What we didn't know about male anatomy | Diane Kelly

Translator: Timothy Covell Reviewer: Morton Bast

譯者: Shirley Hsieh 審譯者: Yuguo Zhang

When I go to parties,

每當我去參加聚會，

it doesn't usually take very long

人們不需要多久

for people to find out

便會發現

that I'm a scientist and I study sex.

我是一位科學家，還是研究性學的。

And then I get asked questions.

然後我就會被問一些問題。

And the questions usually have a very particular format.

而這些問題通常有一定相似的模式。

They start with the phrase,

它們以這樣一個語句開始，

"A friend told me,"

“一個朋友告訴過我”，

and then they end with the phrase,

然後他們會這樣結束這個問題，

"Is this true?"

“這是真的嗎？”

And most of the time

大部份時間，

I'm glad to say that I can answer them,

我為我可以解答這些問題而感到開心，

but sometimes I have to say,

但有些時候我必須說，

"I'm really sorry,

“對不起，

but I don't know

但是我的確不知道，

because I'm not that kind of a doctor."

因為我不是做那一行的醫生。”

That is, I'm not a clinician,

是的，我並不是臨床醫師，

I'm a comparative biologist who studies anatomy.

我是一位學習解剖學的比較生物學家。

And my job is to look at lots of different species of animals

而我的工作便是觀察很多不同種類的物種的

and try to figure out how their tissues and organs work

軟組織和器官，然後試圖理解當

when everything's going right,

生理正常時它們是怎麼運作的，

rather than trying to figure out

而不是在它們出問題後

how to fix things when they go wrong,

找出以及解決問題，

like so many of you.

就像在座很多人所做的一般。

And what I do is I look for similarities and differences

而我所做的是研究不同的物種在遇到基本的

in the solutions that they've evolved

生物問題時如何進化出一樣或者

for fundamental biological problems.

不同的解決方式。

So today I'm here to argue

所以今天我想說

that this is not at all

雖然這不是一個

an esoteric Ivory Tower activity

在我們很多的大學中都可以找到的

that we find at our universities,

深奧的象牙塔學問，

but that broad study

但如此的關於物種，

across species, tissue types and organ systems

組織以及器官系統的廣義研究

can produce insights

能夠產生對於人類健康有著

that have direct implications for human health.

直接影響的信息。

And this is true both of my recent project

而這點對於我近期的學習

on sex differences in the brain,

不同性別的大腦區別的項目來說，

and my more mature work

又或者我研究時間更長的

on the anatomy and function of penises.

關於陰莖的解剖結構以及功能，都是成立的。

And now you know why I'm fun at parties.

現在你知道我爲什麽在聚會中很受歡迎。

(Laughter)

（笑聲）

So today I'm going to give you an example

今天我將介紹一個從我的陰莖研究中

drawn from my penis study

得出來的例子，

to show you how knowledge

來告訴你們從

drawn from studies of one organ system

一個器官系統的研究中得到的知識

provided insights into a very different one.

是如何提供另外一個完全不同的系統的信息的。

Now I'm sure as everyone in the audience already knows --

現在，就像在座的各位已經知道的 --

I did have to explain it to my nine-year-old late last week --

上個星期我需要像我的9歲的小孩解釋 --

penises are structures that transfer sperm

陰莖的作用便是將精液從

from one individual to another.

一個人傳送到另外一個人。

And the slide behind me

而在我身後的幻燈片

barely scratches the surface

未介紹到在自然界中這種現象發生的

of how widespread they are in animals.

頻率的千萬分之一。

There's an enormous amount of anatomical variation.

它有著很大的結構差異。

You find muscular tubes, modified legs, modified fins,

你會找到肌肉管道，改造過的腿，改造過的鳍，

as well as the mammalian fleshy, inflatable cylinder

又或者是我們所熟悉的哺乳動物的肉質的，

that we're all familiar with --

可膨脹的圓柱體 --

or at least half of you are.

至少你們中間的一半吧。

(Laughter)

（笑聲）·

And I think we see this tremendous variation

而我們相信我們所看到的這種巨大的差異的原因

because it's a really effective solution

在於讓精子在一個特定的位置

to a very basic biological problem,

遇到卵子并成為受精卵

and that is getting sperm in a position

是解決一個非常基本的生物問題的

to meet up with eggs and form zygotes.

一個很有效的辦法。

Now the penis isn't actually required for internal fertiliztion,

體內受精并不一定需要陰莖，

but when internal fertilization evolves,

但當體內受精進化的時候，

penises often follow.

陰莖通常緊隨其後。

And the question I get when I start talking about this most often is,

而每當我講到這個話題，我得到的最多的問題是，

"What made you interested in this subject?"

“是什麽讓你對這個話題科感興趣的？”

And the answer is skeletons.

而答案是骨骼。

You wouldn't think that skeletons and penises

你可能覺得骨骼和陰莖

have very much to do with one another.

并沒有什麽共同之處。

And that's because we tend to think of skeletons

那是因為我們仍然覺得骨骼是

as stiff lever systems

一種產生速度和力量的

that produce speed or power.

杠杆系統。

And my first forays into biological research,

而我在生物學做的最初的研究之一，

doing dinosaur paleontology as an undergraduate,

在本科是學習恐龍古生物學，

were really squarely in that realm.

便是在這個範圍之內。

But when I went to graduate school to study biomechanics,

但當我在研究生是學習生物力學時，

I really wanted to find a dissertation project

我非常想找到一個可以增加我們對於

that would expand our knowledge of skeletal function.

骨骼功能的知識的項目。

I tried a bunch of different stuff.

我嘗試很多不同的東西。

A lot of it didn't pan out.

有很多都沒有成功。

But then one day I started thinking

但有一天我想到了

about the mammalian penis.

哺乳動物的陰莖。

And it's really an odd sort of structure.

它其實有一個很奇怪的構造。

Before it can be used for internal fertilization,

在它能為體內受精做出貢獻之前，

its mechanical behavior has to change

它的機械運作必須

in a really dramatic fashion.

有跨越性的變化。

Most of the time it's a flexible organ.

大部份時間它都是一個靈活的器官。

It's easy to bend.

它很容易彎曲。

But before it's brought into use

但在它可以在交配中

during copulation

被使用之前

it has to become rigid,

它必須變的堅硬，

it has to become difficult to bend.

並且難以彎曲。

And moreover, it has to work.

更重要的，它必須可以工作。

A reproductive system that fails to function

一個不可以使用的生殖系統

produces an individual that has no offspring,

帶來的是一個不能生育下一代的個體。

and that individual is then kicked out of the gene pool.

而這個個體會被從基因庫中被剔除。

And so I thought, "Here's a problem

所以我想到，“這個問題

that just cries out for a skeletal system --

似乎完全需要一個骨骼系統的解決方式 --

not one like this one,

不是像這樣的，

but one like this one --

而是像這樣的 --

because, functionally,

因為，功能上來說，

a skeleton is any system

一個骨骼是任何可以

that supports tissue and transmits forces.

支撐軟組織并傳送力的系統。

And I already knew that animals like this earthworm,

而我已經知道像蚯蚓一樣的動物，

indeed most animals,

事實上大部份動物，

don't support their tissues

都不不用骨頭來

by draping them over bones.

支撐它們的軟組織。

Instead they're more like reinforced water balloons.

反之，它們更像加強后的水氣球般。

They use a skeleton that we call a hydrostatic skeleton.

它們用一個我們稱為铃静力骨架的骨骼系統。

And a hydrostatic skeleton

而一個铃静力骨架

uses two elements.

有著兩個要素。

The skeletal support comes from an interaction

骨骼支撐性來自一種壓縮后的液體

between a pressurized fluid

以及它周圍的組織牆壁

and a surrounding wall of tissue

的互相影響

that's held in tension and reinforced with fibrous proteins.

產生的拉力，并被纖維性蛋白質加強。

And the interaction is crucial.

而這種相互影響非常重要。

Without both elements you have no support.

兩者少一而你便不會有支撐力。

If you have fluid

如果你有液體，

with no wall to surround it

但沒有環繞的可以產生

and keep pressure up,

壓力的墻，

you have a puddle.

你有的只是水坑。

And if you have just the wall

但如果你只有墻

with no fluid inside of it to put the wall in tension,

而裏面沒有液體對墻造成壓力，

you've got a little wet rag.

你只有一個微濕的架構。

When you look at a penis in cross section,

當你觀察陰莖的橫切面時，

it has a lot of the hallmarks

它有很多铃静力骨架

of a hydrostatic skeleton.

的特徵。

It has a central space

它的中心空間中

of spongy erectile tissue

有一個充滿了液體的

that fills with fluid -- in this case blood --

可勃起海綿體軟組織 -- 血液 --

surrounded by a wall of tissue

被有著豐富的結構性膠原蛋白

that's rich in a stiff structural protein called collagen.

的軟組織墻包圍。

But at the time when I started this project,

但當我開始這個研究課題的時候，

the best explanation I could find for penal erection

我可以找到的最好的陰莖勃起的理由是

was that the wall surrounded these spongy tissues,

因為包住海綿體組織的肉壁

and the spongy tissues filled with blood

在海綿體組織充血時

and pressure rose and voila! it became erect.

與它產生壓力然後造成勃起。

And that explained to me expansion --

而這個現象解釋了擴張 --

made sense: more fluid, you get tissues that expand --

軟組織因為充斥更多的液體而膨脹 --

but it didn't actually explain erection.

但它其實並不解釋勃起的現象。

Because there was no mechanism in this explanation

因為在這個解釋中并沒有任何一個可以

for making this structure hard to bend.

讓這個結構變堅硬的途徑。

And no one had systematically looked at the wall tissue.

而之前沒有人系統的觀察過構成牆壁的組織。

So I thought, wall tissue's important in skeletons.

所以我想，壁組織在骨骼中很重要。

It has to be part of the explanation.

它肯定也在這裡有著重要的功用。

And this was the point

而在這點上

at which my graduate adviser said,

我的導師說，

"Whoa! Hold on. Slow down."

“等等，慢點。”

Because after about six months of me talking about this,

因為在我6個月中斷斷續續的談起這個話題后，

I think he finally figured out

我想他終於明白

that I was really serious about the penis thing.

我對這個陰莖的項目是很認真的。

(Laughter)

（笑聲）

So he sat me down, and he warned me.

所以他讓我坐下，然後他提醒了我。

He was like, "Be careful going down this path.

他說，“決定這麼做之前先想清楚了。

I'm not sure this project's going to pan out."

我不確定這個項目是否會有結果。”

Because he was afraid I was walking into a trap.

因為我怕我正在走入一個圈套。

I was taking on a socially embarrassing question

我想挑戰一個在社會上尷尬的問題，

with an answer that he thought

而他覺得這個問題的答案

might not be particularly interesting.

不怎麼會有意義。

And that was because

而這時因為

every hydrostatic skeleton

到目前為止，我們

that we had found in nature up to that point

在自然中找到的每一個铃静力骨架

had the same basic elements.

都有著同樣的元素。

It had the central fluid,

它有著一個中央液體，

it had the surrounding wall,

環繞的組織壁，

and the reinforcing fibers in the wall

並且組織壁中的強化纖維

were arranged in crossed helices

都已交叉螺旋結構排列在

around the long axis of the skeleton.

骨骼的長軸上。

So the image behind me

在我身後的圖片

shows a piece of tissue

是一個當你

in one of these cross helical skeletons

切開組織并看著它的表面時

cut so that you're looking at the surface of the wall.

這種交叉螺旋骨骼組織的樣子。

The arrow shows you the long axis.

箭頭指的是長軸。

And you can see two layers of fibers,

你可以看到兩層纖維，

one in blue and one in yellow,

一個藍色一個黃色，

arranged in left-handed and right-handed angles.

以左手和右手角度排列著。

And if you weren't just looking at a little section of the fibers,

而如果你不只是看一小片纖維的切面，

those fibers would be going in helices

這些纖維會已螺旋的方式

around the long axis of the skeleton --

包圍著骨骼的長軸 --

something like a Chinese finger trap,

有點像中國指套，

where you stick your fingers in and they get stuck.

當你將手指放入時它會被卡住。

And these skeletons have a particular set of behaviors,

而這些骨骼有一套特殊的行為，

which I'm going to demonstrate in a film.

我將在以下的短片中展示它。

It's a model skeleton

這是一個

that I made out of a piece of cloth

我用一張布料纏繞著一個充氣了的氣球

that I wrapped around an inflated balloon.

做成的骨骼模型。

The cloth's cut on the bias.

布料是斜裁的。

So you can see that the fibers wrap in helices,

所以你可以看到纖維以螺旋式纏繞，

and those fibers can reorient as the skeleton moves,

而這些纖維可以在骨骼運動時重新適應，

which means the skeleton's flexible.

所以骨骼是柔韌的。

It lengthens, shortens and bends really easily

在內部或者外部的力下，

in response to internal or external forces.

它可以輕易的拉長，縮短以及彎曲。

Now my adviser's concern

而我的導師的擔憂便是

was what if the penile wall tissue

陰莖的壁組織會和

is just the same as any other hydrostatic skeleton.

其他的铃静力骨架結構 一樣。

What are you going to contribute?

你對這方面的知識可以貢獻什麽呢？

What new thing are you contributing

你對生物的知識

to our knowledge of biology?

可以貢獻什麽新的信息嗎？

And I thought, "Yeah, he does have a really good point here."

我想，“他的想法的確是對的。”

So I spent a long, long time thinking about it.

所以我花了很長很長的時間去思考這件事。

And one thing kept bothering me,

但有一件事情持續的困擾著我，

and that's, when they're functioning,

那就是，當它在運作的時候，

penises don't wiggle.

陰莖們不會擺動。

(Laughter)

（笑聲）

So something interesting had to be going on.

所以這裏面肯定有什麽有意思的事情。

So I went ahead, collected wall tissue,

所以我決定繼續，收集了壁組織，

prepared it so it was erect,

將它預備成勃起時的狀態，

sectioned it, put it on slides

橫切了它，把它放在玻璃片下

and then stuck it under the microscope to have a look,

然後放在顯微鏡下來觀察，

fully expecting to see crossed helices of collagen of some variety.

完全的指望著看到類似交叉螺旋形的膠原蛋白排列。

But instead I saw this.

但我卻看到了這個。

There's an outer layer and an inner layer.

它有著一個外層和一個內層。

The arrow shows you the long axis of the skeleton.

箭頭指出骨骼的長軸。

I was really surprised at this.

我被這驚訝到了。

Everyone I showed it

每個看到的人

was really surprised at this.

都很驚訝。

Why was everyone surprised at this?

爲什麽每個人都很訝異？

That's because we knew theoretically

那是因為我們知道另外一種

that there was another way

理論上的

of arranging fibers in a hydrostatic skeleton,

铃静力骨架的纖維排列方式，

and that was with fibers at zero degrees

那就是當纖維以和物體長軸的0度

and 90 degrees to the long axis of the structure.

和90度的角度排列。

The thing is, no one had ever seen it before in nature.

但是沒有人在自然中觀察到過這種結構。

And now I was looking at one.

而現在我正在看著它。

Those fibers in that particular orientation

這些在這種特殊的排列方向的纖維

give the skeleton a very, very different behavior.

帶給骨骼一種完全不同的行為。

I'm going to show a model

讓我來展示一個

made out of exactly the same materials.

用完全一樣的材料製作的模型。

So it'll be made of the same cotton cloth,

一樣的棉布料，

same balloon, same internal pressure.

一樣的氣球，一樣的內部壓力。

But the only difference

而唯一不同的是

is that the fibers are arranged differently.

纖維的排列方式的不同。

And you'll see that, unlike the cross helical model,

而你可以看到，不像交叉螺旋的模型，

this model resists extension and contraction

這個模型抗拒拉長，收縮，

and resists bending.

以及彎曲。

Now what that tells us

而這告訴我們

is that wall tissues are doing so much more

壁組織不僅僅是

than just covering the vascular tissues.

覆蓋著微管組織。

They're an integral part of the penile skeleton.

它們是陰莖骨骼中很重要的一部份。

If the wall around the erectile tissue wasn't there,

如果勃起組織周圍的壁組織不在，

if it wasn't reinforced in this way,

或者它是以另外一種方式加強的，

the shape would change,

它的形狀會不同，

but the inflated penis would not resist bending,

但充血的陰莖不會抗拒彎曲，

and erection simply wouldn't work.

勃起也不會成功。

It's an observation with obvious medical applications

這個觀察也對人類有著

in humans as well,

明顯的醫療運用，

but it's also relevant in a broad sense, I think,

但我覺得他們在廣義上也很重要，

to the design of prosthetics, soft robots,

比如義肢的設計，軟機器人，

basically anything

基本上所有的

where changes of shape and stiffness are important.

形狀和硬度的改變很重要的東西。

So to sum up:

所以，結論便是：

Twenty years ago,

20年前，

I had a college adviser tell me,

一個大學顧問在我

when I went to the college and said,

上大學并說，

"I'm kind of interested in anatomy,"

“我對解剖學有些感興趣，”時

they said, "Anatomy's a dead science."

對我說，“解剖學已經新的發現的需要了。”

He couldn't have been more wrong.

他不能更錯了。

I really believe that we still have a lot to learn

我真心相信我們仍然有很多

about the normal structure and function of our bodies.

關於普通結構以及我們身體的運作可以學到的東西。

Not just about its genetics and molecular biology,

不僅僅是它的基因以及分子生物學，

but up here in the meat end of the scale.

反之，在肌肉的等級。

We've got limits on our time.

我們的時間有限。

We often focus on one disease,

我們通常專注于一種疾病，

one model, one problem,

一種模型，一個問題，

but my experience suggests

但我的經驗告訴我

that we should take the time

我們應該花更多時間在

to apply ideas broadly between systems

不同的系統中廣義運用我們的想法

and just see where it takes us.

來看有什麽新的結果。

After all, if ideas about invertebrate skeletons

畢竟，如果關於無骨骨骼的想法

can give us insights

可以給我們關於

about mammalian reproductive systems,

哺乳動物生殖系統的領悟，

there could be lots of other wild and productive connections

那便可能有更多的奇怪但有用的聯繫

lurking out there just waiting to be found.

等著我們的發掘。

Thank you.

謝謝。

(Applause)

（掌聲）