What we didn't know about male anatomy | Diane Kelly

1,220,895 views ใƒป 2012-06-05

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

00:00
Translator: Timothy Covell Reviewer: Morton Bast
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ืžืชืจื’ื: Smadar Prager ืžื‘ืงืจ: Ido Dekkers
00:15
When I go to parties,
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ื›ืฉืื ื™ ื”ื•ืœื›ืช ืœืžืกื™ื‘ื•ืช,
00:16
it doesn't usually take very long
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ื–ื” ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ืœื ืœื•ืงื— ืœืื ืฉื™ื
00:18
for people to find out
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ื–ืžืŸ ืœื’ืœื•ืช
00:19
that I'm a scientist and I study sex.
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ืฉืื ื™ ืžื“ืขื ื™ืช ื•ืฉืื ื™ ื—ื•ืงืจืช ืกืงืก.
00:22
And then I get asked questions.
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ื•ืื– ื”ืฉืืœื•ืช ืžื’ื™ืขื•ืช.
00:27
And the questions usually have a very particular format.
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ื•ืœืฉืืœื•ืช ื™ืฉ ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ื ื•ืกื— ืžืื•ื“ ืงื‘ื•ืข.
00:30
They start with the phrase,
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ื”ืŸ ืžืชื—ื™ืœื•ืช ืขื ื”ืžื™ืœื™ื:
00:32
"A friend told me,"
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"ื—ื‘ืจ ืืžืจ ืœื™,"
00:33
and then they end with the phrase,
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ื•ื”ืŸ ืžืกืชื™ื™ืžื•ืช ืขื ื”ืžื™ืœื™ื:
00:35
"Is this true?"
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"ื”ืื ื–ื” ื ื›ื•ืŸ?"
00:37
And most of the time
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ื•ื‘ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืคืขืžื™ื
00:39
I'm glad to say that I can answer them,
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ืื ื™ ืฉืžื—ื” ืœื”ื’ื™ื“, ืฉืื ื™ ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœืขื ื•ืช ืœื”ื,
00:41
but sometimes I have to say,
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ืื‘ืœ ืœืคืขืžื™ื ืื ื™ ืฆืจื™ื›ื” ืœื”ื’ื™ื“,
00:43
"I'm really sorry,
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"ืื ื™ ืžืžืฉ ืžืฆื˜ืขืจืช,
00:44
but I don't know
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื™ ืœื ื™ื•ื“ืขืช
00:45
because I'm not that kind of a doctor."
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืื ื™ ืœื ืกื•ื’ ื›ื–ื” ืฉืœ ื“ื•ืงื˜ื•ืจ."
00:48
That is, I'm not a clinician,
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ืื ื™ ืžืชื›ื•ื•ื ืช, ืื ื™ ืœื ืงืœื™ื ืื™ืช,
00:50
I'm a comparative biologist who studies anatomy.
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ืื ื™ ืขื•ืกืงืช ื‘ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื”ืฉื•ื•ืืชื™ืช ื”ื—ื•ืงืจืช ืื ื˜ื•ืžื™ื”.
00:53
And my job is to look at lots of different species of animals
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ื•ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืฉืœื™ ื”ื™ื ืœื‘ื—ื•ืŸ ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžื™ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื—ื™ื•ืช
00:56
and try to figure out how their tissues and organs work
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ื•ืœื ืกื•ืช ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื™ืš ื”ืจืงืžื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื ื•ื”ืื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืœื”ื ืคื•ืขืœื™ื
00:59
when everything's going right,
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ื›ืฉื”ื›ืœ ื‘ืกื“ืจ,
01:01
rather than trying to figure out
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ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืœื ืกื•ืช ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ
01:03
how to fix things when they go wrong,
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ืื™ืš ืœืชืงืŸ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืžืชืงืœืงืœื™ื,
01:04
like so many of you.
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ื›ืžื• ืจื‘ื™ื ืžื›ื.
01:05
And what I do is I look for similarities and differences
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ื•ืžื” ืฉืื ื™ ืขื•ืฉื” ื–ื” ืœืžืฆื•ื ืืช ื”ื“ื•ืžื” ื•ื”ืฉื•ื ื”
01:08
in the solutions that they've evolved
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ื‘ืคืชืจื•ื ื•ืช ืฉื”ืชืคืชื—ื•
01:10
for fundamental biological problems.
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ืœื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ื•ืช.
01:12
So today I'm here to argue
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ืื– ื”ื™ื•ื ืื ื™ ืคื” ืœื˜ืขื•ืŸ
01:13
that this is not at all
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ืฉื–ื” ื‘ื›ืœืœ ืœื
01:17
an esoteric Ivory Tower activity
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ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ืฉืžื•ืจื” ืœืืœื™ื˜ื”
01:19
that we find at our universities,
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ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžื•ืฆืื™ื ื‘ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืื•ืช ืฉืœื ื•,
01:20
but that broad study
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ืืœื ืฉืžื—ืงืจ ืžืงื™ืฃ ื”ื‘ื•ื—ืŸ
01:22
across species, tissue types and organ systems
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ืžื™ื ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื, ืกื•ื’ื™ ืจืงืžื•ืช ื•ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ืื‘ืจื™ื,
01:25
can produce insights
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ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื™ืฆืจ ืชื•ื‘ื ื•ืช
01:27
that have direct implications for human health.
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ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื”ืŸ ื”ืฉืœื›ื•ืช ื™ืฉื™ืจื•ืช ืœื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช.
01:30
And this is true both of my recent project
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ื•ื–ื” ื ื›ื•ืŸ ื’ื ืœืคืจื•ื™ื™ืงื˜ ื”ืื—ืจื•ืŸ ืฉืœื™
01:33
on sex differences in the brain,
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ืขืœ ื”ื”ื‘ื“ืœื™ื ื‘ืžื•ื— ืฉืœ ื–ื›ืจ ื•ื ืงื‘ื”,
01:35
and my more mature work
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ื•ื’ื ืœืคืจื•ื™ื™ืงื˜ ืงื•ื“ื ืฉืœื™
01:37
on the anatomy and function of penises.
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ืขืœ ื”ืื ื˜ื•ืžื™ื” ื•ืคื•ื ืงืฆื™ื•ื ืœื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืคื™ืŸ.
01:39
And now you know why I'm fun at parties.
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ื•ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืืชื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืœืžื” ื›ื™ืฃ ืื™ืชื™ ื‘ืžืกื™ื‘ื•ืช.
01:42
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
01:43
So today I'm going to give you an example
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ืื– ื”ื™ื•ื ืื ื™ ืืชืŸ ื“ื•ื’ืžื”
01:45
drawn from my penis study
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ืฉื ื•ื‘ืขืช ืžืžื—ืงืจ ื”ืคื™ืŸ ืฉืœื™
01:47
to show you how knowledge
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืจืื•ืช ืื™ืš ื™ื“ืข
01:49
drawn from studies of one organ system
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ืฉื ื•ื‘ืข ืžืžื—ืงืจื™ื ืฉืœ ืžืขืจื›ืช ืื‘ืจื™ื ืื—ืช
01:50
provided insights into a very different one.
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ืžืกืคืง ืชื•ื‘ื ื•ืช ืขืœ ืื—ืจืช ืœื’ืžืจื™.
01:53
Now I'm sure as everyone in the audience already knows --
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืื ื™ ื‘ื˜ื•ื—ื” ื›ืžื• ืฉื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ื‘ื—ื“ืจ ื”ื–ื” ื™ื•ื“ืข --
01:56
I did have to explain it to my nine-year-old late last week --
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ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืฆืจื™ื›ื” ืœื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืืช ื–ื” ืœื‘ืŸ ื”ืชืฉืข ืฉืœื™ ื‘ืฉื‘ื•ืข ืฉืขื‘ืจ --
02:00
penises are structures that transfer sperm
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ืคื™ื ื™ื ื”ื ืื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืžืขื‘ื™ืจื™ื ื–ืจืข
02:04
from one individual to another.
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ืžืื“ื ืื—ื“ ืœืฉื ื™.
02:05
And the slide behind me
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ื•ื”ืฉืงื•ืคื™ืช ืžืื—ื•ืจื™
02:06
barely scratches the surface
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ื‘ืงื•ืฉื™ ืžื’ืจื“ืช ืืช ืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื—
02:08
of how widespread they are in animals.
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ื‘ื›ืžื” ื”ื ื ืคื•ืฆื™ื ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื”ื—ื™.
02:10
There's an enormous amount of anatomical variation.
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ื™ืฉ ื›ืžื•ืช ืื“ื™ืจื” ืฉืœ ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ืื ื˜ื•ืžื™ืช.
02:12
You find muscular tubes, modified legs, modified fins,
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ืืชื ืžื•ืฆืื™ื ืฆื™ื ื•ืจื™ื•ืช ืฉืจื™ืจื™ื•ืช, ืจื’ืœื™ื™ื ืฉืขื‘ืจื• ืฉื™ื ื•ื™, ืกื ืคื™ืจื™ื ืฉืขื‘ืจื• ืฉื™ื ื•ื™,
02:16
as well as the mammalian fleshy, inflatable cylinder
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ื›ืžื• ื’ื ืฆื™ื ื•ืจ ื‘ืฉืจื™ื™ ืžืชื ืคื— ืฉืœ ื™ื•ื ืง
02:20
that we're all familiar with --
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ืฉื›ื•ืœื ื• ืžื›ื™ืจื™ื --
02:21
or at least half of you are.
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ืื• ืœืคื—ื•ืช ื—ืฆื™ ืžื›ื.
02:24
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
02:26
And I think we see this tremendous variation
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ื•ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ืช ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ืืช ื”ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ืขืฆื•ื ื”ื–ื”
02:29
because it's a really effective solution
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ืžืคื ื™ ืฉื–ื” ืคื™ืชืจื•ืŸ ืžืžืฉ ื™ืขื™ืœ
02:32
to a very basic biological problem,
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ืœื‘ืขื™ื” ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช ืžืžืฉ ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ืช,
02:34
and that is getting sperm in a position
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ื•ื–ื” ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ื–ืจืข ืœืžืฆื‘
02:37
to meet up with eggs and form zygotes.
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ืฉื”ื•ื ื™ืคื’ื•ืฉ ืืช ื”ื‘ื™ืฆื™ืช ื•ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื–ื™ื’ื•ื˜.
02:39
Now the penis isn't actually required for internal fertiliztion,
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ื”ืคื™ืŸ ืœื ืžืžืฉ ื ื—ื•ืฅ ืœื”ืคืจื™ื™ื” ืคื ื™ืžื™ืช,
02:43
but when internal fertilization evolves,
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืฉื”ืคืจื™ื” ืคื ื™ืžื™ืช ืžืชืคืชื—ืช,
02:46
penises often follow.
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ืคื™ื ื™ื ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ืขื•ืงื‘ื™ื.
02:48
And the question I get when I start talking about this most often is,
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ื•ื”ืฉืืœื” ืฉืื ื™ ื ืฉืืœืช ื”ื›ื™ ื”ืจื‘ื” ื›ืฉืื ื™ ืžืชื—ื™ืœื” ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ื”ื ื•ืฉื ื”ื–ื”,
02:52
"What made you interested in this subject?"
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"ืžื” ื’ืจื ืœืš ืœื”ืชืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ื ื•ืฉื ื”ื–ื”?"
02:55
And the answer is skeletons.
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ื•ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื”ื™ื ืฉืœื“ื™ื.
02:59
You wouldn't think that skeletons and penises
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ืœื ื”ื™ื™ืชื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉืœืฉืœื“ื™ื ื•ืคื™ื ื™ื
03:02
have very much to do with one another.
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ื™ืฉ ืงืฉืจ ื‘ื™ื ื”ื.
03:03
And that's because we tend to think of skeletons
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ื•ื–ื” ืžืคื ื™ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื ื•ื˜ื™ื ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ืฉืœื“ื™ื
03:06
as stiff lever systems
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ื›ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ืชืžื™ื›ื” ืงืฉื™ื—ื•ืช
03:07
that produce speed or power.
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ืฉืžื™ื™ืฆืจื•ืช ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ื•ื›ื•ื—.
03:09
And my first forays into biological research,
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ื•ื”ื ืกื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœื™ ื‘ืžื—ืงืจ ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™,
03:12
doing dinosaur paleontology as an undergraduate,
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ื›ืฉื”ืชืขืกืงืชื™ ื‘ืคืœืื•ื ื˜ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ืฉืœ ื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื ื›ืžื•ืขืžื“ืช ืœืชื•ืืจ,
03:15
were really squarely in that realm.
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ื”ื™ื• ืžืื•ื“ ืžืžืฉ ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ื”ื–ื”.
03:17
But when I went to graduate school to study biomechanics,
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืฉื”ืžืฉื›ืชื™ ืœืชื•ืืจ ืฉื ื™ ืœืœืžื•ื“ ื‘ื™ื•ืžื›ืื ื™ืงื”,
03:20
I really wanted to find a dissertation project
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ืžืžืฉ ืจืฆื™ืชื™ ืœืžืฆื•ื ื ื•ืฉื ืœืชื–ื”
03:22
that would expand our knowledge of skeletal function.
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ืฉื™ืจื—ื™ื‘ ืืช ื”ื™ื“ืข ืฉืœื ื• ื‘ืคื•ื ืงืฆื™ื•ื ืœื™ื•ืช ื”ืฉืœื“.
03:25
I tried a bunch of different stuff.
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ื ื™ืกื™ืชื™ ื”ืจื‘ื” ื“ื‘ืจื™ื.
03:27
A lot of it didn't pan out.
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžื–ื” ืœื ื”ืฆืœื™ื—.
03:29
But then one day I started thinking
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ืื‘ืœ ืื– ื™ื•ื ืื—ื“ ื”ืชื—ืœืชื™ ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘
03:31
about the mammalian penis.
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ืขืœ ืคื™ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื™ื•ื ืงื™ื.
03:32
And it's really an odd sort of structure.
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ื•ื–ื” ื‘ืืžืช ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ืžื‘ื ื” ืžื•ื–ืจ.
03:36
Before it can be used for internal fertilization,
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ืœืคื ื™ ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื• ืœื”ืคืจื™ื” ืคื ื™ืžื™ืช,
03:39
its mechanical behavior has to change
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ื”ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ืช ื”ืžื›ืื ื™ืช ืฉืœื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื” ืœื”ืฉืชื ื•ืช
03:41
in a really dramatic fashion.
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ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžืื•ื“ ื“ืจืžื˜ื™.
03:42
Most of the time it's a flexible organ.
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ืจื•ื‘ ื”ื–ืžืŸ ื–ื” ืื‘ืจ ื’ืžื™ืฉ.
03:45
It's easy to bend.
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ืงืœ ืœืงืคืœ ืื•ืชื•.
03:46
But before it's brought into use
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ืื‘ืœ ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ
03:48
during copulation
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ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ื”ื–ื“ื•ื•ื’ื•ืช
03:49
it has to become rigid,
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ื”ื•ื ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ืคื•ืš ืœืงืฉื™ื—,
03:51
it has to become difficult to bend.
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ื”ื•ื ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืงืฉื” ืœื›ื™ืคื•ืฃ.
03:53
And moreover, it has to work.
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ื•ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื–ื”, ื”ื•ื ืฆืจื™ืš ืœืขื‘ื•ื“.
03:55
A reproductive system that fails to function
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ืžืขืจื›ืช ืจื‘ื™ื” ืฉื›ื•ืฉืœืช ืœืขื‘ื•ื“
03:58
produces an individual that has no offspring,
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ื™ื•ืฆืจืช ืื“ื ืฉืื™ืŸ ืœื• ืฆืืฆืื™ื,
04:01
and that individual is then kicked out of the gene pool.
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ื•ื”ืื“ื ื”ื–ื” ื ื–ืจืง ืžืžืื’ืจ ื”ื’ื ื™ื.
04:04
And so I thought, "Here's a problem
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ืื– ื—ืฉื‘ืชื™, "ื”ื ื” ื‘ืขื™ื”
04:07
that just cries out for a skeletal system --
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ืฉืคืฉื•ื˜ ืžืชื—ื ื ืช ืœืคื™ืชืจื•ืŸ ืฉืœื“ื™ --
04:10
not one like this one,
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ืœื ืื—ื“ ื›ืžื• ื–ื”,
04:13
but one like this one --
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ืืœื ืื—ื“ ื›ืžื• ื–ื” --
04:16
because, functionally,
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ืžืคื ื™, ืฉืคื•ื ืงืฆื™ื•ื ืœื™ืช,
04:19
a skeleton is any system
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ืฉืœื“ ื”ื•ื ื›ืœ ืžืขืจื›ืช
04:20
that supports tissue and transmits forces.
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ืฉืชื•ืžื›ืช ื‘ืจืงืžื” ื•ืžืขื‘ื™ืจ ื›ื•ื—.
04:23
And I already knew that animals like this earthworm,
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ื•ื›ื‘ืจ ื™ื“ืขืชื™ ืฉื—ื™ื•ืช ื›ืžื• ื”ืชื•ืœืขืช ื”ื–ื•,
04:26
indeed most animals,
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ื‘ืขืฆื ืจื•ื‘ ื”ื—ื™ื•ืช,
04:27
don't support their tissues
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ืœื ืชื•ืžื›ื•ืช ื‘ืจืงืžื•ืช ืฉืœื”ืŸ
04:29
by draping them over bones.
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื›ืจื™ื›ืชืŸ ืžืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืœืขืฆื.
04:30
Instead they're more like reinforced water balloons.
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ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื–ื” ื”ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื›ืžื• ื‘ืœื•ื ื™ ืžื™ื ืžื—ื•ื–ืงื™ื.
04:33
They use a skeleton that we call a hydrostatic skeleton.
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ื”ื ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ืฉืœื“ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืงื•ืจืื™ื ืœื• ืฉืœื“ ื”ื™ื“ืจื•ืกื˜ื˜ื™.
04:37
And a hydrostatic skeleton
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ื•ืฉืœื“ ื”ื™ื“ืจื•ืกื˜ื˜ื™
04:39
uses two elements.
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ืžืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืฉื ื™ ืืœืžื ื˜ื™ื.
04:41
The skeletal support comes from an interaction
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ื”ืชืžื™ื›ื” ื”ืฉืœื“ื™ืช ืžื’ื™ืขื” ืžืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ
04:43
between a pressurized fluid
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ื‘ื™ืŸ ื ื•ื–ืœ ื‘ืœื—ืฅ
04:45
and a surrounding wall of tissue
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ื•ืงื™ืจ ืžืงื™ืฃ ืฉืœ ืจื™ืงืžื”
04:47
that's held in tension and reinforced with fibrous proteins.
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ืฉืžื•ื—ื–ืงืช ื‘ืžืชื— ื•ืžื—ื•ื–ืงืช ืขื ื—ืœื‘ื•ื ื™ื ืกื™ื‘ื™ื™ื.
04:51
And the interaction is crucial.
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ื•ื”ืื™ื ื˜ืจืืงืฆื™ื” ื”ื™ื ืงืจื™ื˜ื™ืช.
04:53
Without both elements you have no support.
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ื‘ืœื™ ืฉื ื™ ื”ืืœืžื ื˜ื™ื ืื™ืŸ ืชืžื™ื›ื”.
04:57
If you have fluid
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ืื ื™ืฉ ื ื•ื–ืœ
04:58
with no wall to surround it
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ื‘ืœื™ ืงื™ืจ ืฉืžืงื™ืฃ ืื•ืชื•
05:00
and keep pressure up,
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ื•ืฉื•ืžืจ ืขืœ ื”ืœื—ืฅ,
05:01
you have a puddle.
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ื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ืฉืœื•ืœื™ืช.
05:03
And if you have just the wall
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ื•ืื ื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ืจืง ืืช ื”ืงื™ืจ
05:05
with no fluid inside of it to put the wall in tension,
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ื‘ืœื™ ื ื•ื–ืœ ื‘ืชื•ื›ื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœืžืชื•ื— ืืช ื”ืงื™ืจ,
05:07
you've got a little wet rag.
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ื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ืกืžืจื˜ื•ื˜ ืจื˜ื•ื‘ ืงื˜ืŸ.
05:09
When you look at a penis in cross section,
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ื›ืฉืืชื ืžื‘ื™ื˜ื™ื ื‘ื—ืชืš ืจื•ื—ื‘ ืฉืœ ื”ืคื™ืŸ,
05:12
it has a lot of the hallmarks
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ื™ืฉ ื‘ื• ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžื”ืžืืคื™ื™ื ื™ื
05:14
of a hydrostatic skeleton.
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ืฉืœ ืฉืœื“ ื”ื™ื“ืจื•ืกื˜ื˜ื™.
05:16
It has a central space
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ื™ืฉ ืœื™ ื—ืœืœ ืžืจื›ื–ื™
05:18
of spongy erectile tissue
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ืฉืœ ืจืงืžืช ื–ืงืคื” ืกืคื•ื’ื™ืช
05:19
that fills with fluid -- in this case blood --
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ืฉืžืชืžืœืืช ื‘ื ื•ื–ืœ -- ื‘ืžืงืจื” ื”ื–ื” ื“ื --
05:22
surrounded by a wall of tissue
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ืฉืžื•ืงืคืช ื‘ืงื™ืจ ืฉืœ ืจืงืžื”
05:24
that's rich in a stiff structural protein called collagen.
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ืฉืขืฉื™ืจื” ื‘ื—ืœื‘ื•ืŸ ืžื‘ื ื™ ืงืฉื™ื— ืฉื ืงืจื ืงื•ืœื’ืŸ.
05:28
But at the time when I started this project,
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉื”ืชื—ืœืชื™ ืืช ื”ืคืจื•ื™ื™ืงื˜,
05:31
the best explanation I could find for penal erection
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ื”ื”ืกื‘ืจ ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœืชื™ ืœืžืฆื•ื ืœื–ืงืคื”
05:34
was that the wall surrounded these spongy tissues,
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ื”ื™ื” ืฉื”ืงื™ืจ ืžืงื™ืฃ ืืช ื”ืจืงืžื” ื”ืกืคื•ื’ื™ืช ื”ื–ื•,
05:38
and the spongy tissues filled with blood
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ื•ื”ืจืงืžื” ื”ืกืคื•ื’ื™ืช ื”ืชืžืœืื” ื‘ื“ื
05:40
and pressure rose and voila! it became erect.
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ื•ื”ืœื—ืฅ ืขื•ืœื” ื•ื”ื ื”! ื”ื•ื ื–ืงื•ืฃ.
05:43
And that explained to me expansion --
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ื•ื–ื” ื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืœื™ ืืช ื”ื”ืชืจื—ื‘ื•ืช --
05:47
made sense: more fluid, you get tissues that expand --
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ื–ื” ื”ื’ื™ื•ื ื™: ื™ื•ืชืจ ื ื•ื–ืœ, ืืชื ืžืงื‘ืœื™ื ืจืงืžื” ืฉืžืชืจื—ื‘ืช --
05:51
but it didn't actually explain erection.
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ืื‘ืœ ืœื ืžืžืฉ ื”ืกื‘ืจืชื™ ืืช ื”ื–ืงืคื”.
05:54
Because there was no mechanism in this explanation
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ืžืคื ื™ ืฉืœื ื”ื™ื” ืžื›ืื ื™ื–ื ื‘ื”ืกื‘ืจ ื”ื–ื”
05:57
for making this structure hard to bend.
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ืœื”ืคื™ื›ืช ื”ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ื–ื” ืงืฉื” ืœื›ื™ืคื•ืฃ.
06:00
And no one had systematically looked at the wall tissue.
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ื•ืืฃ ืื—ื“ ืœื ื—ืงืจ ื‘ืฉื™ื˜ืชื™ื•ืช ืืช ืงื™ืจ ื”ืจืงืžื”.
06:03
So I thought, wall tissue's important in skeletons.
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ืื– ื—ืฉื‘ืชื™, ืจืงืžืช ืงื™ืจ ื”ื™ื ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื” ื‘ืฉืœื“ื™ื.
06:06
It has to be part of the explanation.
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ื”ื™ื ื—ื™ื™ื‘ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื—ืœืง ืžื”ื”ืกื‘ืจ.
06:08
And this was the point
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ื•ื–ื• ื”ื™ืชื” ื”ื ืงื•ื“ื”
06:11
at which my graduate adviser said,
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ื‘ื” ื™ื•ืขืฅ ื”ืชื•ืืจ ืฉืœื™ ืืžืจ,
06:13
"Whoa! Hold on. Slow down."
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"ื•ื•ืื•! ื—ื›ื™ ืจื’ืข. ืชืื˜ื™."
06:17
Because after about six months of me talking about this,
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ืžืคื ื™ ืฉืื—ืจื™ ืฉื™ืฉื” ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื ืฉื“ื™ื‘ืจืชื™ ืขืœ ื–ื”,
06:20
I think he finally figured out
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ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ืช ืฉื”ื‘ื ื• ืกื•ืฃ ืกื•ืฃ
06:21
that I was really serious about the penis thing.
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ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื™ื™ ื‘ืืžืช ืจืฆื™ื ื™ืช ื‘ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ืคื™ืŸ.
06:24
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
06:27
So he sat me down, and he warned me.
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ืื– ื”ื•ื ื”ื•ืฉื™ื‘ ืื•ืชื™, ื•ื”ื–ื”ื™ืจ ืื•ืชื™.
06:29
He was like, "Be careful going down this path.
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ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ื›ืื™ืœื•, "ืชื–ื”ืจื™ ืžืœืœื›ืช ื‘ื“ืจืš ื”ื–ื•.
06:32
I'm not sure this project's going to pan out."
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ืื ื™ ืœื ื‘ื˜ื•ื— ืฉื”ืคืจื•ื™ื™ืงื˜ ื”ื–ื” ื™ืฆืœื™ื—."
06:34
Because he was afraid I was walking into a trap.
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ืžืคื ื™ ืฉื”ื•ื ืคื—ื“ ืฉืื ื™ ื ื›ื ืกืช ืœืžืœื›ื•ื“ืช.
06:37
I was taking on a socially embarrassing question
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ืœืงื—ืชื™ ืฉืืœื” ืžื‘ื™ื›ื” ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ืช
06:42
with an answer that he thought
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ืขื ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืฉื”ื•ื ื—ืฉื‘
06:44
might not be particularly interesting.
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ืฉืื•ืœื™ ืœื ืชื”ื™ื™ื” ืžืžืฉ ืžืขื ื™ื™ื ืช.
06:46
And that was because
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ื•ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื’ืœืœ
06:48
every hydrostatic skeleton
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ืฉืœื›ืœ ืฉืœื“ ื”ื™ื“ืจื•ืกื˜ื˜ื™
06:50
that we had found in nature up to that point
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ืฉื ืžืฆื ื‘ื˜ื‘ืข ืขื“ ืื–
06:52
had the same basic elements.
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ื”ื™ื• ืืช ืื•ืชื ืืœืžื ื˜ื™ื ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ื™ื.
06:53
It had the central fluid,
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ื”ื™ื” ืœื• ื ื•ื–ืœ ืžืจื›ื–ื™,
06:55
it had the surrounding wall,
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ื”ื™ื” ืœื• ืงื™ืจ ืžืงื™ืฃ,
06:56
and the reinforcing fibers in the wall
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ื•ื”ืกื™ื‘ื™ื ื”ืžื—ื–ืงื™ื ื‘ืงื™ืจ
07:00
were arranged in crossed helices
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ื”ื™ื• ืžืกื•ื“ืจื™ื ื‘ืกืœื™ืœื™ื ืื ื›ื™ื™ื
07:02
around the long axis of the skeleton.
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ืžืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืœืฆื™ืจ ื”ืืจื•ืš ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืœื“.
07:04
So the image behind me
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ืื– ื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ืžืื—ื•ืจื™
07:05
shows a piece of tissue
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ืžืจืื” ืคื™ืกื” ืžื”ืจืงืžื”
07:07
in one of these cross helical skeletons
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ื‘ืื—ื“ ืžื”ืฉืœื“ื™ื ื”ืืœื”
07:09
cut so that you're looking at the surface of the wall.
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ื—ืชื•ื›ื” ื›ืš ืฉืืชื ืžื‘ื™ื˜ื™ื ื‘ืžืฉื˜ื— ืฉืœ ื”ืงื™ืจ.
07:12
The arrow shows you the long axis.
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ื”ื—ืฅ ืžืจืื” ืœื›ื ืืช ื”ืฆื™ืจ ื”ืืจื•ืš.
07:13
And you can see two layers of fibers,
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ื•ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉืชื™ ืฉื›ื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืกื™ื‘ื™ื,
07:15
one in blue and one in yellow,
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ืื—ืช ื‘ื›ื—ื•ืœ ื•ืื—ืช ื‘ืฆื”ื•ื‘,
07:17
arranged in left-handed and right-handed angles.
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ืžืกื•ื“ืจื™ื ื‘ื–ื•ื™ื•ืช ืœืฉืžืืœ ื•ืœื™ืžื™ืŸ.
07:20
And if you weren't just looking at a little section of the fibers,
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ื•ืื ืืชื ืœื ืžื‘ื™ื˜ื™ื ืจืง ื‘ืคื™ืกื” ืงื˜ื ื” ืฉืœ ืกื™ื‘ื™ ื”ืฉืœื“,
07:22
those fibers would be going in helices
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ื”ืกื™ื‘ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื™ื”ื™ื• ื‘ืกืœื™ืœื™ื
07:25
around the long axis of the skeleton --
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ืžืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืœืฆื™ืจ ื”ืืจื•ืš ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืœื“ --
07:26
something like a Chinese finger trap,
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ืžืฉื”ื• ื›ืžื• ืžืœื›ื•ื“ืช ืืฆื‘ืขื•ืช ืกื™ื ื™ืช,
07:28
where you stick your fingers in and they get stuck.
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ื›ืฉืืชื ืžื›ื ื™ืกื™ื ืืช ื”ืืฆื‘ืขื•ืช ื•ื”ืŸ ื ืชืงืขื•ืช.
07:30
And these skeletons have a particular set of behaviors,
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ื•ืœืฉืœื“ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื™ืฉ ืกื˜ ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ืช ืžื™ื•ื—ื“,
07:33
which I'm going to demonstrate in a film.
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ืฉืื ื™ ืขื•ืžื“ืช ืœื”ื“ื’ื™ื ื‘ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.
07:35
It's a model skeleton
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ื–ื” ืฉืœื“ ืžื•ื“ืœ
07:37
that I made out of a piece of cloth
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ืฉื™ืฆืจืชื™ ืžืคื™ืกืช ื‘ื“
07:39
that I wrapped around an inflated balloon.
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ืฉืขื˜ืคืชื™ ืขืœ ื‘ืœื•ืŸ ืžื ื•ืคื—.
07:41
The cloth's cut on the bias.
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ื”ื‘ื“ ื—ืชื•ืš ื‘ืืœื›ืกื•ืŸ.
07:43
So you can see that the fibers wrap in helices,
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ืื– ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ืกื™ื‘ื™ื ืขื˜ื•ืคื™ื ื‘ืกืœื™ืœื™ื,
07:46
and those fibers can reorient as the skeleton moves,
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ื•ื”ืกื™ื‘ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืฉื ื•ืช ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื›ืฉื”ืฉืœื“ ื–ื–,
07:50
which means the skeleton's flexible.
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ืžื” ืฉืื•ืžืจ ืฉื”ืฉืœื“ ื’ืžื™ืฉ.
07:52
It lengthens, shortens and bends really easily
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ื”ื•ื ืžืชืืจืš, ืžืชืงืฆืจ ื•ืžืชืขืงื ื‘ืงืœื•ืช
07:54
in response to internal or external forces.
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ื‘ืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ืœื›ื•ื—ื•ืช ืคื ื™ืžื™ื™ื ื•ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื.
07:58
Now my adviser's concern
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ื”ื“ืื’ื” ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื•ืขืฅ ืฉืœื™
07:59
was what if the penile wall tissue
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ื”ื™ืชื” ืžื” ืื ืจืงืžืช ืงื™ืจ ื”ืคื™ืŸ
08:01
is just the same as any other hydrostatic skeleton.
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ื”ื™ื ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื›ืžื• ื›ืœ ืจืงืžื” ื‘ืฉืœื“ ื”ื“ืจื•ืกื˜ื˜ื™.
08:03
What are you going to contribute?
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ืžื” ืื ื™ ืืชืจื•ื?
08:05
What new thing are you contributing
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ืื™ื–ื” ื“ื‘ืจ ื—ื“ืฉ ืื ื™ ืืชืจื•ื
08:06
to our knowledge of biology?
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ืœื™ื“ืข ืฉืœื ื• ื‘ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”?
08:08
And I thought, "Yeah, he does have a really good point here."
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ื•ืื ื™ ื—ืฉื‘ืชื™, "ื›ืŸ, ื™ืฉ ืœื• ื ืงื•ื“ื” ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื”."
08:11
So I spent a long, long time thinking about it.
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ืื– ื‘ื™ืœื™ืชื™ ื–ืžืŸ ืžืžืฉ ืืจื•ืš ื‘ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ื–ื”.
08:13
And one thing kept bothering me,
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ื•ื“ื‘ืจ ืื—ื“ ื”ืžืฉื™ืš ืœื”ื˜ืจื™ื“ ืื•ืชื™,
08:15
and that's, when they're functioning,
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ื•ื–ื”, ื›ืฉื”ื ืคื•ืขืœื™ื,
08:18
penises don't wiggle.
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ืคื™ื ื™ื ืœื ืžืชืคืชืœื™ื.
08:20
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
08:22
So something interesting had to be going on.
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ืื– ืžืฉื”ื• ืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ื™ื” ื—ื™ื™ื‘ ืœืงืจื•ืช.
08:25
So I went ahead, collected wall tissue,
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ืื– ื”ืžืฉื›ืชื™, ืืกืคืชื™ ืจืงืžื•ืช,
08:28
prepared it so it was erect,
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ื”ื›ื ืชื™ ืื•ืชืŸ ื›ืš ืฉื”ืŸ ื”ื™ื• ื–ืงื•ืจื•ืช,
08:30
sectioned it, put it on slides
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ื—ื™ืœืงืชื™ ืื•ืชืŸ, ืฉืžืชื™ ืขืœ ืœื•ื—ื™ื•ืช ื–ื›ื•ื›ื™ืช
08:32
and then stuck it under the microscope to have a look,
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ื•ืื– ืฉืžืชื™ ืื•ืชืŸ ืชื—ืช ื”ืžืงืจื•ืกืงื•ืค ื›ื“ื™ ืœืจืื•ืช,
08:35
fully expecting to see crossed helices of collagen of some variety.
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ื‘ืฆืคื™ื™ื” ืžืœืื” ืœืจืื•ืช ืกืœื™ืœื™ื ืžืื•ื ื›ื™ื ืฉืœ ืงื•ืœื’ืŸ ืžืกื•ื’ ื›ืœืฉื”ื•.
08:40
But instead I saw this.
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื–ื” ืจืื™ืชื™ ืืช ื–ื”.
08:42
There's an outer layer and an inner layer.
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ื™ืฉ ืฉื›ื‘ื” ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ืช ื•ืฉื›ื‘ื” ืคื ื™ืžื™ืช.
08:45
The arrow shows you the long axis of the skeleton.
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ื”ื—ืฅ ืžืจืื” ืืช ื”ืฆื™ืจ ื”ืืจื•ืš ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืœื“.
08:48
I was really surprised at this.
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ื‘ืืžืช ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืžื•ืคืชืขืช ืžื–ื”.
08:50
Everyone I showed it
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ื›ืœ ืžื™ ืฉื”ืจืืชื™ ืœื• ืืช ื–ื”
08:51
was really surprised at this.
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ื”ื™ื” ืžืžืฉ ืžื•ืคืชืข ืžื–ื”.
08:52
Why was everyone surprised at this?
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ืœืžื” ื›ื•ืœื ื”ื™ื• ืžื•ืคืชืขื™ื?
08:54
That's because we knew theoretically
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ื–ื” ืžืคื ื™ ืฉื™ื“ืขื ื• ืชืื•ืจื˜ื™ืช
08:57
that there was another way
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ืฉื”ื™ืชื” ื“ืจืš ืื—ืจืช
09:00
of arranging fibers in a hydrostatic skeleton,
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ืœืกื“ืจ ืกื™ื‘ื™ื ื‘ืฉืœื“ ื”ื™ื“ืจื•ืกื˜ื˜ื™,
09:03
and that was with fibers at zero degrees
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ื•ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืขื ืกื™ื‘ื™ื ื‘ืืคืก ืžืขืœื•ืช
09:05
and 90 degrees to the long axis of the structure.
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ื•90 ืžืขืœื•ืช ืœืฆื™ืจ ื”ืืจื•ืš ืฉืœ ื”ืžื‘ื ื”.
09:09
The thing is, no one had ever seen it before in nature.
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ื”ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ื•ื, ืืฃ ืื—ื“ ืœื ืจืื” ืืช ื–ื” ืงื•ื“ื ืœื›ืŸ ื‘ื˜ื‘ืข.
09:12
And now I was looking at one.
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ื•ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ื”ืกืชื›ืœืชื™ ืขืœ ืื—ื“.
09:15
Those fibers in that particular orientation
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ื”ืกื™ื‘ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื‘ืกื™ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืžืกื•ื™ื™ื ื”ื–ื”
09:18
give the skeleton a very, very different behavior.
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ื ื•ืชื ื™ื ืœืฉืœื“ ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื” ืœื—ืœื•ื˜ื™ืŸ.
09:21
I'm going to show a model
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ืื ื™ ืืจืื” ืœื›ืŸ ืžื•ื“ืœ
09:22
made out of exactly the same materials.
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ืขืฉื•ื™ ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืžืื•ืชื ื—ื•ืžืจื™ื.
09:24
So it'll be made of the same cotton cloth,
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ืื– ื”ื•ื ื™ื”ื™ื” ืขืฉื•ื™ ืžืื•ืชื• ื‘ื“ ื›ื•ืชื ื”,
09:26
same balloon, same internal pressure.
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ืื•ืชื• ื‘ืœื•ืŸ, ืื•ืชื• ืœื—ืฅ ืคื ื™ืžื™.
09:29
But the only difference
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื”ื‘ื“ืœ ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“
09:32
is that the fibers are arranged differently.
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ื”ื•ื ืฉื”ืกื™ื‘ื™ื ืžืกื•ื“ืจื™ื ืื—ืจืช.
09:34
And you'll see that, unlike the cross helical model,
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ื•ืืชื ืชืจืื•, ืฉื‘ื ื™ื’ื•ื“ ืœืžื•ื“ืœ ื”ืกืœื™ืœื™,
09:37
this model resists extension and contraction
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ื”ืžื•ื“ืœ ืžืชื ื’ื“ ืœืžืชื™ื—ื” ื•ื›ื™ื•ื•ืฅ
09:40
and resists bending.
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ื•ื ื•ื’ื“ ื›ื™ืคื•ืฃ.
09:41
Now what that tells us
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืžื” ืฉื–ื” ืื•ืžืจ ืœื ื•
09:42
is that wall tissues are doing so much more
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ื–ื” ืฉืจืงืžื•ืช ื”ืงื™ืจ ื”ืืœื” ืขื•ืฉื•ืช ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ
09:45
than just covering the vascular tissues.
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ืžืืฉืจ ืจืง ืœื›ืกื•ืช ืืช ืจืงืžืช ื›ืœื™ ื”ื“ื.
09:47
They're an integral part of the penile skeleton.
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ื”ืŸ ื—ืœืง ืื™ื ื˜ื’ืจืœื™ ืฉืœ ืฉืœื“ ื”ืคื™ืŸ.
09:51
If the wall around the erectile tissue wasn't there,
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ืื ื”ืงื™ืจ ืžืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืœืจืงืžืช ื”ื–ืงืคื” ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืฉื,
09:53
if it wasn't reinforced in this way,
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ืื ื”ื•ื ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืžื—ื•ื–ืง ื‘ื“ืจืš ื”ื–ื•,
09:55
the shape would change,
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ื”ืฆื•ืจื” ื”ื™ืชื” ืžืฉืชื ื”,
09:56
but the inflated penis would not resist bending,
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืคื™ืŸ ื”ืžื ื•ืคื— ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืžืชื ื’ื“ ืœื›ื™ืคื•ืฃ,
09:59
and erection simply wouldn't work.
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ื•ื”ื–ืงืคื” ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืœื ื”ื™ืชื” ืขื•ื‘ื“ืช.
10:01
It's an observation with obvious medical applications
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ื–ื• ืื‘ื—ื ื” ืขื ื”ืฉืœื›ื•ืช ืจืคื•ืื™ื•ืช ื‘ืจื•ืจื•ืช
10:03
in humans as well,
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ื’ื ื‘ืื ืฉื™ื,
10:05
but it's also relevant in a broad sense, I think,
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ื’ื ืจืœื•ื•ื ื˜ื™ ื‘ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ื”ืจื—ื‘, ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ืช,
10:08
to the design of prosthetics, soft robots,
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ืœืชื™ื›ื ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืชื•ืชื‘ื•ืช, ืจื•ื‘ื•ื˜ื™ื ืจื›ื™ื,
10:11
basically anything
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ื‘ืขื™ืงืจื•ืŸ ื›ืœ ื“ื‘ืจ
10:12
where changes of shape and stiffness are important.
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ื‘ื• ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ื•ื‘ืงืฉื™ื—ื•ืช ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื.
10:15
So to sum up:
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ืื– ืœืกื™ื›ื•ื:
10:17
Twenty years ago,
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ืœืคื ื™ ืขืฉืจื™ื ืฉื ื”,
10:18
I had a college adviser tell me,
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ื”ื™ื” ืœื™ ื™ื•ืขืฅ ื‘ืงื•ืœื’' ืฉืืžืจ ืœื™,
10:20
when I went to the college and said,
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ื›ืฉื”ืœื›ืชื™ ืœืงื•ืœื’' ื•ืืžืจืชื™,
10:22
"I'm kind of interested in anatomy,"
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"ืื ื™ ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ืžืชืขื ื™ื™ื ืช ื‘ืื ื˜ื•ืžื™ื”,"
10:23
they said, "Anatomy's a dead science."
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ื”ื ืืžืจื•, "ืื ื˜ื•ืžื™ื” ื”ื™ื ืžื“ืข ืžืช."
10:25
He couldn't have been more wrong.
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ื”ื•ื ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื˜ื•ืขื” ื™ื•ืชืจ.
10:27
I really believe that we still have a lot to learn
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ืื ื™ ื‘ืืžืช ืžืืžื™ื ื” ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืขื•ื“ ื”ืจื‘ื” ืœืœืžื•ื“
10:30
about the normal structure and function of our bodies.
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ืขืœ ื”ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ืจื’ื™ืœ ื•ื”ืคืขื•ืœื” ืฉืœ ื”ื’ื•ืฃ ืฉืœื ื•.
10:33
Not just about its genetics and molecular biology,
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ืœื ืจืง ืขืœ ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™ืงื” ื•ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื”ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœืจื™ืช ืฉืœื•,
10:36
but up here in the meat end of the scale.
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ืืœื ื›ืืŸ ืœืžืขืœื” ื‘ืงืฆื” ื”ืžืœื ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื–ื ื™ื™ื.
10:39
We've got limits on our time.
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ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืžื’ื‘ืœื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ื–ืžืŸ ืฉืœื ื•.
10:41
We often focus on one disease,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืชืจื›ื–ื™ื ืจื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืžื—ืœื” ืื—ืช,
10:43
one model, one problem,
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ืžื•ื“ืœ ืื—ื“ ื‘ืขื™ื” ืื—ืช,
10:44
but my experience suggests
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื ืกื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœื™ ืžืฆื™ืข
10:46
that we should take the time
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ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœืงื—ืช ืืช ื”ื–ืžืŸ
10:48
to apply ideas broadly between systems
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ืฉื ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืจื•ื—ื‘ื™ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช
10:50
and just see where it takes us.
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ื•ืจืง ืœืจืื•ืช ืœืืŸ ื–ื” ืœื•ืงื— ืื•ืชื ื•.
10:52
After all, if ideas about invertebrate skeletons
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ืื—ืจื™ ื”ื›ืœ, ืื ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืขืœ ืฉืœื“ื™ื ื—ืกืจื™ ื—ื•ืœื™ื•ืช
10:56
can give us insights
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืชืช ืœื ื• ืชื•ื‘ื ื•ืช
10:57
about mammalian reproductive systems,
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ืขืœ ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ื”ืจื‘ื™ื” ืฉืœ ื™ื•ื ืงื™ื,
10:59
there could be lots of other wild and productive connections
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืขื•ื“ ื”ืจื‘ื” ืงืฉืจื™ื ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ื•ืžื•ื–ืจื™ื
11:03
lurking out there just waiting to be found.
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ืฉืื•ืจื‘ื™ื ืœื”ื ืฉื ื‘ื—ื•ืฅ ื•ืจืง ืžื—ื›ื™ื ืœื”ืชื’ืœื•ืช.
11:06
Thank you.
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ืชื•ื“ื” ืœื›ื.
11:08
(Applause)
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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