Laura Snyder: The Philosophical Breakfast Club

116,548 views ใƒป 2013-04-12

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

00:00
Translator: Joseph Geni Reviewer: Morton Bast
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ืžืชืจื’ื: Shlomo Adam ืžื‘ืงืจ: Ido Dekkers
00:12
I'd like you to come back with me for a moment
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ืื ื™ ืžื‘ืงืฉืช ืžื›ื ืœื—ื–ื•ืจ ืื™ืชื™ ืœืจื’ืข
00:15
to the 19th century,
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ืœืžืื” ื”-19,
00:17
specifically to June 24, 1833.
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ื•ื‘ืคืจื˜ ืœ-24 ืœื™ื•ื ื™, 1833.
00:21
The British Association for the Advancement of Science
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ื”ืื’ื•ื“ื” ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ืช ืœืงื™ื“ื•ื ื”ืžื“ืข
00:24
is holding its third meeting at the University of Cambridge.
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ืžืงื™ื™ืžืช ืืช ื”ื›ื ืก ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™ ืฉืœื” ื‘ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืช ืงื™ื™ืžื‘ืจื™ื“ื’'.
00:28
It's the first night of the meeting,
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ื–ื”ื• ื”ืขืจื‘ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ื›ื ืก,
00:30
and a confrontation is about to take place
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ื•ืขื•ืžื“ ืœื”ืชืจื—ืฉ ื‘ื• ืขื™ืžื•ืช
00:33
that will change science forever.
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ืฉื™ืฉื ื” ืœื ืฆื— ืืช ืคื ื™ ื”ืžื“ืข.
00:37
An elderly, white-haired man stands up.
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ื’ื‘ืจ ืงืฉื™ืฉ ื‘ืขืœ ืฉื™ืขืจ ืœื‘ืŸ ื ืขืžื“ ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื•.
00:40
The members of the Association are shocked to realize
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ื—ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืื’ื•ื“ื” ื ื“ื”ืžื™ื ื‘ืจืื•ืชื
00:43
that it's the poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge,
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ืฉื–ื”ื• ื”ืžืฉื•ืจืจ ืกืžื•ืืœ ื˜ื™ื™ืœื•ืจ ืงื•ืœืจื™ื“ื’',
00:46
who hadn't even left his house in years until that day.
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ืฉื›ื‘ืจ ืฉื ื™ื ืจื‘ื•ืช ืœื ื™ืฆื ืžื‘ื™ืชื•, ืขื“ ื”ื™ื•ื,
00:51
They're even more shocked by what he says.
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ื•ื”ื ืžื–ื“ืขื–ืขื™ื ืืฃ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœืฉืžืข ื“ื‘ืจื™ื•.
00:54
"You must stop calling yourselves natural philosophers."
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"ืขืœื™ื›ื ืœื”ืคืกื™ืง ืœื›ื ื•ืช ืืช ืขืฆืžื›ื ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื˜ื‘ืข,"
01:00
Coleridge felt that true philosophers like himself
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ืœื“ืขืชื• ืฉืœ ืงื•ืœืจื™ื“ื’', ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ื ืืžื™ืชื™ื™ื ื›ื“ื•ื’ืžืชื•
01:03
pondered the cosmos from their armchairs.
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ืชื•ื”ื™ื ืขืœ ืžืฉืžืขื•ืช ื”ื™ืงื•ื ืžืŸ ื”ื›ื•ืจืกื.
01:06
They were not mucking around in the fossil pits
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ื”ื ืœื ืžื˜ื ืคื™ื ืืช ื™ื“ื™ื”ื ื‘ื—ืคื™ืจื•ืช ื”ืžืื•ื‘ื ื™ื
01:08
or conducting messy experiments with electrical piles
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ืื• ืžื ื”ืœื™ื ื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื ืžืœื•ื›ืœื›ื™ื ืขื ืขืจืžื•ืช ืฉืœ ืฆื™ื•ื“ ื—ืฉืžืœื™
01:12
like the members of the British Association.
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ื›ืžื• ื—ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืื’ื•ื“ื” ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ืช.
01:15
The crowd grew angry and began to complain loudly.
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ื”ื›ืขืก ื‘ืงื”ืœ ื’ื‘ืจ, ื•ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ื—ืœื• ืœื”ืชืœื•ื ืŸ ื‘ืงื•ืœ ืจื.
01:19
A young Cambridge scholar named William Whewell stood up
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ืžืœื•ืžื“ ืฆืขื™ืจ ืžืงื™ื™ืžื‘ืจื™ื“ื’' ื‘ืฉื ื•ื•ื™ืœื™ืื ื™ื•ืืœ ืงื ืขืœ ืจื’ืœื™ื•
01:23
and quieted the audience.
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ื•ื”ืฉืชื™ืง ืืช ื”ืงื”ืœ.
01:25
He politely agreed that an appropriate name
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ื”ื•ื ื”ืกื›ื™ื ื‘ื ื™ืžื•ืก ืฉืื›ืŸ ืœื ืงื™ื™ื ื›ื™ื ื•ื™ ื ืื•ืช
01:28
for the members of the association did not exist.
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ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื—ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืื’ื•ื“ื”.
01:31
"If 'philosophers' is taken to be too wide and lofty a term,"
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"ืื 'ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ื' ื ื—ืฉื‘ ืœืžื•ื ื— ืจื—ื‘ ื•ื ืฉื’ื‘ ื›ื–ื”,"
01:37
he said, "then, by analogy with 'artist,'
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ื”ื•ื ืืžืจ, "ืื–, ืžืชื•ืš ื”ืฉื•ื•ืื” ืœ'ืืžืŸ',
01:42
we may form 'scientist.'"
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ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืืช ื”ื›ื™ื ื•ื™ 'ืžื“ืขืŸ'".
01:46
This was the first time the word scientist
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ื–ื• ื”ื™ืชื” ื”ืคืขื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื‘ื” ื”ืžื™ืœื” "ืžื“ืขืŸ"
01:48
was uttered in public,
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ื”ื•ืฉืžืขื” ื‘ืคื•ืžื‘ื™,
01:50
only 179 years ago.
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ืจืง ืœืคื ื™ 179 ืฉื ื”.
01:54
I first found out about this confrontation when I was in graduate school,
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ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื ื•ื“ืข ืœื™ ืขืœ ื”ืขื™ืžื•ืช ื”ื–ื” ื›ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ื‘ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ื”,
01:57
and it kind of blew me away.
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ื•ื–ื” ื“ื™ ื”ื“ื”ื™ื ืื•ืชื™.
01:59
I mean, how could the word scientist
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ืื™ืš ื™ื™ืชื›ืŸ ืฉื”ืžื™ืœื” "ืžื“ืขืŸ"
02:01
not have existed until 1833?
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ืœื ื”ื™ืชื” ืงื™ื™ืžืช ืขื“ 1833?
02:05
What were scientists called before?
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ืื™ืš ื ืงืจืื• ื”ืžื“ืขื ื™ื ืœืคื ื™-ื›ืŸ?
02:07
What had changed to make a new name necessary
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ืžื” ื”ืฉืชื ื” ื•ื™ืฆืจ ืืช ื”ืฆื•ืจืš ื‘ื›ื™ื ื•ื™ ื”ื—ื“ืฉ
02:10
precisely at that moment?
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ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื‘ืื•ืชื• ืจื’ืข?
02:13
Prior to this meeting, those who studied the natural world
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ืœืคื ื™ ืื•ืชื” ืคื’ื™ืฉื”, ืืœื• ืฉื—ืงืจื• ืืช ืขื•ืœื ื”ื˜ื‘ืข
02:16
were talented amateurs.
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ื”ื™ื• ื—ื•ื‘ื‘ื ื™ื ืžื•ื›ืฉืจื™ื.
02:19
Think of the country clergyman or squire
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ื—ื™ืฉื‘ื• ืขืœ ื›ื•ืžืจ ืื• ื‘ืขืœ ืื—ื•ื–ื” ื›ืคืจื™ื™ื
02:21
collecting his beetles or fossils,
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ืฉืื•ืกืคื™ื ื—ื™ืคื•ืฉื™ื•ืช ืื• ืžืื•ื‘ื ื™ื,
02:23
like Charles Darwin, for example,
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ื›ืžื• ืฆ'ืจืœืก ื“ืจื•ื•ื™ืŸ, ืœืžืฉืœ,
02:26
or, the hired help of a nobleman, like Joseph Priestley,
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ืื• ืฉื›ื™ืจ ืฉืœ ืื™ื–ื” ืืฆื™ืœ, ืœืžืฉืœ ื’'ื•ื–ืฃ ืคืจื™ืกื˜ืœื™,
02:30
who was the literary companion
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ืฉื”ื™ื” ื”ืžืœื•ื•ื” ื”ืกืคืจื•ืชื™
02:32
to the Marquis of Lansdowne
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ืฉืœ ื”ืžืจืงื™ื– ืžืœื ื“ืกื“ืื•ืŸ
02:34
when he discovered oxygen.
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ื‘ืชืงื•ืคื” ื‘ื” ื’ื™ืœื” ืืช ื”ื—ืžืฆืŸ.
02:37
After this, they were scientists,
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ืื—ืจื™ ื”ืื™ืจื•ืข ื”ื–ื”, ื”ื ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื• "ืžื“ืขื ื™ื",
02:40
professionals with a particular scientific method,
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ืื ืฉื™ ืžืงืฆื•ืข ืขื ืฉื™ื˜ื” ืžื“ืขื™ืช ืžืฉืœื”ื,
02:44
goals, societies and funding.
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ืžื˜ืจื•ืช, ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ื•ืžื™ืžื•ืŸ.
02:48
Much of this revolution can be traced to four men
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžื”ืžื”ืคื›ื” ื”ื–ื• ืžืงื•ืจื” ื‘ืืจื‘ืขื” ื’ื‘ืจื™ื
02:51
who met at Cambridge University in 1812:
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ืฉื ืคื’ืฉื• ื‘ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืช ืงื™ื™ืžื‘ืจื™ื“ื’' ื‘-1812:
02:54
Charles Babbage, John Herschel, Richard Jones and William Whewell.
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ืฆ'ืจืœืก ื‘ืื‘ื’', ื’'ื•ื”ืŸ ื”ืจืฉืœ, ืจื™ืฆ'ืจื“ ื’'ื•ื ืก ื•-ื•ื•ื™ืœื™ืื ื™ื•ืืœ.
02:59
These were brilliant, driven men
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ืืœื” ื”ื™ื• ืื ืฉื™ื ืžื‘ืจื™ืงื™ื ื•ื ืžืจืฆื™ื
03:01
who accomplished amazing things.
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ืขื ื”ื™ืฉื’ื™ื ืžื•ืคืœืื™ื.
03:04
Charles Babbage, I think known to most TEDsters,
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ืฆ'ืจืœืก ื‘ืื‘ื’', ื”ืžื•ื›ืจ ืœื“ืขืชื™ ืœืจื•ื‘ ื—ื‘ืจื™ TED,
03:07
invented the first mechanical calculator
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ื”ืžืฆื™ื ืืช ื”ืžื—ืฉื‘ื•ืŸ ื”ืžื›ื ื™ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ
03:10
and the first prototype of a modern computer.
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ื•ืืช ื”ืื‘ื˜ื™ืคื•ืก ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืžื—ืฉื‘ ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™.
03:14
John Herschel mapped the stars of the southern hemisphere,
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ื’'ื•ื”ืŸ ื”ืจืฉืœ ืžื™ืคื” ืืช ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ื‘ื—ืฆื™ ื”ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ื“ืจื•ืžื™,
03:18
and, in his spare time, co-invented photography.
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ื•ื‘ื–ืžื ื• ื”ื—ื•ืคืฉื™ ืกื™ื™ืข ื‘ื”ืžืฆืืช ื”ืฆื™ืœื•ื.
03:23
I'm sure we could all be that productive
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ืื ื™ ื‘ื˜ื•ื—ื” ืฉื›ื•ืœื ื• ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืคื•ืจื™ื™ื ื›ืžื•ืชื,
03:25
without Facebook or Twitter to take up our time.
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ืœืœื "ืคื™ื™ืกื‘ื•ืง" ื•"ื˜ื•ื•ื™ื˜ืจ" ืฉื’ื•ื–ืœื™ื ืืช ื›ืœ ื–ืžื ื ื•.
03:28
Richard Jones became an important economist
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ืจื™ืฆ'ืจื“ ื’'ื•ื ืก ื”ืคืš ืœื›ืœื›ืœืŸ ื—ืฉื•ื‘
03:31
who later influenced Karl Marx.
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ืฉืื—"ื› ื”ืฉืคื™ืข ืขืœ ืงืจืœ ืžืจืงืก.
03:33
And Whewell not only coined the term scientist,
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ื•ื™ื•ืืœ ืœื ืจืง ื˜ื‘ืข ืืช ื”ืžื•ื ื— "ืžื“ืขืŸ",
03:37
as well as the words anode, cathode and ion,
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ื•ื’ื ืืช ื”ืžืœื™ื "ืื ื•ื“ื”", "ืงืชื•ื“ื”" ื•"ื™ื•ืŸ",
03:41
but spearheaded international big science
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ืืœื ื’ื ื”ื™ื” ื—ืœื•ืฅ ื”ืžื“ืข ื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ ื”ื ืจื—ื‘
03:44
with his global research on the tides.
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ื‘ืžื—ืงืจื• ื”ื’ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ ืขืœ ื”ื’ืื•ืช ื•ื”ืฉืคืœ ื‘ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืกื™ื.
03:47
In the Cambridge winter of 1812 and 1813,
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ื‘ื—ื•ืจืคื™ื ืฉืœ ืงื™ื™ืžื‘ืจื™ื“ื’', ื‘ืฉื ื™ื 1812 ื•-1813,
03:51
the four met for what they called philosophical breakfasts.
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ื”ืืจื‘ืขื” ื ืคื’ืฉื• ืœืžื” ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ื‘ืคื™ื”ื "ืืจื•ื—ื•ืช ื‘ื•ืงืจ ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ื•ืช".
03:55
They talked about science
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ื”ื ืฉื•ื—ื—ื• ืขืœ ืžื“ืข
03:56
and the need for a new scientific revolution.
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ื•ืขืœ ื”ืฆื•ืจืš ื‘ืžื”ืคื›ื” ืžื“ืขื™ืช ื—ื“ืฉื”.
03:59
They felt science had stagnated
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ื”ื ื—ืฉื• ืฉื”ืžื“ืข ืงื•ืคื ืขืœ ืฉืžืจื™ื•
04:01
since the days of the scientific revolution that had happened
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ืžืื– ื”ืžื”ืคื›ื” ื”ืžื“ืขื™ืช ื”ืงื•ื“ืžืช,
04:05
in the 17th century.
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ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื” ื”-17.
04:07
It was time for a new revolution,
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ื”ื’ื™ืขื” ื”ืขืช ืœืžื”ืคื›ื” ื—ื“ืฉื”,
04:09
which they pledged to bring about,
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ืฉืื•ืชื” ื”ืชื—ื™ื™ื‘ื• ืœื—ื•ืœืœ,
04:11
and what's so amazing about these guys is,
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ื•ืžื” ืฉืžื“ื”ื™ื ื›ืœ-ื›ืš ื‘ื—ื‘ื•ืจื” ื”ื–ื•,
04:14
not only did they have these
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ื–ื” ืœื ืจืง ืฉื”ื™ื• ืœื”ื
04:16
grandiose undergraduate dreams,
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ื—ืœื•ืžื•ืช ื ืขื•ืจื™ื ื’ืจื ื“ื™ื•ื–ื™ื™ื ื›ืืœื”,
04:18
but they actually carried them out,
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ืืœื ืฉื”ื ื‘ืืžืช ื”ื•ืฆื™ืื• ืื•ืชื ืœืคื•ืขืœ,
04:20
even beyond their wildest dreams.
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ื•ื”ืจื—ื™ืงื• ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœื—ืœื•ืžื•ืชื™ื”ื ื”ืคืจื•ืขื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ.
04:23
And I'm going to tell you today
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ื”ื™ื•ื ืืกืคืจ ืœื›ื
04:24
about four major changes to science these men made.
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ืขืœ 4 ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ืžืจื›ื–ื™ื™ื ืฉื”ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื—ื•ืœืœื• ื‘ืžื“ืข.
04:29
About 200 years before,
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[ืฉื™ื˜ื” ืื™ื ื“ื•ืงื˜ื™ื‘ื™ืช ืžื‘ื•ืกืกืช-ืจืื™ื•ืช] ื›-200 ืฉื ื” ืœืคื ื™ื”ื,
04:32
Francis Bacon and then, later, Isaac Newton,
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ืคืจื ืกื™ืก ื‘ื™ื™ืงื•ืŸ, ื•ืื—ืจื™ื• ืื™ื™ื–ืง ื ื™ื•ื˜ื•ืŸ,
04:35
had proposed an inductive scientific method.
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ื”ืฆื™ืขื• ืฉื™ื˜ื” ืžื“ืขื™ืช ืื™ื ื“ื•ืงื˜ื™ื‘ื™ืช.
04:38
Now that's a method that starts from
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ื–ื• ืฉื™ื˜ื” ืฉืžืชื—ื™ืœื”
04:41
observations and experiments
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ืžืชืฆืคื™ื•ืช ื•ื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื,
04:43
and moves to generalizations about nature called natural laws,
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ื•ืขื•ื‘ืจืช ืœื”ื›ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœื˜ื‘ืข, ืฉื›ื•ื ื• "ื—ื•ืงื™ ื”ื˜ื‘ืข",
04:47
which are always subject to revision or rejection
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ื•ืืœื• ืคืชื•ื—ื™ื ืชืžื™ื“ ืœืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื•ืœื“ื—ื™ื™ื”,
04:49
should new evidence arise.
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ื‘ืžื™ื“ื” ื•ืžื•ืคื™ืขื•ืช ื”ื•ื›ื—ื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช.
04:52
However, in 1809, David Ricardo muddied the waters
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘-1809 ื“ื™ื™ื•ื•ื™ื“ ืจื™ืงืจื“ื• ื”ืขื›ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืื•ื•ื™ืจื”
04:57
by arguing that the science of economics
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ื›ืฉื˜ืขืŸ ืฉืžื“ืข ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื”
05:00
should use a different, deductive method.
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ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืฉื™ื˜ื” ืฉื•ื ื”, ื“ื“ื•ืงื˜ื™ื‘ื™ืช, ืžืŸ ื”ื›ืœืœ ืืœ ื”ืคืจื˜.
05:03
The problem was that an influential group at Oxford
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ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ื™ืชื” ืฉืงื‘ื•ืฆื” ืจื‘ืช ื”ืฉืคืขื” ื‘ืื•ืงืกืคื•ืจื“
05:07
began arguing that because it worked so well in economics,
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ื”ื—ืœื” ืœื˜ืขื•ืŸ ืฉื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉื”ืฉื™ื˜ื” ืขื•ื‘ื“ืช ื˜ื•ื‘ ื›ืœ-ื›ืš ื‘ื›ืœื›ืœื”,
05:11
this deductive method ought to be applied
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ื™ืฉ ืœื™ื™ืฉื ืืช ื”ืฉื™ื˜ื” ื”ื“ื“ื•ืงื˜ื™ื‘ื™ืช
05:14
to the natural sciences too.
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ื’ื ืœืžื“ืขื™ ื”ื˜ื‘ืข.
05:16
The members of the philosophical breakfast club disagreed.
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ื—ื‘ืจื™ ืžื•ืขื“ื•ืŸ ืืจื•ื—ืช ื”ื‘ื•ืงืจ ื”ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ืช ื—ืœืงื• ืขืœ ื›ืš.
05:20
They wrote books and articles promoting inductive method
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ื”ื ื›ืชื‘ื• ืกืคืจื™ื ื•ืžืืžืจื™ื ื‘ื–ื›ื•ืช ื”ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืฉื™ื˜ื” ื”ืื™ื ื“ื•ืงื˜ื™ื‘ื™ืช
05:23
in all the sciences
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ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืžื“ืขื™ื.
05:25
that were widely read by natural philosophers,
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ื›ืชื‘ื™ื”ื ื ืงืจืื• ื‘ื”ืจื—ื‘ื” ืข"ื™ ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื˜ื‘ืข,
05:28
university students and members of the public.
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ืกื˜ื•ื“ื ื˜ื™ื ื‘ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืื•ืช ื•ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืจื—ื‘.
05:31
Reading one of Herschel's books
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ื”ืงืจื™ืื” ื‘ืื—ื“ ืžืกืคืจื™ื• ืฉืœ ื’'ื•ื”ืŸ ื”ืจืฉืœ
05:33
was such a watershed moment for Charles Darwin
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ื”ื™ืชื” ืฆื™ื•ืŸ ื“ืจืš ื›ื” ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืฆ'ืจืœืก ื“ืจื•ื•ื™ืŸ
05:36
that he would later say, "Scarcely anything in my life
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ืขื“ ืฉืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ื™ืืžืจ, "ื‘ื›ืœ ื—ื™ื™, ื›ืžืขื˜ ื•ืื™ืŸ ืžืฉื”ื•
05:40
made so deep an impression on me.
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ืฉื”ื•ืชื™ืจ ืขืœื™ ืจื•ืฉื ื›ื” ืขื–.
05:42
It made me wish to add my might
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ื–ื” ื’ืจื ืœื™ ืœืฉืื•ืฃ ืœื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ืืช ืžืฉืงืœื™
05:45
to the accumulated store of natural knowledge."
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ืœื™ื“ืข ื”ืžืฆื˜ื‘ืจ ืื•ื“ื•ืช ื”ื˜ื‘ืข."
05:48
It also shaped Darwin's scientific method,
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ื–ื” ื’ื ืขื™ืฆื‘ ืืช ืฉื™ื˜ืชื• ื”ืžื“ืขื™ืช ืฉืœ ืฆ'ืจืœืก ื“ืจื•ื•ื™ืŸ,
05:51
as well as that used by his peers.
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ื•ื’ื ืืช ื–ื• ืฉืœ ืขืžื™ืชื™ื•.
05:55
[Science for the public good]
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[ืžื“ืข ืœืžืขืŸ ื˜ื•ื‘ืช ื”ื›ืœืœ]
05:57
Previously, it was believed that scientific knowledge
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ื‘ืขื‘ืจ, ื”ืกื‘ืจื” ื”ื™ืชื” ืฉื”ื™ื“ืข ื”ืžื“ืขื™
06:00
ought to be used for the good of the king or queen,
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ืฆืจื™ืš ืœืฉืžืฉ ืœื˜ื•ื‘ืช ื”ืžืœืš ืื• ื”ืžืœื›ื”,
06:02
or for one's own personal gain.
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ืื• ืœืจื•ื•ื— ื”ืื™ืฉื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืžืฉืชืžืฉ.
06:05
For example, ship captains needed to know
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ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”, ืงื‘ืจื ื™ื˜ื™ ืกืคื™ื ื•ืช ื ื–ืงืงื• ืœืžื™ื“ืข
06:08
information about the tides in order to safely dock at ports.
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ืื•ื“ื•ืช ื”ื’ืื•ืช ื•ื”ืฉืคืœ ื›ื“ื™ ืœืขื’ื•ืŸ ื‘ื‘ื˜ื—ื” ื‘ื ืžืœื™ื.
06:12
Harbormasters would gather this knowledge
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ืžื ื”ืœื™ ื”ื ืžืœื™ื ื”ื™ื• ืื•ืกืคื™ื ืืช ื”ื™ื“ืข ืฉื‘ืจืฉื•ืชื
06:14
and sell it to the ship captains.
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ื•ืžื•ื›ืจื™ื ืื•ืชื• ืœืงื‘ืจื ื™ื˜ื™ื.
06:17
The philosophical breakfast club changed that,
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ืžื•ืขื“ื•ืŸ ืืจื•ื—ืช ื”ื‘ื•ืงืจ ื”ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ืช ืฉื™ื ื” ื–ืืช,
06:20
working together.
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ื‘ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืžืฉื•ืชืคืช.
06:21
Whewell's worldwide study of the tides
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ื”ืžื—ืงืจ ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ ืฉืœ ื™ื•ืืœ ืขืœ ื”ื’ืื•ืช ื•ื”ืฉืคืœ
06:23
resulted in public tide tables and tidal maps
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ื”ืคื™ืง ืœื›ืœืœ ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื˜ื‘ืœืื•ืช ื•ืžืคื•ืช ื’ืื•ืช ื•ืฉืคืœ
06:26
that freely provided the harbormasters' knowledge
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ืฉืกื™ืคืงื• ื—ื™ื ื ืืช ื”ื™ื“ืข ืฉืœ ืžื ื”ืœื™ ื”ื ืžืœื™ื
06:29
to all ship captains.
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ืœื›ืœ ืงื‘ืจื ื™ื˜ื™ ื”ืกืคื™ื ื•ืช.
06:32
Herschel helped by making tidal observations
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ื”ืจืฉืœ ืกื™ื™ืข ื‘ื”ื›ื ืช ืชืฆืคื™ื•ืช ื’ืื•ืช ื•ืฉืคืœ
06:34
off the coast of South Africa,
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ืžื•ืœ ื”ื—ื•ืฃ ืฉืœ ื“ืจื•ื ืืคืจื™ืงื”,
06:36
and, as he complained to Whewell,
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ื•ื›ืคื™ ืฉื”ืชืœื•ื ืŸ ื‘ืคื ื™ ื™ื•ืืœ,
06:39
he was knocked off the docks during a violent high tide for his trouble.
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ื‘ืชืžื•ืจื” ืœืขืžืœื• ื”ื•ื ื ืกื—ืฃ ืžืŸ ื”ืจืฆื™ืฃ ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื’ืื•ืช ืืœื™ืžื” ื•ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื”.
06:44
The four men really helped each other in every way.
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ืืจื‘ืขืช ื”ื’ื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ืืžืช ืขื–ืจื• ื–ื” ืœื–ื” ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืจืš.
06:47
They also relentlessly lobbied the British government
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ื”ื ื’ื ื”ืฉืชื“ืœื• ืœืœื ืœืื•ืช ืืฆืœ ืžืžืฉืœืช ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื ื™ื”
06:50
for the money to build Babbage's engines
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ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืžื™ืžื•ืŸ ืœื‘ื ื™ื™ืช ืžื ื•ืขื™ื• ืฉืœ ื‘ืื‘ื’'
06:52
because they believed these engines
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ื›ื™ ื”ืืžื™ื ื• ืฉืœืžื ื•ืขื™ื ืืœื”
06:54
would have a huge practical impact on society.
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ืชื”ื™ื” ื”ืฉืคืขื” ืžืขืฉื™ืช ืขืฆื•ืžื” ืขืœ ื”ื—ื‘ืจื”.
06:58
In the days before pocket calculators,
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ื‘ื™ืžื™ื ืฉืœืคื ื™ ืžื—ืฉื‘ื•ื ื™ ื”ื›ื™ืก,
07:01
the numbers that most professionals needed --
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ืืช ื”ืžืกืคืจื™ื ืฉืจื•ื‘ ืื ืฉื™ ื”ืžืงืฆื•ืข ื”ื–ื“ืงืงื• ืœื”ื--
07:04
bankers, insurance agents, ship captains, engineers โ€”
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ื‘ื ืงืื™ื, ืกื•ื›ื ื™ ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื—, ืงื‘ืจื ื™ื˜ื™ ืกืคื™ื ื•ืช, ืžื”ื ื“ืกื™ื--
07:08
were to be found in lookup books like this,
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ื”ื™ื” ืฆื•ืจืš ืœื—ืคืฉ ื‘ืกืคืจื™ ืžืงื•ืจื•ืช ื›ืืœื”,
07:11
filled with tables of figures.
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ืฉื”ื™ื• ืžืœืื™ื ื‘ื˜ื‘ืœืื•ืช ืžืกืคืจื™ื.
07:13
These tables were calculated
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ื˜ื‘ืœืื•ืช ืืœื” ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื•
07:16
using a fixed procedure over and over
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ืฉื•ื‘ ื•ืฉื•ื‘ ื‘ื ื•ื”ืœ ืงื‘ื•ืข
07:19
by part-time workers known as -- and this is amazing -- computers,
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ืข"ื™ ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ื‘ืžืฉืจื” ื—ืœืงื™ืช ืฉื ื•ื“ืขื• ื‘ืฉื-- ื•ื–ื” ืžื“ื”ื™ื-- ืžื—ืฉื‘ื™ื,
07:23
but these calculations were really difficult.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื—ื™ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ื”ื™ื• ืžืžืฉ ืงืฉื™ื.
07:26
I mean, this nautical almanac
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ืœืžืฉืœ, ืœื•ื— ื”ืฉื ื” ื”ื™ืžื™ ื”ื–ื”
07:28
published the lunar differences for every month of the year.
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ืคื™ืจืกื ืืช ื”ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ืžื•ืคืข ื”ื™ืจื— ื‘ื›ืœ ื—ื•ื“ืฉ ื‘ืฉื ื”.
07:32
Each month required 1,365 calculations,
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ืœื›ืœ ื—ื•ื“ืฉ ื ื“ืจืฉื• 1,365 ื—ื™ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื,
07:37
so these tables were filled with mistakes.
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ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื”ื˜ื‘ืœืื•ืช ื”ืืœื” ื”ื™ื• ืžืœืื•ืช ื‘ื˜ืขื•ื™ื•ืช.
07:40
Babbage's difference engine was the first mechanical calculator
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ืžื ื•ืข ื”ื”ืคืจืฉื™ื ืฉืœ ื‘ืื‘ื’' ื”ื™ื” ื”ืžื—ืฉื‘ื•ืŸ ื”ืžื›ื ื™ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ
07:44
devised to accurately compute any of these tables.
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ืฉื ื‘ื ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื—ืฉื‘ ื‘ืžื“ื•ื™ืง ื›ืœ ืื—ืช ืžื˜ื‘ืœืื•ืช ืืœื”.
07:48
Two models of his engine were built in the last 20 years
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ืฉื ื™ ื“ื’ืžื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžื ื•ืข ืฉืœื• ื ื‘ื ื• ื‘-20 ื”ืฉื ื” ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช
07:52
by a team from the Science Museum of London
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ืข"ื™ ืฆื•ื•ืช ืžืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื”ืžื“ืข ืฉืœ ืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ
07:54
using his own plans.
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ืœืคื™ ื”ืชื›ื ื™ื•ืช ื”ืžืงื•ืจื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื•.
07:56
This is the one now at the Computer History Museum in California,
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ื”ื“ื’ื ื”ื–ื” ื ืžืฆื ื›ืขืช ื‘ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืœื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื™ืช ื”ืžื™ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืฉื‘ืงืœื™ืคื•ืจื ื™ื”,
08:00
and it calculates accurately. It actually works.
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืžื—ืฉื‘ ื‘ืžื“ื•ื™ืง. ื”ื•ื ื‘ื”ื—ืœื˜ ืคื•ืขืœ.
08:04
Later, Babbage's analytical engine
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ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ, ื”ืžื ื•ืข ื”ืื ืœื™ื˜ื™ ืฉืœ ื‘ืื‘ื’'
08:07
was the first mechanical computer in the modern sense.
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ื”ื™ื” ื”ืžื—ืฉื‘ ื”ืžื›ื ื™ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื‘ืžื•ื‘ื ื• ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™.
08:11
It had a separate memory and central processor.
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ื”ื™ื” ืœื• ื–ื›ืจื•ืŸ ื ืคืจื“ ื•ืžืขื‘ื“ ืžืจื›ื–ื™.
08:14
It was capable of iteration, conditional branching
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ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ืžืกื•ื’ืœ ืœื‘ืฆืข ื—ื™ื–ืจื•ืจ, ืกื™ืขื•ืฃ ืžื•ืชื ื”
08:17
and parallel processing,
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ื•ืขื™ื‘ื•ื“ ืžืงื‘ื™ืœื™,
08:19
and it was programmable using punched cards,
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ื•ื”ื™ื” ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืชื›ื ื•ืช ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ื›ืจื˜ื™ืกื™ื ืžื ื•ืงื‘ื™ื,
08:22
an idea Babbage took from Jacquard's loom.
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ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื‘ืื‘ื’' ื”ืขืชื™ืง ืžื”ื ื•ืœ ืฉืœ ื–'ืงืืจื“.
08:25
Tragically, Babbage's engines never were built in his day
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ืœืžืจื‘ื” ื”ืฆืขืจ, ืืฃ ืœื ืื—ื“ ืžืžื ื•ืขื™ื• ืฉืœ ื‘ืื‘ื’' ื ื‘ื ื” ื‘ื™ืžื™ ื—ื™ื™ื•
08:29
because most people thought that
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ื›ื™ ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ื—ืฉื‘ื•
08:32
non-human computers would have no usefulness
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ืฉืœืžื—ืฉื‘ื™ื ืœื-ืื ื•ืฉื™ื™ื ืœื ื™ื”ื™ื” ืฉื•ื ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ
08:35
for the public.
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ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ืช ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืจื—ื‘.
08:36
[New scientific institutions]
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[ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ืžื“ืข ื—ื“ืฉื™ื]
08:38
Founded in Bacon's time, the Royal Society of London
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ื”ื—ื‘ืจื” ื”ืžืœื›ื•ืชื™ืช ืฉืœ ืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ, ืฉื ื•ืกื“ื” ื‘ื™ืžื™ ื‘ื™ื™ืงื•ืŸ,
08:42
was the foremost scientific society in England
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ื”ื™ืชื” ื”ืžื•ืกื“ ื”ืžื“ืขื™ ื”ืžืชืงื“ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ื”
08:45
and even in the rest of the world.
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ื•ื’ื ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื.
08:47
By the 19th century, it had become
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ืขื“ ื”ืžืื” ื”-19 ื”ื™ื ื”ืคื›ื”
08:49
a kind of gentleman's club
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ืœืžืขื™ืŸ ืžื•ืขื“ื•ืŸ ื’ื‘ืจื™ื ื™ื•ืงืจืชื™
08:51
populated mainly by antiquarians, literary men and the nobility.
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ืฉืื•ื›ืœืก ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื‘ื—ื•ืงืจื™ ืขืชื™ืงื•ืช ื•ืื ืฉื™ ืกืคืจื•ืช ื•ืืฆื•ืœื”.
08:56
The members of the philosophical breakfast club
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ื—ื‘ืจื™ ืžื•ืขื“ื•ืŸ ืืจื•ื—ืช ื”ื‘ื•ืงืจ ื”ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ืช
08:58
helped form a number of new scientific societies,
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ืกื™ื™ืขื• ืœื”ืงื™ื ืžืกืคืจ ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ืžื“ืขื™ื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช,
09:01
including the British Association.
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ื›ื•ืœืœ ื”ืื’ื•ื“ื” ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ืช.
09:04
These new societies required
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ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ืืœื” ื“ืจืฉื•
09:06
that members be active researchers publishing their results.
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ืžื—ื‘ืจื™ื”ืŸ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ืคืขื™ืœื™ื ื•ืœืคืจืกื ืืช ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื.
09:10
They reinstated the tradition of the Q&A
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ื”ื ื—ื™ื“ืฉื• ืืช ืžืกื•ืจืช ื”ืฉืืœื•ืช-ื•ืชืฉื•ื‘ื•ืช
09:12
after scientific papers were read,
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ืฉืื—ืจื™ ืงืจื™ืืช ื”ืžืืžืจื™ื ื”ืžื“ืขื™ื™ื,
09:15
which had been discontinued by the Royal Society
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ืฉืื•ืชื” ื”ืคืกื™ืงื” ื”ื—ื‘ืจื” ื”ืžืœื›ื•ืชื™ืช
09:17
as being ungentlemanly.
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ืฉืจืืชื” ื‘ื” ืžื ื”ื’ ื‘ืœืชื™-ื’'ื ื˜ืœืžื ื™.
09:20
And for the first time, they gave women a foot in the door of science.
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ื•ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื”ื ื ืชื ื• ืœื ืฉื™ื ื“ืจื™ืกืช-ืจื’ืœ ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื”ืžื“ืข.
09:25
Members were encouraged to bring their wives,
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ื”ื—ื‘ืจื™ื ื–ื›ื• ืœืขื™ื“ื•ื“ ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืืช ื ืฉื•ืชื™ื”ื,
09:27
daughters and sisters to the meetings of the British Association,
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ื‘ื ื•ืชื™ื”ื ื•ืื—ื™ื•ืชื™ื”ื ืœืžืคื’ืฉื™ ื”ืื’ื•ื“ื” ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ืช,
09:31
and while the women were expected to attend
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ื•ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื”ืฆื™ืคื™ื” ืžื”ื ืฉื™ื ื”ื™ืชื” ืœื”ืฉืชืชืฃ
09:34
only the public lectures and the social events like this one,
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ืจืง ื‘ื”ืจืฆืื•ืช ืคื•ืžื‘ื™ื•ืช ื•ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืขื™ื ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื™ื ื›ืžื• ื–ื”,
09:38
they began to infiltrate the scientific sessions as well.
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ื”ืŸ ื”ื—ืœื• ืœื”ืกืชื ืŸ ื’ื ืœืžืคื’ืฉื™ื ื”ืžื“ืขื™ื™ื.
09:42
The British Association would later be the first
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ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืชื”ื™ื” ื”ืื’ื•ื“ื” ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ืช
09:45
of the major national science organizations in the world
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ืœืืจื’ื•ืŸ ื”ืžื“ืขื™ ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื‘ืขื•ืœื
09:49
to admit women as full members.
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ืฉืžืงื‘ืœ ื ืฉื™ื ืœื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ืžืœืื”.
09:51
[External funding for science]
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[ืžื™ืžื•ืŸ ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ ืœืžื˜ืจื•ืช ืžื“ืขื™ื•ืช]
09:53
Up to the 19th century,
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ืขื“ ื”ืžืื” ื”-19,
09:54
natural philosophers were expected to pay
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ื”ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื˜ื‘ืข ื”ื™ื• ืืžื•ืจื™ื ืœืฉืœื
09:57
for their own equipment and supplies.
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ืชืžื•ืจืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื“ ื•ื”ืืกืคืงื” ืฉืœื”ื.
09:59
Occasionally, there were prizes,
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ืžื™ื“ื™ ืคืขื ื—ื•ืœืงื• ืคืจืกื™ื,
10:01
such as that given to John Harrison in the 18th century,
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ื›ืžื• ื–ื” ืฉื”ื•ืขื ืง ืœื’'ื•ืŸ ื”ืจื™ืกื•ืŸ ื‘ืžืื” ื”-18,
10:05
for solving the so-called longitude problem,
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ืขืœ ื›ืš ืฉืคืชืจ ืืช ืžื” ืฉื›ื•ื ื” "ื‘ืขื™ื™ืช ื”ืžืจื—ืง",
10:08
but prizes were only given after the fact,
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืคืจืกื™ื ื ื™ืชื ื• ืจืง ื‘ื“ื™ืขื‘ื“,
10:11
when they were given at all.
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ืื ื‘ื›ืœืœ.
10:12
On the advice of the philosophical breakfast club,
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ื‘ืขืฆืช ืžื•ืขื“ื•ืŸ ืืจื•ื—ืช ื”ื‘ื•ืงืจ ื”ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ืช,
10:15
the British Association began to use the extra money
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ื”ืื’ื•ื“ื” ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ืช ื”ื—ืœื” ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื™ืชืจืช ื”ื›ืกืฃ ืฉื ืืกืฃ
10:19
generated by its meetings to give grants
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ื‘ื›ื™ื ื•ืกื™ื ืฉืœื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœืชืช ืžืขื ืงื™ื
10:21
for research in astronomy, the tides, fossil fish,
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ืœืžื—ืงืจื™ื ื‘ืชื—ื•ืžื™ ื”ืืกื˜ืจื•ื ื•ืžื™ื”, ื”ื’ืื•ืช ื•ื”ืฉืคืœ, ื“ื’ื™ื ืžืื•ื‘ื ื™ื,
10:24
shipbuilding, and many other areas.
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ื‘ื ื™ื™ืช ืกืคื™ื ื•ืช ื•ืชื—ื•ืžื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ื ื•ืกืคื™ื.
10:27
These grants not only allowed
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ืžืขื ืงื™ื ืืœื” ืœื ืจืง ืื™ืคืฉืจื•
10:29
less wealthy men to conduct research,
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ืœืื ืฉื™ื ืขืฉื™ืจื™ื ืคื—ื•ืช ืœื ื”ืœ ืžื—ืงืจื™ื,
10:31
but they also encouraged thinking outside the box,
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ืืœื ื’ื ืขื•ื“ื“ื• ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื” ื‘ืœืชื™-ืฉื’ืจืชื™ืช,
10:34
rather than just trying to solve one pre-set question.
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ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืœื ืกื•ืช ืœืคืชื•ืจ ื‘ืขื™ื” ืžื•ื’ื“ืจืช ืื—ืช.
10:38
Eventually, the Royal Society
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ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ, ื”ื—ื‘ืจื” ื”ืžืœื›ื•ืชื™ืช
10:41
and the scientific societies of other countries followed suit,
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ื•ื”ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ื”ืžื“ืขื™ื•ืช ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช ื ื”ื’ื• ื›ืžื•ื”,
10:44
and this has become -- fortunately it's become --
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ื•ื–ื” ื”ืคืš ืœื”ื™ื•ืช-- ืœืžืจื‘ื” ื”ืžื–ืœ ื–ื” ื”ืคืš ืœื”ื™ื•ืช
10:47
a major part of the scientific landscape today.
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ื—ืœืง ืžืจื›ื–ื™ ื‘ื ื•ืฃ ื”ืžื“ืขื™ ืฉืœ ื™ืžื™ื ื•.
10:52
So the philosophical breakfast club
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ื›ืš ืฉืžื•ืขื“ื•ืŸ ืืจื•ื—ืช ื”ื‘ื•ืงืจ ื”ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ืช
10:55
helped invent the modern scientist.
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ืกื™ื™ืข ืœื”ืžืฆื™ื ืืช ื”ืžื“ืขืŸ ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™.
10:58
That's the heroic part of their story.
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ื–ื”ื• ื”ื—ืœืง ื”ื”ื™ืจื•ืื™ ืฉืœ ืกื™ืคื•ืจื.
11:01
There's a flip side as well.
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ื™ืฉ ื’ื ืฆื“ ืฉื ื™ ืœืกื™ืคื•ืจ.
11:04
They did not foresee at least one consequence
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ื”ื ืœื ื—ื–ื• ืœืคื—ื•ืช ืชื•ืฆืื” ืื—ืช
11:07
of their revolution.
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ืฉืœ ื”ืžื”ืคื›ื” ืฉืœื”ื.
11:10
They would have been deeply dismayed
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ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ืžืชืื›ื–ื‘ื™ื ืขืžื•ืงื•ืช
11:12
by today's disjunction between science and the rest of culture.
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ืœื ื•ื›ื— ื”ื ื™ืชื•ืง ื‘ื™ืžื™ื ื• ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืžื“ืข ื•ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœืœื”.
11:17
It's shocking to realize
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ืžื–ืขื–ืข ืœื”ื™ื•ื•ื›ื—
11:19
that only 28 percent of American adults
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ืฉืจืง 28% ืžื”ืžื‘ื•ื’ืจื™ื ื”ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ื™ื
11:23
have even a very basic level of science literacy,
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ื”ื ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ื‘ื ื” ืžื“ืขื™ืช ื•ืœื• ื‘ืจืžื” ื”ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ,
11:26
and this was tested by asking simple questions like,
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ื•ื–ื” ื ื‘ื“ืง ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืฉืืœื•ืช ื›ื’ื•ืŸ,
11:29
"Did humans and dinosaurs inhabit the Earth at the same time?"
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"ื”ืื ื‘ื ื™-ืื“ื ื•ื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื ื—ื™ื• ื‘ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ื‘ืื•ืชื” ืชืงื•ืคื”?"
11:33
and "What proportion of the Earth is covered in water?"
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ื•"ืื™ื–ื” ื—ืœืง ืžื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ืžื›ื•ืกื” ื‘ืžื™ื?"
11:38
Once scientists became members of a professional group,
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ืžืขืช ืฉื”ืžื“ืขื ื™ื ื”ืคื›ื• ืœื—ื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ื—ื•ื’ ืžืงืฆื•ืขื™,
11:42
they were slowly walled off from the rest of us.
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ื”ื ืื˜-ืื˜ ื”ืชื‘ืฆืจื• ื•ื”ืชื‘ื“ืœื• ืžืื™ืชื ื•.
11:45
This is the unintended consequence of the revolution
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ื–ื• ื”ืชื•ืฆืื” ื”ืœื-ืžื›ื•ื•ื ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืžื”ืคื›ื”
11:49
that started with our four friends.
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ืฉื”ื—ืœื” ืขื ืืจื‘ืขืช ื™ื“ื™ื“ื™ื ื•.
11:52
Charles Darwin said,
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ืฆ'ืจืœืก ื“ืจื•ื•ื™ืŸ ืืžืจ,
11:54
"I sometimes think that general and popular treatises
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"ืœืขืชื™ื ืื ื™ ืกื‘ื•ืจ ืฉืžืืžืจื™ื ื›ืœืœื™ื™ื ื•ืขืžืžื™ื™ื
11:58
are almost as important for the progress of science
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ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ื›ืžืขื˜ ื‘ืื•ืชื” ืžื™ื“ื” ืœื”ืชืงื“ืžื•ืช ื”ืžื“ืขื™ืช
12:01
as original work."
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ื›ืžื• ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื”ืžืงื•ืจื™ืช."
12:02
In fact, "Origin of Species" was written
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ืœืžืขืŸ ื”ืืžืช, "ืžื•ืฆื ื”ืžื™ื ื™ื" ื ื›ืชื‘
12:05
for a general and popular audience,
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ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืงื•ืจื ื”ื›ืœืœื™ ื•ื”ืขืžืžื™,
12:07
and was widely read when it first appeared.
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ื•ืจื‘ื™ื ืžืื“ ืงืจืื• ืื•ืชื• ื›ืฉื”ื•ืคื™ืข ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื”.
12:11
Darwin knew what we seem to have forgotten,
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ื“ืจื•ื•ื™ืŸ ื™ื“ืข ืืช ืžื” ืฉื›ื ืจืื” ืื ื—ื ื• ืฉื›ื—ื ื•,
12:15
that science is not only for scientists.
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ืฉื”ืžื“ืข ืœื ื ื•ืขื“ ืœืžื“ืขื ื™ื ื‘ืœื‘ื“.
12:20
Thank you.
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ืชื•ื“ื” ืœื›ื.
12:21
(Applause)
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[ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื]
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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