Whatever happened to the hole in the ozone layer? - Stephanie Honchell Smith

572,915 views ใƒป 2023-04-18

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: zeeva livshitz ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Ido Dekkers
00:07
In the 1980s, the world faced a huge problem:
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ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-80, ื”ืขื•ืœื ืขืžื“ ื‘ืคื ื™ ื‘ืขื™ื” ืขื ืงื™ืช:
00:11
there was a rapidly expanding hole in the ozone layer.
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ื”ื™ื” ื—ื•ืจ ื‘ืฉื›ื‘ืช ื”ืื•ื–ื•ืŸ ืฉืžืชืจื—ื‘ ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช.
00:14
So, what happened? And is it still there?
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ืื– ืžื” ืงืจื”? ื•ื”ืื ื”ื•ื ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื?
00:17
Letโ€™s go back to the beginning.
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ื ื—ื–ื•ืจ ืœื”ืชื—ืœื”.
00:19
The Sun makes life on Earth possible,
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ื”ืฉืžืฉ ืžืืคืฉืจืช ื—ื™ื™ื ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ,
00:21
but too much exposure to its UV radiation damages plant and animal DNA.
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ืื‘ืœ ื—ืฉื™ืคื” ืจื‘ื” ืžื“ื™ ืœืงืจื™ื ืช ื”-UV ืฉืœื” ืคื•ื’ืขืช ื‘-DNA ืฉืœ ืฆืžื—ื™ื ื•ื‘ืขืœื™ ื—ื™ื™ื.
00:27
Thankfully, about 98% of that radiation is absorbed by ozone molecules
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ืœืžืจื‘ื” ื”ืžื–ืœ, ื›-98% ืžื”ืงืจื™ื ื” ื”ื–ื• ื ืกืคื’ืช ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช ืื•ื–ื•ืŸ
00:32
dispersed in the stratosphere,
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ื”ืžืคื•ื–ืจื•ืช ื‘ืกื˜ืจื˜ื•ืกืคื™ืจื”,
00:34
which are continuously broken apart and reformed in this process,
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ืืฉืจ ืžืชืคืจืงื•ืช ืœืœื ื”ืจืฃ ื•ืžืฉืชืงืžื•ืช ื‘ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ื–ื”,
00:38
maintaining a delicate equilibrium.
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ื›ืฉื”ื ืฉื•ืžืจื•ืช ืขืœ ืฉื™ื•ื•ื™ ืžืฉืงืœ ืขื“ื™ืŸ.
00:40
But in the early 1970s, two chemistsโ€” Mario Molina and Sherwood Rowlandโ€”
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-70, ืฉื ื™ ื›ื™ืžืื™ื... ืžืจื™ื• ืžื•ืœื™ื ื” ื•ืฉืจื•ื•ื“ ืจื•ืœื ื“โ€”
00:46
demonstrated that widely used chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs,
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ื”ื•ื›ื™ื—ื• ื›ื™ ื›ื™ืžื™ืงืœื™ื ื‘ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื ืจื—ื‘ ื”ื ืงืจืื™ื ื›ืœื•ืจื•-ืคืœื•ืื•ืจื•-ืคื—ืžื ื™ื, ืื• CFCs,
00:52
could upset this balance.
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืคืจ ืืช ื”ืื™ื–ื•ืŸ ื”ื–ื”.
00:54
CFCs were developed in the 1920s by three US-based corporations
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ื”-CFCs ืคื•ืชื—ื• ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-20 ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืชืื’ื™ื“ื™ื ื‘ืืจื”โ€œื‘
00:58
as coolants for refrigerators.
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ื‘ืชื•ืจ ื ื•ื–ืœื™ ืงื™ืจื•ืจ ืœืžืงืจืจื™ื.
01:01
Unlike existing alternativesโ€” such as ammonia or methyl chlorideโ€”
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ื‘ื ื™ื’ื•ื“ ืœื—ืœื•ืคื•ืช ืงื™ื™ืžื•ืช- ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ืืžื•ื ื™ื” ืื• ืžืชื™ืœ ื›ืœื•ืจื™ื“-
01:05
CFCs were non-flammable and non-toxicโ€”
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ื”-CFCs ื”ื™ื• ืœื ื“ืœื™ืงื™ื ื•ืœื ืจืขื™ืœื™ื -
01:08
meaning they wouldn't burst into flames or cause deadly gas leaks.
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ื›ืœื•ืžืจ ื”ื ืœื ื™ืขืœื• ื‘ืœื”ื‘ื•ืช ืื• ื™ื’ืจืžื• ืœื“ืœื™ืคื•ืช ื’ื– ืงื˜ืœื ื™ื•ืช.
01:12
They also made great propellants, foaming agents, and fire-retardants.
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ื”ื ื’ื ื™ืฆืจื• ื—ื•ืžืจื™ ื”ื ืขื” ื ื”ื“ืจื™ื, ื—ื•ืžืจื™ ื”ืงืฆืคื” ื•ืžืขื›ื‘ื™ ืืฉ.
01:16
CFCs soon found their way into a variety of everyday items
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ื”-CFCs ืžืฆืื• ืขื“ ืžื”ืจื” ืืช ื“ืจื›ื ืœืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืคืจื™ื˜ื™ื ื™ื•ืžื™ื•ืžื™ื™ื
01:20
and became a multi-billion dollar per year industry.
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ื•ื”ืคื›ื• ืœืชืขืฉื™ื™ื” ืฉืœ ืžื•ืœื˜ื™ ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื“ื•ืœืจ ืœืฉื ื”.
01:23
In the lower atmosphere, CFCs donโ€™t break down or react with other molecules.
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ื‘ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื” ื”ืชื—ืชื•ื ื”, CFCs ืœื ืžืชืคืจืงื™ื ืื• ืžื’ื™ื‘ื™ื ืขื ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช.
01:29
But Molina and Rowland showed that in the stratosphere,
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ืื‘ืœ ืžื•ืœื™ื ื” ื•ืจื•ืœื ื“ ื”ืจืื• ืฉื‘ืกื˜ืจื˜ื•ืกืคืจื”,
01:32
they're broken apart by UV light, releasing chlorine atoms.
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ื”ื ืžืคื•ืจืงื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืื•ืจ UV, ืžืฉื—ืจืจื™ื ืื˜ื•ืžื™ ื›ืœื•ืจ.
01:36
These then react with ozone,
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ืืœื” ืžื’ื™ื‘ื™ื ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ ืขื ืื•ื–ื•ืŸ,
01:37
destroying it faster than it can be replenished.
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ื”ื•ืจืกื™ื ืื•ืชื• ืžื”ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืžื” ืฉื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื—ื“ืฉ.
01:40
A single chlorine atom can destroy thousands of ozone molecules
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ืื˜ื•ื ื›ืœื•ืจ ื‘ื•ื“ื“ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืจื•ืก ืืœืคื™ ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช ืื•ื–ื•ืŸ
01:44
before finally reacting with something else and forming a stable molecule.
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ืœืคื ื™ ืฉืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื”ื•ื ืžื’ื™ื‘ ืขื ืžืฉื”ื• ืื—ืจ ื•ื™ื•ืฆืจ ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื” ื™ืฆื™ื‘ื”.
01:48
Seeing the threat to their bottom line,
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ื›ืฉืจืื• ืืช ื”ืื™ื•ื ืขืœ ื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืชื—ืชื•ื ื” ืฉืœื”ื,
01:50
CFC producers pushed back to discredit the scientists,
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ื™ืฆืจื ื™ CFC ื“ื—ืงื• ืœื”ื›ืคื™ืฉ ืืช ื”ืžื“ืขื ื™ื,
01:54
even accusing them of working for the KGB.
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ื›ืฉื”ื ืืคื™ืœื• ืžืืฉื™ืžื™ื ืื•ืชื ื‘ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืง.ื’.ื‘.
01:57
Initial estimates showed that within 60 years,
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ื”ืขืจื›ื•ืช ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื•ืช ื”ืจืื• ืฉืชื•ืš 60 ืฉื ื”,
02:01
CFCs could reduce ozone concentrations by 7%.
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CFCs ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืคื—ื™ืช ืืช ืจื™ื›ื•ื–ื™ ื”ืื•ื–ื•ืŸ ื‘-7%.
02:04
But by 1985, it became clear that ozone depletion, especially over Antarctica,
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ืื‘ืœ ืขื“ 1985, ื”ืชื‘ืจืจ ื›ื™ ื“ืœื“ื•ืœ ื”ืื•ื–ื•ืŸ , ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ืžืขืœ ืื ื˜ืืจืงื˜ื™ืงื”,
02:10
was happening much faster.
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ืงืจื” ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื”ืจ.
02:12
Here, the extremely cold temperatures and unique structure of Antarctic clouds
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ื›ืืŸ, ื”ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื•ืช ื”ืงืจื•ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื•ื”ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ ืฉืœ ืขื ื ื™ื ืื ื˜ืืจืงื˜ื™ื™ื
02:16
accelerated ozone loss.
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ื’ืจืžื• ืœืื™ื‘ื•ื“ ืžื•ืืฅ ืฉืœ ืื•ื–ื•ืŸ.
02:18
Scientists stationed in Antarctica noticed a massive drop
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ืžื“ืขื ื™ื ืฉืžื•ืฆื‘ื™ื ื‘ืื ื˜ืืจืงื˜ื™ืงื” ื”ื‘ื—ื™ื ื• ื‘ื™ืจื™ื“ื” ืžืกื™ื‘ื™ืช
02:21
in overhead ozone occurring every spring.
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ืฉืœ ืฉื›ื‘ืช ื”ืื•ื–ื•ืŸ ืžืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื”ืงืจืงืข ืฉืžืชืจื—ืฉืช ื›ืœ ืื‘ื™ื‘.
02:24
Satellite data revealed the vast extent of these losses
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ื ืชื•ื ื™ ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ืŸ ื—ืฉืคื• ืืช ื”ื”ื™ืงืฃ ื”ืขืฆื•ื ืฉืœ ื”ื”ืคืกื“ื™ื ื”ืœืœื•
02:27
and chemical tests confirmed that the cause was unquestionably CFCs.
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ื•ื‘ื“ื™ืงื•ืช ื›ื™ืžื™ื•ืช ืื™ืฉืจื• ืฉื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืœืœื ืกืคืง CFCs.
02:33
NASA soon released visualizations, which were broadcast around the world
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ื ืืกโ€œื ืžื™ื”ืจื” ืœืคืจืกื ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ื—ื–ื•ืชื™ื•ืช, ืฉืฉื•ื“ืจื• ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื
02:37
and captured public attention.
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ื•ืžืฉื›ื• ืืช ืชืฉื•ืžืช ื”ืœื‘ ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ืช.
02:39
If ozone depletion continued, rates of skin cancer would skyrocket.
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ืื ื“ืœื“ื•ืœ ื”ืื•ื–ื•ืŸ ื™ืžืฉืš, ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืกืจื˜ืŸ ื”ืขื•ืจ ื™ืจืงื™ืขื• ืฉื—ืงื™ื.
02:43
Photosynthesis would be impaired, making plantsโ€”
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ื”ืคื•ื˜ื•ืกื™ื ืชื–ื” ืชื™ืคื’ืข, ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ืฆืžื—ื™ื-
02:46
including rice, wheat, and cornโ€”
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ื›ื•ืœืœ ืื•ืจื–, ื—ื™ื˜ื” ื•ืชื™ืจืก-
02:48
less productive and more susceptible to disease.
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ื™ื”ื™ื• ืคื—ื•ืช ืคืจื•ื“ื•ืงื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื™ื ื•ื™ื•ืชืจ ืจื’ื™ืฉื™ื ืœืžื—ืœื•ืช.
02:52
Global agricultural production would plummet,
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ื”ื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื”ื—ืงืœืื™ ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ ื”ื™ื” ืฆื•ื ื—,
02:54
and entire ecosystems would collapse.
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ื•ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ืืงื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœืžื•ืช ื™ืงืจืกื•.
02:57
But many politiciansโ€” weighing immediate economic concerns over long-term onesโ€”
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ืื‘ืœ ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืงืื™ื ืจื‘ื™ืโ€”ืฉืฉื•ืงืœื™ื ื“ืื’ื•ืช ื›ืœื›ืœื™ื•ืช ืžื™ื™ื“ื™ื•ืช
ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื“ืื’ื•ืช ืืจื•ื›ื•ืช ื˜ื•ื•ื—- ืœื ื”ืกื›ื™ืžื• ืžื” ืœืขืฉื•ืช.
03:02
disagreed about what to do.
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03:04
The fight to ban CFCs found two unlikely allies
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ื”ืžืื‘ืง ืœืื™ืกื•ืจ CFC ืžืฆื ืฉื ื™ ื‘ืขืœื™ ื‘ืจื™ืช ื‘ืœืชื™ ืกื‘ื™ืจื™ื
03:07
in US President Ronald Reagan and UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher.
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ื‘ื ืฉื™ื ืืจื”โ€œื‘ ืจื•ื ืœื“ ืจื™ื™ื’ืŸ ื•ืจืืฉ ืžืžืฉืœืช ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื ื™ื” ืžืจื’ืจื˜ ืชืืฆโ€™ืจ.
03:11
Despite their general opposition to government regulation,
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ื”ืชื ื’ื“ื•ืชื ื”ื›ืœืœื™ืช ืœืจื’ื•ืœืฆื™ื” ืžืžืฉืœืชื™ืช,
03:14
Reagan, who had undergone treatment for skin cancer,
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ืจื™ื™ื’ืŸ, ืฉืขื‘ืจ ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ืœืกืจื˜ืŸ ื”ืขื•ืจ,
03:17
and Thatcher, who was trained as a chemist,
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ื•ืชืืฆโ€™ืจ, ืฉื”ื•ื›ืฉืจื” ื›ื›ื™ืžืื™ืช,
03:20
recognized the need for immediate action.
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ื”ื›ื™ืจื• ื‘ืฆื•ืจืš ื‘ืคืขื•ืœื” ืžื™ื™ื“ื™ืช.
03:23
The US and UK, along with Canada, Norway, Sweden, and Finland,
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ืืจื”โ€œื‘ ื•ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื ื™ื”, ื™ื—ื“ ืขื ืงื ื“ื”, ื ื•ืจื‘ื’ื™ื”, ืฉื•ื•ื“ื™ื” ื•ืคื™ื ืœื ื“,
03:27
led calls for an international ban on CFCs.
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ื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœื• ืงืจื™ืื•ืช ืœืื™ืกื•ืจ ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ ืขืœ CFC.
03:30
In 1987, representatives signed the Montreal Protocol,
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ื‘-1987 ื—ืชืžื• ื ืฆื™ื’ื™ื ืขืœ ืคืจื•ื˜ื•ืงื•ืœ ืžื•ื ื˜ืจื™ืื•ืœ,
03:34
requiring the rapid phasing out of CFCs
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ื”ืžื—ื™ื™ื‘ ืืช ื”ืคืกืงืช ื”ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื”ืžื”ื™ืจื” ืฉืœ CFCs
03:36
and creating a fund to assist Global South countries
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ื•ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืจืŸ ืœืกื™ื™ืข ืœืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื“ืจื•ื ื’ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ื•ืช
03:39
in obtaining affordable, non-ozone depleting alternatives.
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ื‘ื”ืฉื’ืช ,ื—ืœื•ืคื•ืช ืฉืื™ื ืŸ ืคื•ื’ืขื•ืช ื‘ืื•ื–ื•ืŸ ื‘ืžื—ื™ืจ ืกื‘ื™ืจ.
03:43
It was later ratified by every country on Earthโ€”
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ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ื–ื” ืื•ืฉืจืจ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื›ืœ ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ-
03:46
the only treaty in history to achieve this.
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ื”ืืžื ื” ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื” ื‘ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ืฉื”ืฉื™ื’ื” ื–ืืช.
03:49
In 1995, Molina, Rowland, and their Dutch colleague Paul Crutzen,
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ื‘ืฉื ืช 1995, ืžื•ืœื™ื ื”, ืจื•ืœื ื“, ื•ืขืžื™ืชื ื”ื”ื•ืœื ื“ื™ ืคื•ืœ ืงืจื•ืฆืŸ,
03:54
were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
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ื–ื›ื• ื‘ืžืฉื•ืชืฃ ื‘ืคืจืก ื ื•ื‘ืœ ื‘ื›ื™ืžื™ื”.
03:57
As the use of CFCs declined,
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ื›ื›ืœ ืฉื”ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘-CFC ื™ืจื“,
03:59
the ozone hole began shrinking,
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ื”ื—ื•ืจ ื‘ืื•ื–ื•ืŸ ื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœื”ืชื›ื•ื•ืฅ,
04:01
and is predicted to disappear entirely by 2070.
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ื•ืฆืคื•ื™ ืœื”ื™ืขืœื ืœื’ืžืจื™ ืขื“ 2070.
04:04
But weโ€™re not out of the woods yet.
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ืื‘ืœ ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื ื•ืชืจื• ืงืฉื™ื™ื.
04:06
While the ban was a win for the climate, as CFCs are potent greenhouse gases,
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืฉื”ืื™ืกื•ืจ ื”ื™ื” ื ื™ืฆื—ื•ืŸ ืœืืงืœื™ื, ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉ-CFC ื”ื ื’ื–ื™ ื—ืžืžื” ื—ื–ืงื™ื,
04:10
the alternatives that replaced themโ€” hydrofluorocarbons, or HFCsโ€” are too.
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ื”ืืœื˜ืจื ื˜ื™ื‘ื•ืช ืฉื”ื—ืœื™ืคื• ืื•ืชืŸ- ืคื—ืžื™ืžื ื™ื ื”ื™ื“ืจื•ืคืœื•ืื•ืจื™ื™ื, ืื• HFCs - ื’ื ื”ื,
04:16
While generally less potent than CFCs,
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ืคื—ื•ืช ื—ื–ืงื™ื ืž-CFC,
04:18
HFCs still trap more heat than carbon dioxide
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HFCs ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื•ื›ื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื—ื•ื ืžืืฉืจ ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื• ื—ืžืฆื ื™
04:22
and are contributing to climate change.
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ื•ืชื•ืจืžื™ื ืœืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ ื”ืืงืœื™ื.
04:24
To address this, in 2016, the Kigali Amendment
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ ืขื ื–ื”, ื‘ืฉื ืช 2016, โ€œืชื™ืงื•ืŸ ืงื™ื’ืืœื™โ€
04:27
was added to the Montreal Protocol,
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ื”ืชื•ื•ืกืฃ ืœืคืจื•ื˜ื•ืงื•ืœ ืžื•ื ื˜ืจื™ืื•ืœ,
04:29
calling for an 85% cut in global HFCs by 2047.
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ืงื•ืจื ืœืงื™ืฆื•ืฅ ืฉืœ 85%. ื‘-HFCs ื’ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ื™ื ืขื“ 2047.
04:33
This alone could avoid up to 0.5ยฐC of global warming by the end of the century.
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ื–ื” ืœื‘ื“ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืžื ื•ืข ืขื“ 0.5 ืžืขืœื•ืช ืฆืœื–ื™ื•ืก ืฉืœ ื”ืชื—ืžืžื•ืช ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ืขื“ ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืžืื”.
04:39
Today, as we face the existential threat of climate change,
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ื”ื™ื•ื, ื›ืฉืื ื• ืžืชืžื•ื“ื“ื™ื ืขื ื”ืื™ื•ื ื”ืงื™ื•ืžื™ ืฉืœ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ ืืงืœื™ื,
04:43
the Montreal Protocol serves as a model for the decisive global cooperation
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ืคืจื•ื˜ื•ืงื•ืœ ืžื•ื ื˜ืจื™ืื•ืœ ืžืฉืžืฉ ืžื•ื“ืœ ืœืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ื”ืคืขื•ืœื” ื”ื’ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ ื”ืžื›ืจื™ืข
04:47
we need to combat it.
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ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ื™ืœื—ื ืื™ืชื•.
04:48
The question is, what will it take for us to come together again?
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ื”ืฉืืœื” ื”ื™ื, ืžื” ื™ื™ื“ืจืฉ ืฉื ื—ื‘ื•ืจ ื™ื—ื“ ืฉื•ื‘?
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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