉื™ื•,
13:43
could we have Darius
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ืื•ืœื™ ืื ื—ื ื• ื ื™ืงื— ืืช ื“ืจื™ื•ืก
13:45
serve as our babycam carrier,
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ื‘ืชื•ืจ ื ื•ืฉื ืžืฆืœืžืช ื”ืชื™ื ื•ืงื•ืช ืฉืœื ื•,
13:48
and that way get the inputs that we feed into Dylan?
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ื•ืื– ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืฉื™ื’ ืงืœื˜ื™ื ืœื“ื™ืœืŸ.
13:51
So that's what we did.
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ื•ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉืขืฉื™ื ื•.
13:53
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
14:00
I had to have long conversations with my wife.
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ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื ื”ืœ ืฉื™ื—ื•ืช ืืจื•ื›ื•ืช ืขื ืืฉืชื™.
14:03
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
14:08
In fact, Pam, if you're watching this,
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ืคืื, ืื ืืช ืฆื•ืคื” ื‘ื–ื”,
14:10
please forgive me.
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ื‘ื‘ืงืฉื” ืชืกืœื—ื™ ืœื™.
14:13
So, we modified the optics of the camera
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ืื–, ืฉื™ื ื™ื ื• ืืช ื”ืื•ืคื˜ื™ืงื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžืฆืœืžื”
14:17
in order to mimic the baby's visual acuity.
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ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœื—ืงื•ืช ืืช ื—ื“ื•ืช ื”ืจืื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืชื™ื ื•ืง.
14:20
As some of you might know,
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ื›ืžื• ืฉืื•ืœื™ ื—ืœืงื›ื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื,
14:22
babyies are born pretty much legally blind.
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ืชื™ื ื•ืงื•ืช ื ื•ืœื“ื™ื, ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื›ืžืขื˜ ืขื™ื•ื•ืจื™ื.
14:26
Their acuity -- our acuity is 20/20;
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ื”ื—ื“ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื -- ื”ื—ื“ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื• ื”ื™ื ื” 6/6 --
14:29
babies' acuity is like 20/800,
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ื—ื“ื•ืช ื”ืจืื™ื” ืฉืœ ืชื™ื ื•ืง ื”ื™ื ื‘ืขืจืš 6/240,
14:32
so they are looking at the world
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ืื– ื”ื ืžืกืชื›ืœื™ื ืขืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื
14:34
in a very, very blurry fashion.
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ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžืื•ื“ ืžืื•ื“ ืžื˜ื•ืฉื˜ืฉ.
14:37
Here's what a baby-cam video looks like.
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ื›ืš ื ืจืื™ืช ืžืฆืœืžืช ื”ื•ื™ื“ืื• ืขืœ ื”ืชื™ื ื•ืง.
14:41
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
14:50
(Applause)
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
14:53
Thankfully, there isn't any audio
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ืชื•ื“ื” ืœืืœ, ืื™ืŸ ืงื•ืœ
14:55
to go with this.
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ืฉืžื—ื•ื‘ืจ ืœื–ื”.
14:58
What's amazing is that working with such
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ืžื” ืฉืžื“ื”ื™ื ื”ื•ื ืฉื›ืฉื”ื•ื ืขื•ื‘ื“ ืขื
15:00
highly degraded input,
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ืงืœื˜ ื›ืœ ื›ืš ืจืข
15:02
the baby, very quickly, is able
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ื”ืชื™ื ื•ืง, ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ืจื‘ื”, ืžืกื•ื’ืœ
15:04
to discover meaning in such input.
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ืœืžืฆื•ื ืžืฉืžืขื•ืช ื‘ืงืœื˜ ื”ื–ื”.
15:07
But then two or three days afterward,
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ื•ืื–, ืฉื ื™ื™ื ืื• ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ื™ืžื™ื ืื—ืจื™,
15:09
babies begin to pay attention
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ืชื™ื ื•ืงื•ืช ืžืชื—ื™ืœื™ื ืœืฉื™ื ืœื‘
15:11
to their mother's or their father's face.
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ืœืคื ื™ื”ื ืฉืœ ืืžื”ื•ืชื™ื”ื ืื• ืื‘ื•ืชื™ื”ื.
15:13
How does that happen? We want Dylan to be able to do that,
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ืื™ืš ื–ื” ืงื•ืจื”? ืื ื• ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืฉื“ื™ืœืŸ ื™ื”ื™ื” ืžืกื•ื’ืœ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืืช ื–ื”.
15:16
and using this mantra of motion,
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ื›ืฉื”ื•ื ืžืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืžื ื˜ืจื” ื”ื–ืืช ืฉืœ ื”ืชื ื•ืขื”,
15:19
Dylan actually can do that.
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ื“ื™ืœืŸ ื‘ืืžืช ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืืช ื–ื”.
15:21
So, given that kind of video input,
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื ื•ืชื ื™ื ืœื• ืกื•ื’ ื›ื–ื” ืฉืœ ืงืœื˜ ื•ื™ื“ืื•,
15:24
with just about six or seven minutes worth of video,
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ืขื ื‘ืขืจืš ืฉืฉ ืื• ืฉื‘ืข ื“ืงื•ืช ืฉืœ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ืกืš ื”ื›ืœ
15:27
Dylan can begin to extract patterns
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ื“ื™ืœืŸ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœื—ืœืฅ ืชื‘ื ื™ื•ืช
15:30
that include faces.
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ืฉื›ื•ืœืœื•ืช ืคื ื™ื.
15:33
So, it's an important demonstration
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ืื ื›ืš, ื–ื•ื”ื™ ื”ืžื—ืฉื” ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื”
15:35
of the power of motion.
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ืฉืœ ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืชื ื•ืขื”.
15:37
The clinical implication, it comes from the domain of autism.
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ื”ื”ืฉืœื›ื” ื”ืžื“ืขื™ืช ื‘ืื” ืžืชื—ื•ื ื”ืื•ื˜ื™ื–ื.
15:40
Visual integration has been associated with autism
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ืื™ื ื˜ื’ืจืฆื™ื” ื•ื™ื–ื•ืืœื™ืช ื”ื•ื‘ื—ื ื” ื›ืงืฉื•ืจื” ืœืื•ื˜ื™ื–ื
15:42
by several researchers.
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžืกืคืจ ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื.
15:44
When we saw that, we asked:
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ื›ืืฉืจ ืจืื™ื ื• ื–ืืช, ืฉืืœื ื•:
15:46
Could the impairment in visual integration
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ื”ืื ื”ืคื’ื™ืขื” ื‘ืื™ื ื˜ื’ืจืฆื™ื” ื”ืจืื™ื™ืชื™ืช
15:49
be the manifestation of something underneath,
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ื”ื™ื ื” ืกื™ืžืŸ ืœืžืฉื”ื• ืžืชื—ืช ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื—,
15:52
of dynamic information processing deficiencies in autism?
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ืœื‘ืขื™ื” ื‘ืขื™ื‘ื•ื“ ืžื™ื“ืข ื“ื™ื ืืžื™ ืืฆืœ ืื•ื˜ื™ืกื˜ื™ื.
15:55
Because, if that hypothesis were to be true,
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ืžืฉื•ื ืฉืื ื”ื”ื™ืคื•ืชื–ื” ื”ื–ื• ื ื›ื•ื ื”,
15:58
it would have massive repercussions in our understanding
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ื™ื”ื™ื• ืœื›ืš ื”ืฉืœื›ื•ืช ืจื—ื‘ื•ืช ื”ื™ืงืฃ ื‘ื”ื‘ื ื” ืฉืœื ื•
16:01
of what's causing the many different aspects
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ืฉืœ ืžื” ืฉื’ื•ืจื ืœืจื‘ื™ื ืžื”ืืกืคืงื˜ื™ื ื”ืฉื•ื ื™ื
16:03
of the autism phenotype.
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ืฉืœ ืื•ื˜ื™ื–ื
16:06
What you're going to see are
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ืžื” ืฉืืชื ื”ื•ืœื›ื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ื”ื™ื ื
16:08
video clips of two children -- one neurotypical,
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ืงื˜ืขื™ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ืฉืœ ืฉื ื™ ื™ืœื“ื™ื, ื”ืื—ื“ ื ื•ืจืžืœื™ (ื ื•ื™ืจื•ื˜ื™ืคื™ืงืœ)
16:11
one with autism, playing Pong.
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ื•ื”ืฉื ื™ ืขื ืื•ื˜ื™ื–ื, ืžืฉื—ืงื™ื ืคื•ื ื’.
16:13
So, while the child is playing Pong, we are tracking where they're looking.
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ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉื”ื™ืœื“ ืžืฉื—ืง ืคื•ื ื’, ืื ื• ืขื•ืงื‘ื™ื ืื—ืจ ื”ืžื‘ื˜ ืฉืœื•.
16:16
In red are the eye movement traces.
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ื‘ืื“ื•ื, ืจื•ืื™ื ืืช ืžืชืืจ ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ืฉืœ ื”ืขื™ืŸ,
16:19
This is the neurotypical child, and what you see
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ื–ื”ื• ื”ื™ืœื“ ื”ื ื•ืจืžืœื™, ื•ืžื” ืฉืืชื ืจื•ืื™ื ื”ื•ื
16:22
is that the child is able to make cues
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ืฉื”ื™ืœื“ ืžืกื•ื’ืœ ืœืคืขื ื—
16:24
of the dynamic information
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ืืช ื”ืžื™ื“ืข ื”ื“ื™ื ืืžื™
16:26
to predict where the ball is going to go.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื ื‘ื ืœืืŸ ื”ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื™ื’ื™ืข.
16:28
Even before the ball gets to a place,
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ืืคื™ืœื• ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื”ื›ื“ื•ืจ ืžื’ื™ืข ืœืžืงื•ื,
16:31
the child is already looking there.
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ื”ื™ืœื“ ื›ื‘ืจ ืžืกืชื›ืœ ืœืฉื.
16:34
Contrast this with a child
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ื”ื‘ื—ื™ื ื• ื‘ื”ื‘ื“ืœ ื‘ื™ืœื“
16:36
with autism playing the same game.
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ืื•ื˜ื™ืกื˜ ืฉืžืฉื—ืง ืืช ืื•ืชื• ืžืฉื—ืง.
16:38
Instead of anticipating,
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ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืœืฆืคื•ืช ืžืจืืฉ,
16:40
the child always follows where the ball has been.
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ื”ื™ืœื“ ืชืžื™ื“ ืขื•ืงื‘ ืื—ืจ ืื™ืคื” ืฉื”ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื”.
16:43
The efficiency of the use
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ื ืจืื” ืฉื™ืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ
16:45
of dynamic information
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ื‘ืžื™ื“ืข ื“ื™ื ืืžื™
16:47
seems to be significantly compromised in autism.
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ื ืคื’ืžืช ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ืช ืืฆืœ ืื•ื˜ื™ืกื˜ื™ื.
16:51
So we are pursuing this line of work
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ืื ื• ืžืžืฉื™ื›ื™ื ื‘ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ื”ื–ื”
16:54
and hopefully we'll have
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ื•ื‘ืชืงื•ื•ื”, ื™ื”ื™ื• ืœื ื•
16:56
more results to report soon.
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ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช ื ื•ืกืคื•ืช ืœื“ื•ื•ื— ืขืœื™ื”ืŸ ื‘ืงืจื•ื‘.
16:58
Looking ahead, if you think of this disk
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ื‘ืจืื™ื” ืงื“ื™ืžื”, ืื ืชื—ืฉื‘ื• ืขืœ ื”ื“ื™ืกืง ื”ื–ื”
17:01
as representing all of the children
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ื›ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ื™ืœื“ื™ื
17:03
we've treated so far,
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ืฉื˜ื™ืคืœื ื• ื‘ื”ื ืขื“ ืขื›ืฉื™ื•,
17:05
this is the magnitude of the problem.
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ืืœื• ื”ื ืžื™ืžื“ื™ ื”ื‘ืขื™ื”.
17:07
The red dots are the children we have not treated.
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ื”ื ืงื•ื“ื•ืช ื”ืื“ื•ืžื•ืช ื”ืŸ ื™ืœื“ื™ื ืฉืœื ื˜ื™ืคืœื ื• ื‘ื”ื.
17:10
So, there are many, many more children who need to be treated,
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ืื–, ื™ืฉ ืขื•ื“ ื”ืžื•ืŸ ื”ืžื•ืŸ ื™ืœื“ื™ื ืฉืฆืจื™ืš ืœื˜ืคืœ ื‘ื”ื,
17:12
and in order to expand the scope of the project,
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ื•ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœื”ืจื—ื™ื‘ ืืช ื”ืคืจื•ื™ืงื˜,
17:15
we are planning on launching
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ืื ื• ืžืชื›ื ื ื™ื ืœื”ืฉื™ืง
17:17
The Prakash Center for Children,
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ืืช ืžืจื›ื– "ืคืจืืงืืฉ" ืœื™ืœื“ื™ื,
17:19
which will have a dedicated pediatric hospital,
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ืฉื™ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื• ื‘ื™ืช ื—ื•ืœื™ื ืคื“ื™ืื˜ืจื™ ื™ื™ืขื•ื“ื™,
17:22
a school for the children we are treating
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ื‘ื™ืช ืกืคืจ ืœื™ืœื“ื™ื ืฉืื ื• ืžื˜ืคืœื™ื ื‘ื”ื,
17:24
and also a cutting-edge research facility.
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ื•ื›ืŸ ืžืชืงืŸ ืžื—ืงืจื™ ื‘ืงื“ืžืช ื”ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”.
17:26
The Prakash Center will integrate health care,
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ืžืจื›ื– "ืคืจืืงืืฉ" ื™ืฉืœื‘ ื‘ืชื•ื›ื• ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ืจืคื•ืื™,
17:29
education and research in a way
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ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื•ืžื—ืงืจ ื‘ืฆื•ืจื”
17:31
that truly creates the whole
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ืฉื‘ืืžืช ื•ื‘ืชืžื™ื ืชื™ืฆื•ืจ ืฉืœื
17:33
to be greater than the sum of the parts.
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ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืžืกื›ื•ื ื—ืœืงื™ื•.
17:36
So, to summarize: Prakash, in its five years of existence,
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ืื–, ืœืกื™ื›ื•ื, "ืคืจืืงืืฉ", ื‘ื—ืžืฉ ืฉื ื•ืช ืคืขื™ืœื•ืชื•,
17:39
it's had an impact in multiple areas,
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ื”ืฉืคื™ืข ื‘ืชื—ื•ืžื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื,
17:42
ranging from basic neuroscience
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ื”ื—ืœ ื‘ืžื“ืขื™ ืžื•ื— ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ื™ื,
17:44
plasticity and learning in the brain,
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ืคืœืืกื˜ื™ื•ืช ื•ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœืžื™ื“ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ื—,
17:46
to clinically relevant hypotheses like in autism,
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ื•ื›ืœื” ื‘ื”ื™ืคื•ืชื–ื•ืช ืงืœื™ื ื™ื•ืช ื›ืžื• ื‘ืžืงืจื” ืฉืœ ืื•ื˜ื™ื–ื,
17:50
the development of autonomous machine vision systems,
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ืคื™ืชื•ื— ืฉืœ ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ืจืื™ื™ื” ืขืฆืžืื™ื•ืช ืžืžื•ื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช,
17:53
education of the undergraduate and graduate students,
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ื”ืฉื›ืœืชื ืฉืœ ืกื˜ื•ื“ื ื˜ื™ื ืœืชื•ืืจ ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื•ืชื•ืืจ ื‘ื•ื’ืจ,
17:56
and most importantly in the alleviation
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ื•ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืžื›ืœ, ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ
17:58
of childhood blindness.
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ื‘ืขื™ื•ื•ืจื•ืŸ ื‘ื™ืœื“ื™ื.
18:00
And for my students and I, it's been
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ื•ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ื”ืกื˜ื•ื“ื ื˜ื™ื ืฉืœื™ ื•ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœื™, ื–ืืช ื”ื™ืชื”
18:02
just a phenomenal experience
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ื—ื•ื•ื™ื” ื™ื•ืฆืืช ืžืŸ ื”ื›ืœืœ
18:04
because we have gotten to do interesting research,
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ื›ื™ ื™ืฆื ืœื ื• ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืžื—ืงืจ ืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ
18:08
while at the same time
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ื•ื‘ื• ื‘ื–ืžืŸ
18:10
helping the many children that we have worked with.
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ืœืขื–ื•ืจ ืœื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ืœื“ื™ื ืฉืขื‘ื“ื ื• ืื™ืชื.
18:12
Thank you very much.
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ืชื•ื“ื” ืจื‘ื” ืœื›ื.
18:14
(Applause)
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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