What a planet needs to sustain life | Dave Brain

408,401 views ใƒป 2016-09-04

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืžืชืจื’ื: hila scherba ืžื‘ืงืจ: Sigal Tifferet
00:12
I'm really glad to be here.
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ืื ื™ ืžืื•ื“ ืฉืžื— ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื›ืืŸ.
00:15
I'm glad you're here,
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ืื ื™ ืฉืžื— ืฉืืชื ื›ืืŸ,
00:16
because that would be a little weird.
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ื›ื™ ื–ื” ื™ื”ื™ื” ืงืฆืช ืžื•ื–ืจ. (ืฆื—ื•ืง)
00:19
I'm glad we're all here.
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ืื ื™ ืฉืžื— ืฉื›ื•ืœื ื• ื›ืืŸ.
00:22
And by "here," I don't mean here.
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ื•ื‘"ื›ืืŸ", ืื ื™ ืœื ืžืชื›ื•ื•ืŸ ืœื›ืืŸ.
00:26
Or here.
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ืื• ื›ืืŸ.
00:28
But here.
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ืืœื ืœื›ืืŸ.
00:29
I mean Earth.
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ืื ื™ ืžืชื›ื•ื•ืŸ ืœื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
00:31
And by "we," I don't mean those of us in this auditorium,
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ื•ื‘"ืื ื—ื ื•", ืื ื™ ืœื ืžืชื›ื•ื•ืŸ ืœืืœื• ืžืื™ืชื ื• ืฉื‘ืื•ื“ื™ื˜ื•ืจื™ื•ื,
00:35
but life,
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ืืœื ืœื—ื™ื™ื,
00:37
all life on Earth --
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ื›ืœ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ โ€“
00:38
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
00:44
from complex to single-celled,
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ืžืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื™ื ืœื—ื“-ืชืื™ื™ื,
00:46
from mold to mushrooms
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ื”ื—ืœ ื‘ืขื•ื‘ืฉ ื•ื›ืœื” ื‘ืคื˜ืจื™ื•ืช
00:48
to flying bears.
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ื•ื“ื•ื‘ื™ื ืžืขื•ืคืคื™ื.
00:50
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
00:53
The interesting thing is,
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ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ื•ื
00:55
Earth is the only place we know of that has life --
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ืฉื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ื”ื•ื ื”ืžืงื•ื ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ ืฉื™ื“ื•ืข ืฉื™ืฉ ื‘ื• ื—ื™ื™ื โ€“
00:58
8.7 million species.
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8.7 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืžื™ื ื™ื.
01:00
We've looked other places,
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ื—ื™ืคืฉื ื• ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ืื—ืจื™ื,
01:01
maybe not as hard as we should or we could,
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ืื•ืœื™ ืœื ื”ื™ื˜ื‘ ื›ืžื• ืฉื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื,
01:04
but we've looked and haven't found any;
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ืื‘ืœ ื—ื™ืคืฉื ื• ื•ืœื ืžืฆืื ื• ื›ืœืœ;
01:06
Earth is the only place we know of with life.
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ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ื”ื•ื ื”ืžืงื•ื ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžื›ื™ืจื™ื ืขื ื—ื™ื™ื.
01:09
Is Earth special?
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ื”ืื ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ืžื™ื•ื—ื“?
01:11
This is a question I've wanted to know the answer to
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ื–ื• ืฉืืœื” ืฉืขื ื™ื™ื ื” ืื•ืชื™ ืžืื– ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ื™ืœื“ ืงื˜ืŸ,
01:14
since I was a small child,
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ื•ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื“ ืฉ-80 ืื—ื•ื– ืžื”ืื•ืœื ื”ื–ื” ื—ืฉื‘ื• ืืช ืื•ืชื• ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื•ื’ื ืจืฆื• ืœื“ืขืช ืืช ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื”.
01:15
and I suspect 80 percent of this auditorium
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01:17
has thought the same thing and also wanted to know the answer.
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01:20
To understand whether there are any planets --
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื ื™ืฉ ืขื•ื“ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ ืœื›ืช โ€“ ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืฉืžืฉ ืฉืœื ื• ืื• ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœื” โ€“
01:23
out there in our solar system or beyond --
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01:25
that can support life,
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ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืงื™ื™ื ื—ื™ื™ื,
01:26
the first step is to understand what life here requires.
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ื”ืฆืขื“ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื”ื•ื ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื” ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื›ืืŸ ืžืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื.
01:30
It turns out, of all of those 8.7 million species,
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ืžืชื‘ืจืจ, ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื›ืœ 8.7 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืžื™ื ื™ื,
01:34
life only needs three things.
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ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืจืง ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ื“ื‘ืจื™ื.
01:37
On one side, all life on Earth needs energy.
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ืžืฆื“ ืื—ื“, ื›ืœ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืื ืจื’ื™ื”.
01:39
Complex life like us derives our energy from the sun,
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ื—ื™ื™ื ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื™ื ื›ืžื• ืฉืœื ื• ืžืฉื™ื’ื™ื ืืช ื”ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืžื”ืฉืžืฉ,
01:43
but life deep underground can get its energy
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ืื‘ืœ ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ืžืชืงื™ื™ืžื™ื ืขืžื•ืง ืžืชื—ืช ืœืื“ืžื”
ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืฉื™ื’ ืืช ื”ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืฉืœื”ื ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื›ืžื• ืชื’ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื›ื™ืžื™ื•ืช.
01:45
from things like chemical reactions.
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01:47
There are a number of different energy sources
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ื™ืฉ ืžืกืคืจ ืžืงื•ืจื•ืช ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉื–ืžื™ื ื™ื ืขืœ ื›ืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ ื”ืœื›ืช.
01:49
available on all planets.
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01:51
On the other side,
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ืžืฆื“ ืฉื ื™,
01:52
all life needs food or nourishment.
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ื›ืœ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืžื–ื•ืŸ ืื• ื”ื–ื ื”.
01:55
And this seems like a tall order, especially if you want a succulent tomato.
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ื•ื–ื” ื ืจืื” ื›ืžื• ื‘ืงืฉื” ืžื•ื’ื–ืžืช, ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ืื ืืชื” ืจื•ืฆื” ืขื’ื‘ื ื™ื™ื” ื‘ืฉืจื ื™ืช.
02:00
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
02:01
However, all life on Earth derives its nourishment
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ืขื ื–ืืช, ื›ืœ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ืžืคื™ืงื™ื ืืช ื”ืชื–ื•ื ื” ืฉืœื”ื
02:05
from only six chemical elements,
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ืžืฉื™ืฉื” ื™ืกื•ื“ื•ืช ื›ื™ืžื™ื™ื ื‘ืœื‘ื“,
02:07
and these elements can be found on any planetary body
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ื•ื”ื™ืกื•ื“ื•ืช ื”ืืœื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ืžืฆื ืขืœ ื›ืœ ื’ื•ืฃ ืคืœื ื˜ืจื™ ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืฉืžืฉ ืฉืœื ื•.
02:10
in our solar system.
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02:12
So that leaves the thing in the middle as the tall pole,
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ืื– ื–ื” ืžืฉืื™ืจ ืืช ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉื‘ืืžืฆืข ื›ืขืžื•ื“ ื”ื’ื‘ื•ื”,
02:15
the thing that's hardest to achieve.
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ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉื”ื›ื™ ืงืฉื” ืœื”ืฉื™ื’.
02:17
Not moose, but water.
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ืœื ืื™ื™ืœ, ืืœื ืžื™ื.
02:19
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
02:23
Although moose would be pretty cool.
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉืื™ื™ืœ ื”ื™ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื“ื™ ืžื’ื ื™ื‘.
02:25
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
02:26
And not frozen water, and not water in a gaseous state, but liquid water.
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ื•ืœื ืžื™ื ืงืคื•ืื™ื, ื•ืœื ืžื™ื ื‘ืžืฆื‘ ื’ื–, ืืœื ืžื™ื ื ื•ื–ืœื™ื™ื.
02:32
This is what life needs to survive, all life.
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ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœืฉืจื•ื“, ื›ืœ ืฆื•ืจืช ื—ื™ื™ื.
02:35
And many solar system bodies don't have liquid water,
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ื•ืœื’ื•ืคื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืฉืžืฉ ืื™ืŸ ืžื™ื ื ื•ื–ืœื™ื™ื,
02:39
and so we don't look there.
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ืื– ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ืžื—ืคืฉื™ื ืฉื.
02:40
Other solar system bodies might have abundant liquid water,
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ืœื’ื•ืคื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืฉืžืฉ ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื™ื ื ื•ื–ืœื™ื™ื ื‘ืฉืคืข,
02:43
even more than Earth,
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ืืคื™ืœื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืืฉืจ ืœื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ,
02:45
but it's trapped beneath an icy shell,
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื ืœื›ื•ื“ื™ื ืชื—ืช ืฉื›ื‘ืช ืงืจื—,
02:47
and so it's hard to access, it's hard to get to,
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ืื– ื”ื’ื™ืฉื” ืืœื™ื”ื ืงืฉื”, ืงืฉื” ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืืœื™ื”ื,
02:49
it's hard to even find out if there's any life there.
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ืงืฉื” ืืคื™ืœื• ืœื’ืœื•ืช ืื ื™ืฉ ืฉื ืื™ืœื• ืฉื”ื ื—ื™ื™ื.
02:53
So that leaves a few bodies that we should think about.
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ืื– ื–ื” ืžืฉืื™ืจ ืžืกืคืจ ื’ื•ืคื™ื ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœืงื—ืช ื‘ื—ืฉื‘ื•ืŸ.
02:56
So let's make the problem simpler for ourselves.
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ืื– ื‘ื•ืื• ื ืคืฉื˜ ืืช ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ืขืฆืžื ื•.
02:58
Let's think only about liquid water on the surface of a planet.
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ื‘ื•ืื• ื ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืจืง ืขืœ ืžื™ื ื ื•ื–ืœื™ื™ื ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื— ืฉืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื”ืœื›ืช.
03:02
There are only three bodies to think about in our solar system,
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ื™ืฉ ืจืง ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ื’ื•ืคื™ื ืœืงื—ืช ื‘ื—ืฉื‘ื•ืŸ ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืฉืžืฉ ืฉืœื ื•,
ื‘ื”ืงืฉืจ ืฉืœ ืžื™ื ื ื•ื–ืœื™ื™ื ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื”ืœื›ืช,
03:05
with regard to liquid water on the surface of a planet,
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03:07
and in order of distance from the sun, it's: Venus, Earth and Mars.
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ื•ื”ื, ืœืคื™ ืกื“ืจ ื”ืžืจื—ืง ืžื”ืฉืžืฉ: ื ื•ื’ื”, ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ื•ืžืื“ื™ื.
03:13
You want to have an atmosphere for water to be liquid.
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ืฆืจื™ืš ืฉืชื”ื™ื” ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื” ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื”ืžื™ื ื™ื”ื™ื• ื ื•ื–ืœื™ื™ื.
03:16
You have to be very careful with that atmosphere.
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ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืื•ื“ ื–ื”ื™ืจื™ื ืขื ื”ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื” ื”ื–ื•.
ืืกื•ืจ ืฉืชื”ื™ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื“ื™ ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื”, ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื” ืขื‘ื” ืžื“ื™ ืื• ื—ืžื” ืžื“ื™,
03:19
You can't have too much atmosphere, too thick or too warm an atmosphere,
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03:22
because then you end up too hot like Venus,
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ื›ื™ ืื– ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื”ื•ืคืš ืœื—ื ืžื“ื™ ื›ืžื• ื ื•ื’ื”,
03:25
and you can't have liquid water.
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ื•ืœื ืžืชืืคืฉืจ ืงื™ื•ื ืฉืœ ืžื™ื ื ื•ื–ืœื™ื™ื.
03:27
But if you have too little atmosphere and it's too thin and too cold,
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื™ืฉ ืคื—ื•ืช ืžื“ื™ ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื”, ื•ื”ื™ื ื“ืงื” ืžื“ื™ ืื• ืงืจื” ืžื“ื™,
03:31
you end up like Mars, too cold.
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ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื”ื•ืคืš ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื›ืžื• ืžืื“ื™ื, ืงืจ ืžื“ื™.
03:33
So Venus is too hot, Mars is too cold,
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ืื– ื ื•ื’ื” ื—ื ืžื“ื™, ืžืื“ื™ื ืงืจ ืžื“ื™,
03:36
and Earth is just right.
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ื•ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ื”ื•ื ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื›ืžื• ืฉืฆืจื™ืš.
03:37
You can look at these images behind me and you can see automatically
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ืืคืฉืจ ื™ืฉืจ ืœืจืื•ืช ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ืžืื—ื•ืจื™ื™
03:41
where life can survive in our solar system.
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ืื™ืคื” ื—ื™ื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืฉืจื•ื“ ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืฉืžืฉ ืฉืœื ื•.
03:44
It's a Goldilocks-type problem,
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ื–ื• ื‘ืขื™ื” ืžื”ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ "ื–ื”ื‘ื” ื•ืฉืœื•ืฉืช ื”ื“ื•ื‘ื™ื",
03:45
and it's so simple that a child could understand it.
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ื–ื” ื›ืœ ื›ืš ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืฉื™ืœื“ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืช ื–ื”.
03:49
However,
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ืขื ื–ืืช,
03:51
I'd like to remind you of two things
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ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ื–ื›ื™ืจ ืœื›ื ืฉื ื™ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื
03:54
from the Goldilocks story that we may not think about so often
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ืžื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืฉืœ ื–ื”ื‘ื”, ืฉืื•ืœื™ ืœื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืขืœื™ื”ื ื”ืจื‘ื”
03:57
but that I think are really relevant here.
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื”ื ืžืื•ื“ ืจืœื•ื•ื ื˜ื™ื ื›ืืŸ.
04:00
Number one:
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ืžืกืคืจ ืื—ื“:
04:02
if Mama Bear's bowl is too cold
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ืื ื”ืงืขืจื” ืฉืœ ืื™ืžื ื“ื•ื‘ื” ื”ื™ื ืงืจื” ืžื“ื™
04:05
when Goldilocks walks into the room,
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ื›ืฉื–ื”ื‘ื” ื ื›ื ืกืช ืœื—ื“ืจ,
04:08
does that mean it's always been too cold?
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ื”ืื ื–ื” ืื•ืžืจ ืฉื”ื™ื ืชืžื™ื“ ื”ื™ืชื” ืงืจื” ืžื“ื™?
04:11
Or could it have been just right at some other time?
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ืื• ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื‘ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื” ื”ืจืฆื•ื™ื™ื” ื‘ืื™ื–ืฉื”ื• ื–ืžืŸ ืื—ืจ?
04:15
When Goldilocks walks into the room determines the answer
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ื–ื”ื‘ื” ื ื›ื ืกืช ืœื—ื“ืจ ื•ืงื•ื‘ืขืช ืืช ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžืงื‘ืœื™ื ื‘ืกื™ืคื•ืจ.
04:19
that we get in the story.
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04:21
And the same is true with planets.
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ื•ื–ื” ื ื›ื•ืŸ ื’ื ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ ืœื›ืช.
04:22
They're not static things. They change.
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ื”ื ืœื ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืกื˜ื˜ื™ื™ื. ื”ื ืžืฉืชื ื™ื.
04:24
They vary. They evolve.
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ื”ื ืžื’ื•ื•ื ื™ื. ื”ื ืžืชืคืชื—ื™ื.
04:26
And atmospheres do the same.
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ื•ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคืจื•ืช ืžืชื ื”ื’ื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื“ื•ืžื”.
04:28
So let me give you an example.
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ืืชืŸ ืœื›ื ื“ื•ื’ืžื.
04:30
Here's one of my favorite pictures of Mars.
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ื”ื ื” ืื—ืช ื”ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืื”ื•ื‘ื•ืช ืขืœื™ ืฉืœ ืžืื“ื™ื.
04:32
It's not the highest resolution image, it's not the sexiest image,
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ืœื ื”ื›ื™ ื—ื“ื”, ืœื ื”ื›ื™ ืกืงืกื™ืช,
04:35
it's not the most recent image,
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ืœื ื”ื›ื™ ืขื“ื›ื ื™ืช,
04:37
but it's an image that shows riverbeds cut into the surface of the planet;
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื• ืชืžื•ื ื” ืฉืžืจืื” ืืคื™ืงื™ ื ื”ืจื•ืช ื”ื—ื•ืชื›ื™ื ืืช ืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื— ืฉืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื”ืœื›ืช,
04:41
riverbeds carved by flowing, liquid water;
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ืืคื™ืงื™ ื ื”ืจ ื”ื ื—ืจื˜ื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื™ื ื ื•ื–ืœื™ื™ื, ื–ื•ืจืžื™ื.
04:45
riverbeds that take hundreds or thousands or tens of thousands of years to form.
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ืืคื™ืงื™ ื ื”ืจ ืฉืœื•ืงื— ืœื”ื ืžืื•ืช ืื• ืืœืคื™ ืื• ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืืœืคื™ ืฉื ื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ื•ืฆืจ.
04:50
This can't happen on Mars today.
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ื•ื–ื” ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืชืจื—ืฉ ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื ื›ื™ื•ื.
04:52
The atmosphere of Mars today is too thin and too cold
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ื”ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื” ืฉืœ ืžืื“ื™ื ื›ื™ื•ื ื”ื™ื ื“ืงื” ืžื“ื™ ื•ืงืจื” ืžื“ื™
04:54
for water to be stable as a liquid.
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ื‘ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื”ืžื™ื ื™ื”ื™ื• ื™ืฆื™ื‘ื™ื ื›ื ื•ื–ืœ.
04:56
This one image tells you that the atmosphere of Mars changed,
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ื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ื”ืื—ืช ื”ื–ื• ืื•ืžืจืช ืœื›ื ืฉื”ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคืจื” ืฉืœ ืžืื“ื™ื ื”ืฉืชื ืชื”,
05:01
and it changed in big ways.
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ื•ื”ื™ื ื”ืฉืชื ืชื” ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ืช.
05:03
And it changed from a state that we would define as habitable,
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ื•ื”ื™ื ื”ืฉืชื ืชื” ืžืžืฆื‘ ืฉื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืžื’ื“ื™ืจื™ื ื›ืจืื•ื™ ืœืžื’ื•ืจื™ื,
05:08
because the three requirements for life were present long ago.
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ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืฉืœื•ืฉ ื”ื“ืจื™ืฉื•ืช ืœื—ื™ื™ื ื”ื™ื• ืงื™ื™ืžื•ืช ืœืคื ื™ ื–ืžืŸ ืจื‘.
05:13
Where did that atmosphere go
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ืื™ืคื” ื”ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคืจื” ื”ื–ื•
05:15
that allowed water to be liquid at the surface?
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ืฉืื™ืคืฉืจื” ืœืžื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื ื•ื–ืœื™ื™ื ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื—?
05:17
Well, one idea is it escaped away to space.
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ื”ืฉืขืจื” ืื—ืช ื”ื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื ื‘ืจื—ื” ื”ื—ื•ืฆื” ืœื—ืœืœ.
05:21
Atmospheric particles got enough energy to break free
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ื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ื ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคืจื™ื™ื ืงื™ื‘ืœื• ืžืกืคื™ืง ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืฉืชื—ืจืจ
05:24
from the gravity of the planet,
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ืžื›ื•ื— ื”ืžืฉื™ื›ื” ืฉืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื”ืœื›ืช,
05:25
escaping away to space, never to return.
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ื‘ืจื—ื• ื”ื—ื•ืฆื” ืœื—ืœืœ, ื•ืœืขื•ืœื ืœื ื—ื–ืจื•.
05:28
And this happens with all bodies with atmospheres.
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ื•ื–ื” ืงื•ืจื” ืขื ื›ืœ ื’ื•ืฃ ื‘ืขืœ ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคืจื”.
05:31
Comets have tails
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ืœื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ ืฉื‘ื™ื˜ ื™ืฉ ื–ื ื‘ื•ืช
05:32
that are incredibly visible reminders of atmospheric escape.
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ืฉื”ื ืชื–ื›ื•ืจืช ืžืื•ื“ ื‘ื•ืœื˜ืช ืœืชื”ืœื™ืš ื‘ืจื™ื—ื” ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคืจื™ืช.
05:35
But Venus also has an atmosphere that escapes with time,
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ืื‘ืœ ืœื ื•ื’ื” ื’ื ื™ืฉ ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคืจื” ืฉื‘ื•ืจื—ืช ืขื ื”ื–ืžืŸ,
05:39
and Mars and Earth as well.
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ื•ื›ืŸ ื’ื ืœืžืื“ื™ื ื•ืœื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
05:40
It's just a matter of degree and a matter of scale.
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ื–ื” ืจืง ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืฉืœ ืžื™ื“ื” ื•ืฉืœ ืงื ื” ืžื™ื“ื”.
05:44
So we'd like to figure out how much escaped over time
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ืื– ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ื›ืžื” ื—ื•ืžืจ ื‘ืจื— ืœืื•ืจืš ื”ื–ืžืŸ
05:46
so we can explain this transition.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื”ื–ื”.
05:48
How do atmospheres get their energy for escape?
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ืื™ืš ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคืจื•ืช ืžืงื‘ืœื•ืช ืืช ื”ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืฉืœื”ื ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ื”ื‘ืจื™ื—ื”?
05:51
How do particles get enough energy to escape?
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ืื™ืš ื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ื ืžืงื‘ืœื™ื ืžืกืคื™ืง ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื‘ืจื•ื—?
05:53
There are two ways, if we're going to reduce things a little bit.
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ื™ืฉ ืฉืชื™ ื“ืจื›ื™ื, ืื ื ืคืฉื˜ ืงืฆืช.
05:56
Number one, sunlight.
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ื“ืจืš ืจืืฉื•ื ื”, ืื•ืจ ื”ืฉืžืฉ.
05:58
Light emitted from the sun can be absorbed by atmospheric particles
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ืื•ืจ ืฉื ืคืœื˜ ืžื”ืฉืžืฉ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ืกืคื’ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ื ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคืจื™ื™ื
06:01
and warm the particles.
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ื•ืœื—ืžื ืืช ื”ื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ื.
06:03
Yes, I'm dancing, but they --
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ื›ืŸ, ืื ื™ ืจื•ืงื“, ืื‘ืœ ื”ื โ€“
06:05
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
06:07
Oh my God, not even at my wedding.
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ืืœื•ื”ื™ื ื™ืฉืžื•ืจ, ืืคื™ืœื• ืœื ื‘ื—ืชื•ื ื” ืฉืœื™.
06:09
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
06:11
They get enough energy to escape and break free
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ื”ื ืžืงื‘ืœื™ื ืžืกืคื™ืง ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื‘ืจื•ื— ื•ืœื”ืฉืชื—ืจืจ
06:14
from the gravity of the planet just by warming.
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ืžื›ื— ื”ืžืฉื™ื›ื” ืฉืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื”ืœื›ืช ืขืด ื”ืชื—ืžืžื•ืช ื‘ืœื‘ื“.
06:16
A second way they can get energy is from the solar wind.
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ื“ืจืš ื ื•ืกืคืช ืฉื”ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืงื‘ืœ ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ื”ื™ื ืžืจื•ื— ืกื•ืœืจื™ืช.
06:19
These are particles, mass, material, spit out from the surface of the sun,
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ืืœื• ื”ื ื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ื, ืžืกื”, ื—ื•ืžืจ, ืฉื ืคืœื˜ื• ืžืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื— ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืžืฉ,
06:24
and they go screaming through the solar system
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ื•ื”ื ื˜ืกื™ื ื“ืจืš ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืฉืžืฉ ืฉืœื ื•
06:27
at 400 kilometers per second,
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ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ 400 ืงื™ืœื•ืžื˜ืจ ืœืฉื ื™ื”,
06:29
sometimes faster during solar storms,
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ืœืคืขืžื™ื ืžื”ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืกื•ืคื•ืช ืกื•ืœืจื™ื•ืช,
06:31
and they go hurtling through interplanetary space
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ื•ื”ื ืžืคืœืกื™ื ื“ืจื›ื ื“ืจืš ื—ืœืœ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™
06:34
towards planets and their atmospheres,
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ืœื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ ืœื›ืช ื•ื”ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคืจื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื,
06:37
and they may provide energy
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ื•ื™ื™ืชื›ืŸ ื•ื”ื ืžืกืคืงื™ื ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืœื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคืจื” ืœื‘ืจื•ื—, ื’ื ื›ืŸ.
06:38
for atmospheric particles to escape as well.
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06:41
This is something that I'm interested in,
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ื–ื” ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉืื ื™ ืžืชืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ื•,
ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ืžืชืงืฉืจ ืœืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ืจืื•ื™ื” ืœื—ื™ื™ื.
06:43
because it relates to habitability.
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06:45
I mentioned that there were two things about the Goldilocks story
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ืื– ืฆื™ื™ื ืชื™ ืฉื™ืฉ ืฉื ื™ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืฉืœ ื–ื”ื‘ื” ื•ืฉืœื•ืฉืช ื”ื“ื•ื‘ื™ื
06:48
that I wanted to bring to your attention and remind you about,
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ืฉืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืชืฉื•ืžืช ืœื‘ื›ื ื•ืœื”ื–ื›ื™ืจ ืœื›ื ืื•ืชื,
ื•ื”ืฉื ื™ ื”ื•ื ืงืฆืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืชื•ื—ื›ื.
06:51
and the second one is a little bit more subtle.
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06:53
If Papa Bear's bowl is too hot,
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ืื ื”ืฆืœื—ืช ืฉืœ ืื‘ื ื“ื•ื‘ ื”ื™ื ื—ืžื” ืžื“ื™,
06:58
and Mama Bear's bowl is too cold,
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ื•ื”ืฆืœื—ืช ืฉืœ ืื™ืžื ื“ื•ื‘ ื”ื™ื ืงืจื” ืžื“ื™,
07:03
shouldn't Baby Bear's bowl be even colder
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ื”ืื ื”ืฆืœื—ืช ืฉืœ ื™ืœื“ ื“ื•ื‘ ืœื ืฆืจื™ื›ื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืืคื™ืœื• ืงืจื” ื™ื•ืชืจ
07:07
if we're following the trend?
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ืื ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืžืฉื™ื›ื™ื ืืช ื”ืžื’ืžื”?
07:10
This thing that you've accepted your entire life,
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ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉื”ืกื›ืžืชื ืื™ืชื• ื›ืœ ื—ื™ื™ื›ื,
07:12
when you think about it a little bit more, may not be so simple.
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ืื•ืœื™ ืื™ื ื• ื›ื” ืคืฉื•ื˜, ื›ืฉื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืขืœื™ื• ืขื•ื“ ืงืฆืช.
07:16
And of course, distance of a planet from the sun determines its temperature.
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ื•ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ, ืžืจื—ืง ืฉืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ืœื›ืช ืžื”ืฉืžืฉ ืงื•ื‘ืข ืืช ื”ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื” ืฉืœื•:
07:20
This has to play into habitability.
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ื–ื” ื—ื™ื™ื‘ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืงืฉื•ืจ ืœืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ืจืื•ื™ื” ืœื—ื™ื™ื.
07:22
But maybe there are other things we should be thinking about.
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ืื‘ืœ ืื•ืœื™ ื™ืฉ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœืงื—ืช ื‘ื—ืฉื‘ื•ืŸ.
07:25
Maybe it's the bowls themselves
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ืื•ืœื™ ืืœื• ื”ืงืขืจื•ืช ืขืฆืžืŸ
07:27
that are also helping to determine the outcome in the story,
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ืฉื’ื ืขื•ื–ืจื•ืช ืœืงื‘ื•ืข ืืช ื”ืชื•ืฆืื” ื‘ืกื™ืคื•ืจ,
07:30
what is just right.
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ืžื” ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืžืชืื™ื.
07:32
I could talk to you about a lot of different characteristics
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ืื– ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืืชื›ื ืขืœ ืžืืคื™ื™ื ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ืฉืœ ืฉืœื•ืฉืช ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ ื”ืœื›ืช ื”ืืœื•
07:35
of these three planets
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07:36
that may influence habitability,
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ืฉืื•ืœื™ ื™ืฉืคื™ืขื• ืขืœ ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ืจืื•ื™ื” ืœื—ื™ื™ื.
07:38
but for selfish reasons related to my own research
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ืื‘ืœ ืขืงื‘ ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ืื ื•ื›ื™ื•ืช ื”ืงืฉื•ืจื•ืช ืœืžื—ืงืจ ืฉืœื™
07:41
and the fact that I'm standing up here holding the clicker and you're not --
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ื•ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ืฉืื ื™ ืขื•ืžื“ ื›ืืŸ ื•ืžื—ื–ื™ืง ืืช ื”ืฉืœื˜ ื•ืืชื ืœื โ€“
07:44
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
07:45
I would like to talk for just a minute or two
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ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืจืง ืœื“ืงื” ืื• ืฉืชื™ื™ื
07:47
about magnetic fields.
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ืขืœ ืฉื“ื•ืช ืžื’ื ื˜ื™ื™ื.
07:49
Earth has one; Venus and Mars do not.
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ืœื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉ ืฉื“ื” ื›ื–ื”; ืœื ื•ื’ื” ื•ืžืื“ื™ื ืื™ืŸ.
07:52
Magnetic fields are generated in the deep interior of a planet
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ืฉื“ื•ืช ืžื’ื ื˜ื™ื™ื ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื ื‘ื—ืœืงื• ื”ืคื ื™ืžื™ ื”ืขืžื•ืง ืฉืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ืœื›ืช
07:55
by electrically conducting churning fluid material
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ื•ืœื›ื” ื—ืฉืžืœื™ืช ืฉืœ ื—ื•ืžืจ ื ื•ื–ืœื™ ืชื•ืกืก
07:59
that creates this big old magnetic field that surrounds Earth.
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ืฉื™ื•ืฆืจ ืฉื“ื” ืžื’ื ื˜ื™ ืขื ืง ืฉืžืงื™ืฃ ืืช ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
08:02
If you have a compass, you know which way north is.
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ืื ื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ืžืฆืคืŸ, ืืชื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ื‘ืื™ื–ื” ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื ืžืฆื ื”ืฆืคื•ืŸ.
08:05
Venus and Mars don't have that.
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ืœื ื•ื’ื” ื•ืœืžืื“ื™ื ืื™ืŸ ืืช ื–ื”.
08:06
If you have a compass on Venus and Mars,
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ืื ื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ืžืฆืคืŸ ืขืœ ื ื•ื’ื” ืื• ืžืื“ื™ื, ืžื–ืœ ื˜ื•ื‘, ืืชื ืื‘ื•ื“ื™ื.
08:08
congratulations, you're lost.
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08:09
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
08:11
Does this influence habitability?
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ื”ืื ื–ื” ืžืฉืคื™ืข ืขืœ ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ืจืื•ื™ื” ืœื—ื™ื™ื?
08:15
Well, how might it?
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืื™ืš ื–ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืฉืคื™ืข?
08:17
Many scientists think that a magnetic field of a planet
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ืžื“ืขื ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉืฉื“ื” ืžื’ื ื˜ื™ ืฉืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ืœื›ืช
08:19
serves as a shield for the atmosphere,
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ืžืฉืžืฉ ื›ืžื’ืŸ ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคืจื”,
08:22
deflecting solar wind particles around the planet
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ืžืกื™ื˜ ื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ ืจื•ื— ืกื•ืœืจื™ืช ืžืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืœื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื”ืœื›ืช
08:25
in a bit of a force field-type effect
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ืงืฆืช ื›ืžื• ื”ืฉืคืขื” ืฉืœ ืฉื“ื” ื›ื—
08:27
having to do with electric charge of those particles.
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ืฉืงืฉื•ืจื” ืœืžื˜ืขืŸ ื—ืฉืžืœื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ื ื”ืืœื•.
08:30
I like to think of it instead as a salad bar sneeze guard for planets.
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ืื ื™ ืžื“ืžื” ืืช ื–ื” ืœื“ื•ื›ืŸ ืกืœื˜ื™ื ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ ืœื›ืช ืœื”ื’ื ื” ืžืคื ื™ ื”ืชืขื˜ืฉื•ื™ื•ืช.
08:34
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
08:36
And yes, my colleagues who watch this later will realize
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ื•ื›ืŸ, ื”ืขืžื™ืชื™ื ืฉืœื™ ืฉื™ืฆืคื• ื‘ื–ื” ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ื™ื‘ื™ื ื•
08:40
this is the first time in the history of our community
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ืฉื–ื• ื”ืคืขื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื‘ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืงื”ื™ืœื” ืฉืœื ื•
08:42
that the solar wind has been equated with mucus.
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ืฉื”ืฉื•ื• ืจื•ื— ืกื•ืœืจื™ืช ืœืœื™ื—ื”.
08:45
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
08:48
OK, so the effect, then, is that Earth may have been protected
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ืื– ื”ื”ืฉืคืขื”, ืื ื›ืŸ, ื”ื™ื ืฉื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ืื•ืœื™ ื”ื™ื” ืžื•ื’ืŸ
08:52
for billions of years,
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ื‘ืžืฉืš ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ื™ ืฉื ื™ื,
08:53
because we've had a magnetic field.
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ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื™ื” ืœื ื• ืฉื“ื” ืžื’ื ื˜ื™.
08:55
Atmosphere hasn't been able to escape.
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ื”ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคืจื” ืœื ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื‘ืจื•ื—.
08:57
Mars, on the other hand, has been unprotected
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ืžืื“ื™ื, ืžืฆื“ ืฉื ื™, ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืžื•ื’ืŸ
08:59
because of its lack of magnetic field,
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ืžืฉื•ื ืฉืœื ื”ื™ื” ืœื• ืฉื“ื” ืžื’ื ื˜ื™,
09:01
and over billions of years,
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ื•ืœืžืฉืš ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ื™ ืฉื ื™ื,
09:03
maybe enough atmosphere has been stripped away
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ืื•ืœื™ ืžืกืคื™ืง ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคืจื” ื”ื•ืคืฉื˜ื” ืžืžื ื•
09:05
to account for a transition from a habitable planet
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ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœืžืขื‘ืจ ืžื›ื•ื›ื‘ ืœื›ืช ืจืื•ื™ ืœื—ื™ื™ื
09:08
to the planet that we see today.
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ืœื›ื•ื›ื‘ ืœื›ืช ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ื”ื™ื•ื.
09:11
Other scientists think that magnetic fields
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ืžื“ืขื ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉืฉื“ื•ืช ืžื’ื ื˜ื™ื™ื
09:14
may act more like the sails on a ship,
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ืื•ืœื™ ืžืชื ื”ื’ื™ื ื›ืžื• ืžืคืจืฉื™ื ืฉืœ ืกื™ืจื”,
09:16
enabling the planet to interact with more energy from the solar wind
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ื•ืžืืคืฉืจื™ื ืœื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื”ืœื›ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ืฉืคืข ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื”ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืจื•ื— ื”ืกื•ืœืจื™ืช
09:22
than the planet would have been able to interact with by itself.
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ืžืืฉืจ ื”ื™ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ืฉืคืข ืœื•ืœื ืฉื“ื•ืช ืืœื”.
09:25
The sails may gather energy from the solar wind.
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ื”ืžืคืจืฉื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืืกื•ืฃ ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืžื”ืจื•ื— ื”ืกื•ืœืจื™ืช.
09:27
The magnetic field may gather energy from the solar wind
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ื”ืฉื“ื” ื”ืžื’ื ื˜ื™ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืืกื•ืฃ ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืžื”ืจื•ื— ื”ืกื•ืœืจื™ืช
09:30
that allows even more atmospheric escape to happen.
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ืฉืžืืคืฉืจืช ืœืขื•ื“ ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืจื™ื—ื” ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคืจื™ืช ืœื”ืชืจื—ืฉ.
09:33
It's an idea that has to be tested,
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ื–ื” ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืฆืจื™ืš ืœื‘ื—ื•ืŸ ืื•ืชื•,
09:36
but the effect and how it works
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื”ืฉืคืขื” ื•ืื™ืš ื–ื” ืขื•ื‘ื“ ื ืจืื™ื ื‘ืจื•ืจื™ื.
09:37
seems apparent.
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09:39
That's because we know
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ื–ื” ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืฉืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืžื”ืจื•ื— ื”ืกื•ืœืจื™ืช
09:40
energy from the solar wind is being deposited into our atmosphere
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ืžื•ืฉืงืขืช ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคืจื” ื›ืืŸ ื‘ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
09:43
here on Earth.
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ื”ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ื”ื–ื• ืžื•ื‘ืœืช ืœืื•ืจืš ืงื•ื•ื™ ื”ืฉื“ื” ื”ืžื’ื ื˜ื™ ื•ื™ื•ืจื“ืช ืœืชื•ืš ืื™ื–ื•ืจื™ ื”ืงื˜ื‘ื™ื,
09:44
That energy is conducted along magnetic field lines
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09:47
down into the polar regions,
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09:48
resulting in incredibly beautiful aurora.
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ื•ื‘ืื” ืœื™ื“ื™ ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ ื‘ื–ื•ื”ืจ ื”ืงื•ื˜ื‘ ื”ืžื“ื”ื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืคื™ื•.
09:50
If you've ever experienced them, it's magnificent.
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ืื ืื™ ืคืขื ื—ื•ื•ื™ืชื ืืช ื–ื”, ื–ื” ืžื“ื”ื™ื.
09:53
We know the energy is getting in.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืฉื”ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ื ื›ื ืกืช ืคื ื™ืžื”.
09:55
We're trying to measure how many particles are getting out
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื ืกื™ื ืœืžื“ื•ื“ ื›ืžื” ื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ื ื™ื•ืฆืื™ื ื”ื—ื•ืฆื”
09:58
and if the magnetic field is influencing this in any way.
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ื•ืื ื”ืฉื“ื” ื”ืžื’ื ื˜ื™ ืžืฉืคื™ืข ืขืœ ื–ื” ื‘ืื™ื–ืฉื”ื• ืื•ืคืŸ.
10:02
So I've posed a problem for you here,
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ืื– ื”ืฆื’ืชื™ ื›ืืŸ ื‘ืขื™ื” ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœื›ื,
10:05
but I don't have a solution yet.
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ืื‘ืœ ืื™ืŸ ืœื™ ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืคื™ืชืจื•ืŸ.
10:06
We don't have a solution.
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ืื™ืŸ ืœื ื• ืคื™ืชืจื•ืŸ.
10:08
But we're working on it. How are we working on it?
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ืขืœ ื–ื”. ืื™ืš ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ืขืœ ื–ื”?
10:11
Well, we've sent spacecraft to all three planets.
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืฉืœื—ื ื• ืจื›ื‘ื™ ื—ืœืœ ืœื›ืœ ืฉืœื•ืฉืช ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ ื”ืœื›ืช.
10:13
Some of them are orbiting now,
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ื—ืœืงื ื›ื‘ืจ ื—ื’ื™ื ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื ืขื›ืฉื™ื•,
10:14
including the MAVEN spacecraft which is currently orbiting Mars,
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ื›ื•ืœืœ ื—ืœืœื™ืช ื”-MAVEN ืฉื—ื’ื” ื›ืจื’ืข ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืžืื“ื™ื,
10:18
which I'm involved with and which is led here,
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ื•ืื ื™ ืžืขื•ืจื‘ ื‘ืคืจื•ื™ืงื˜ ื”ื–ื” ืฉืžื ื•ื”ืœ ื›ืืŸ, ืขืดื™ ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืช ืงื•ืœื•ืจื“ื•.
10:21
out of the University of Colorado.
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10:23
It's designed to measure atmospheric escape.
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ื”ื•ื ืžืชื•ื›ื ืŸ ืœืžื“ื•ื“ ื‘ืจื™ื—ื” ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคืจื™ืช.
10:26
We have similar measurements from Venus and Earth.
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ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืžื“ื™ื“ื•ืช ื“ื•ืžื•ืช ืžื ื•ื’ื” ื•ืžื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
10:28
Once we have all our measurements,
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ื‘ืจื’ืข ืฉื™ื”ื™ื• ืœื ื• ื›ืœ ื”ืžื“ื™ื“ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื•,
10:30
we can combine all these together, and we can understand
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ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืฉืœื‘ ืืช ื›ื•ืœื ื™ื—ื“,
ื•ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื” ื˜ื™ื‘ ื™ื—ืกื™ ื”ื’ื•ืžืœื™ืŸ ืฉืœ ืฉืœื•ืฉืช ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ ื”ืœื›ืช ืขื ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ื”ื—ืœืœื™ืช ืฉืœื”ื,
10:33
how all three planets interact with their space environment,
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10:36
with the surroundings.
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ืขื ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ืฉืœื”ื.
10:38
And we can decide whether magnetic fields are important for habitability
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ื•ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ืื ืฉื“ื•ืช ืžื’ื ื˜ื™ื™ื ื”ื ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ืœืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ืจืื•ื™ื” ืœื—ื™ื™ื
10:41
or not.
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ืื• ืœื.
10:42
Once we have that answer, why should you care?
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ื‘ืจื’ืข ืฉืชื”ื™ื” ืœื ื• ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื”ื–ื•, ืœืžื” ืฉื™ื”ื™ื” ืœื›ื ืื›ืคืช?
10:45
I mean, I care deeply ...
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ืœื™ ืื›ืคืช ืขืžื•ืงื•ืช...
10:48
And financially as well, but deeply.
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ื•ื›ืœื›ืœื™ืช ื’ื, ืื‘ืœ ืขืžื•ืงื•ืช.
10:50
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
10:52
First of all, an answer to this question
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ืงื•ื“ื ื›ืœ, ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืœืฉืืœื” ื”ื–ื• ืชืœืžื“ ืื•ืชื ื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขืœ ืฉืœื•ืฉืช ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ ื”ืœื›ืช ื”ืืœื•,
10:54
will teach us more about these three planets,
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10:56
Venus, Earth and Mars,
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ื ื•ื’ื”, ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ื•ืžืื“ื™ื,
ืœื ืจืง ืขืœ ื˜ื™ื‘ ื™ื—ืกื™ ื”ื’ื•ืžืœื™ืŸ ืขื ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ืฉืœื”ื ื›ื™ื•ื,
10:58
not only about how they interact with their environment today,
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11:00
but how they were billions of years ago,
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ืืœื ืขืœ ืื™ืš ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ืœืคื ื™ ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ื™ ืฉื ื™ื,
11:02
whether they were habitable long ago or not.
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ื”ืื ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ืจืื•ื™ื™ื ืœืžื’ื•ืจื™ื ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืจื‘ื” ื–ืžืŸ ืื• ืœื.
11:04
It will teach us about atmospheres
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ื–ื” ื™ืœืžื“ ืื•ืชื ื• ืขืœ ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคืจื•ืช
11:06
that surround us and that are close.
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ืืœื” ื”ืžืงื™ืคื•ืช ืื•ืชื ื• ื•ืืœื” ื”ืงืจื•ื‘ื•ืช ืืœื™ื ื•.
11:09
But moreover, what we learn from these planets
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ืื‘ืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื–ื”, ืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื ืœืžื“ ืžื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ ื”ืœื›ืช ื”ืืœื•
11:11
can be applied to atmospheres everywhere,
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ื™ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื™ื•ืฉื ืขืœ ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคืจื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ืžืงื•ื,
11:14
including planets that we're now observing around other stars.
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ื›ื•ืœืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ ืœื›ืช ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืฆื•ืคื™ื ื‘ื”ื ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื.
11:17
For example, the Kepler spacecraft,
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ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื, ืจื›ื‘ ื”ื—ืœืœ ืงืคืœืจ,
11:19
which is built and controlled here in Boulder,
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ืฉื ื‘ื ื” ื•ื ืฉืœื˜ ืžื›ืืŸ ื‘ื‘ื•ืœื“ืจ,
11:22
has been observing a postage stamp-sized region of the sky
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ื”ืฆื•ืคื” ื‘ืื™ื–ื•ืจ ื‘ื’ื•ื“ืœ ืฉืœ ื‘ื•ืœ ื“ื•ืืจ ื‘ืฉืžื™ื™ื,
11:25
for a couple years now,
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ื›ื‘ืจ ืฉื ืชื™ื™ื,
11:27
and it's found thousands of planets --
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืžืฆื ืืœืคื™ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ ืœื›ืช โ€“
11:29
in one postage stamp-sized region of the sky
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ื‘ืื™ื–ื•ืจ ื‘ื’ื•ื“ืœ ืฉืœ ื‘ื•ืœ ื“ื•ืืจ ื‘ืฉืžื™ื™ื
11:32
that we don't think is any different from any other part of the sky.
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ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉื”ื•ื ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื›ืœ ื—ืœืง ืื—ืจ ื‘ืฉืžื™ื™ื.
11:36
We've gone, in 20 years,
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ื‘ืชื•ืš 20 ื”ืฉื ื™ื,
11:38
from knowing of zero planets outside of our solar system,
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ืขื‘ืจื ื• ืžืœื“ืขืช ืขืœ ืืคืก ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ ืœื›ืช ืžื—ื•ืฅ ืœืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืฉืžืฉ ืฉืœื ื•,
11:42
to now having so many,
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ืœืœื“ืขืช ืขืœ ื›ืœ ื›ืš ื”ืจื‘ื”,
11:44
that we don't know which ones to investigate first.
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ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืื™ืœื• ืžื”ื ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ืงื•ื“ื.
11:49
Any lever will help.
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ื›ืœ ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื™ืขื–ื•ืจ.
11:52
In fact, based on observations that Kepler's taken
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ืขืœ ื‘ืกื™ืก ืชืฆืคื™ื•ืช ืฉืงืคืœืจ ืœืงื—
11:56
and other similar observations,
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ื•ืชืฆืคื™ื•ืช ื“ื•ืžื•ืช ื ื•ืกืคื•ืช,
11:58
we now believe that,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืžืืžื™ื ื™ื
11:59
of the 200 billion stars in the Milky Way galaxy alone,
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ืฉืžืชื•ืš 200 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ื‘ื’ืœืงืกื™ื™ืช ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ื”ื—ืœื‘ ื‘ืœื‘ื“,
12:04
on average, every star has at least one planet.
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ื‘ืžืžื•ืฆืข, ืœื›ืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื™ืฉ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ืœื›ืช ืื—ื“ ืœืคื—ื•ืช.
12:10
In addition to that,
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ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ,
12:12
estimates suggest there are somewhere between 40 billion and 100 billion
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ืื ื• ืžืขืจื™ื›ื™ื ืฉื‘ื™ืŸ 40 ืœ-100 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“
12:18
of those planets that we would define as habitable
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ืžืชื•ืš ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ ื”ืœื›ืช ื”ืœืœื• ื™ื•ื’ื“ืจื• ื›ืจืื•ื™ื™ื ืœื—ื™ื™ื,
12:23
in just our galaxy.
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ืจืง ื‘ื’ืœืงืกื™ื” ืฉืœื ื•.
12:26
We have the observations of those planets,
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ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืืช ื”ืชืฆืคื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ ื”ืœื›ืช ื”ืืœื•,
12:28
but we just don't know which ones are habitable yet.
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื—ื ื• ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืื™ืœื• ืžื”ื ืจืื•ื™ื™ื ืœืžื’ื•ืจื™ื.
ื–ื” ื›ืžื• ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื›ืœื•ื ื‘ื ืงื•ื“ื” ืื“ื•ืžื” โ€“
12:31
It's a little bit like being trapped on a red spot --
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12:34
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
12:35
on a stage
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ืขืœ ื‘ืžื”
12:38
and knowing that there are other worlds out there
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ื•ืœื“ืขืช ืฉื™ืฉ ืขื•ืœืžื•ืช ืื—ืจื™ื ืฉื ื‘ื—ื•ืฅ
12:43
and desperately wanting to know more about them,
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ื•ืœืจืฆื•ืช ื ื•ืืฉื•ืช ืœื“ืขืช ืขืœื™ื”ื ื™ื•ืชืจ,
12:47
wanting to interrogate them and find out if maybe just one or two of them
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ืœืจืฆื•ืช ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ืื•ืชื ื•ืœื’ืœื•ืช ืื ืื•ืœื™ ืจืง ืื—ื“ ืื• ืฉื ื™ื™ื ืžื”ื
12:51
are a little bit like you.
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ื”ื ืงืฆืช ื›ืžื•ืš.
12:54
You can't do that. You can't go there, not yet.
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ืืชื” ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืืช ื–ื”. ืืชื” ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื ืกื•ืข ืœืฉื, ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื.
12:56
And so you have to use the tools that you've developed around you
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ืื– ืืชื” ื—ื™ื™ื‘ ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื›ืœื™ื ืฉืคื™ืชื—ืช ืžืกื‘ื™ื‘ืš
13:00
for Venus, Earth and Mars,
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ืœื ื•ื’ื”, ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ื•ืžืื“ื™ื,
13:02
and you have to apply them to these other situations,
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ื•ืืชื” ื—ื™ื™ื‘ ืœื™ื™ืฉื ืื•ืชื ืขืœ ื”ืžืฆื‘ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื™ื ื”ืืœื•,
13:05
and hope that you're making reasonable inferences from the data,
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ื•ืœืงื•ื•ืช ืฉืืชื” ืžืกื™ืง ืžืกืงื ื•ืช ืกื‘ื™ืจื•ืช ืžืชื•ืš ื”ื ืชื•ื ื™ื,
13:09
and that you're going to be able to determine the best candidates
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ื•ืฉืชื•ื›ืœ ืœืงื‘ื•ืข ืืช ื”ืžื•ืขืžื“ื™ื ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ ืœื›ืช ืจืื•ื™ื™ื ืœื—ื™ื™ื,
13:12
for habitable planets, and those that are not.
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ื•ืืœื• ืฉืœื.
13:16
In the end, and for now, at least,
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ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ, ื•ื‘ื™ื ืชื™ื™ื ืœืคื—ื•ืช,
13:18
this is our red spot, right here.
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ื–ื• ื”ื ืงื•ื“ื” ื”ืื“ื•ืžื” ืฉืœื ื•, ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื›ืืŸ.
13:22
This is the only planet that we know of that's habitable,
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ื–ื” ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื”ืœื›ืช ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืฉืจืื•ื™ ืœื—ื™ื™ื,
13:25
although very soon we may come to know of more.
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื‘ืงืจื•ื‘ ืžืื•ื“ ืื ื—ื ื• ืื•ืœื™ ื ื™ื•ื•ื›ื— ืœื“ืขืช ืขืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ.
13:28
But for now, this is the only habitable planet,
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ื™ื ืชื™ื™ื, ื–ื” ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื”ืœื›ืช ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ ื”ืจืื•ื™ ืœื—ื™ื™ื,
13:31
and this is our red spot.
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ื•ื–ื• ื”ื ืงื•ื“ื” ื”ืื“ื•ืžื” ืฉืœื ื•.
13:33
I'm really glad we're here.
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ืื ื™ ืžืื•ื“ ืฉืžื— ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื›ืืŸ.
13:36
Thanks.
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ืชื•ื“ื”.
13:37
(Applause)
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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