Elizabeth Murchison: Fighting a contagious cancer

48,645 views ・ 2011-09-22

TED


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譯者: Yingzhi Vera Gu 審譯者: Josie Chen
00:15
Everyone's familiar with cancer,
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每個人都熟悉癌症,
00:19
but we don't normally think of cancer
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但是一般我們並不認為癌症
00:21
as being a contagious disease.
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是一種傳染性疾病。
00:25
The Tasmanian devil has shown us
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然而塔司馬尼亞惡魔告訴我們
00:27
that, not only can cancer be a contagious disease,
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癌症不僅是一種傳染性疾病
00:30
but it can also threaten
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而且它會威脅到
00:32
an entire species with extinction.
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整個物種的存亡。
00:36
So first of all, what is a Tasmanian devil?
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所以,首先,什麼是塔司馬尼亞惡魔呢?
00:40
Many of you might be familiar with Taz, the cartoon character,
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許多人或許很熟悉塔司,
00:43
the one that spins around and around and around.
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那個總是不斷旋轉的卡通動物。
00:45
But not many people know
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但是,並不是很多人知道
00:47
that there actually is a real animal called the Tasmanian devil,
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實際上真的有一種動物叫做塔司馬尼亞惡魔,
00:50
and it's the world's largest carnivorous marsupial.
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而且牠是世界上最大的肉食性有袋類動物。
00:54
A marsupial is a mammal with a pouch
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有袋類動物是一種有一個口袋的哺乳類動物
00:56
like a kangaroo.
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比如袋鼠。
00:58
The Tasmanian devil got its name
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塔司馬尼亞惡魔得名于
01:00
from the terrifying nocturnal scream that it makes.
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牠在夜間發出的可怕尖叫聲。
01:04
(Screaming)
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(尖叫)
01:15
(Laughter)
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(笑)
01:17
The Tasmanian devil is predominantly a scavenger,
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塔司馬尼亞惡魔主要以食腐為生。
01:20
and it uses its powerful jaws
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牠用有力的下顎
01:22
and its sharp teeth
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和尖銳的牙齒
01:24
to chomp on the bones of rotting dead animals.
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啃食腐爛的動物屍體。
01:27
[The] Tasmanian devil is found only on the island of Tasmania,
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唯有塔司馬尼亞島上才有這種動物。
01:30
which is that small island
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這個小島
01:32
just to the south of the mainland of Australia.
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就在澳洲大陸南方
01:34
And despite their ferocious appearance,
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盡管長相兇惡,
01:38
Tasmanian devils are actually
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塔司馬尼亞惡魔實際上
01:40
quite adorable little animals.
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是一種很可愛的動物。
01:43
In fact, growing up in Tasmania,
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實際上,牠在塔司馬尼亞成長,
01:45
it always was incredibly exciting
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當我們有機會
01:47
when we got a chance to see
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在野外親眼看見塔司馬尼亞惡魔時
01:49
a Tasmanian devil in the wild.
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總是會感到非常興奮。
01:51
But the Tasmanian devil population
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但是塔司馬尼亞惡魔的數量
01:53
has been undergoing a really extremely fast decline.
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卻在急速減少中。
01:57
And in fact, there's concern
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實際上,有人擔心
01:59
that the species could go extinct in the wild
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這種動物可能會在20至30年間
02:02
within 20 to 30 years.
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滅絕
02:05
And the reason for that
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原因是
02:07
is the emergence of a new disease,
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一種新疾病的出現,
02:09
a contagious cancer.
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一種具傳染性的癌症。
02:13
The story begins in 1996
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事情起自於1996年
02:15
when a wildlife photographer took this photograph here
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一個野生攝影師拍下這張
02:18
of a Tasmanian devil
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塔司馬尼亞惡魔的照片。
02:20
with a large tumor on its face.
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牠的臉上有一個巨大的腫瘤。
02:22
At the time, this was thought to be a one-off.
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當時,人們認為這是偶發狀況。
02:25
Animals, just like humans,
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因為動物,就像人一樣,
02:27
sometimes get strange tumors.
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有時也會長奇怪的腫瘤。
02:30
However, we now believe
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然而,我們現在相信,
02:32
that this is the first sighting of a new disease,
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這是某種目前正在塔司馬尼亞蔓延
02:35
which is now an epidemic spreading through Tasmania.
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的傳染性疾病,最早被目擊的案例。
02:39
The disease was first sighted
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這種疾病最早
02:41
in the northeast of Tasmania in 1996
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是在1996年塔司馬尼亞州的東北部被發現的,
02:44
and has spread across Tasmania like a huge wave.
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其後就如大浪般席捲了整個塔司馬尼亞。
02:47
Now there's only a small part of the population,
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現在僅有一小部分
02:50
which remains unaffected.
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未受傳染。
02:52
This disease appears first as tumors,
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通常,在臉上或嘴裡
02:55
usually on the face or inside the mouth
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長出腫瘤
02:57
of affected Tasmanian devils.
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是塔司馬尼亞惡魔被感染後的第一病徴。
02:59
These tumors inevitably grow into larger tumors,
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之後腫瘤就越長越大,勢不可擋,
03:02
such as these ones here.
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就像這些一樣。
03:04
And the next image I'm going to show
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我要讓各位看的下一張圖片
03:06
is quite gruesome.
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十分可怕。
03:08
But inevitably, these tumors progress
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但是,無可奈何是,這些腫瘤會
03:10
towards being enormous, ulcerating tumors like this one here.
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越長越大,就像這個巨大的潰瘍性腫瘤。
03:16
This one in particular sticks in my mind,
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這一個我特別難忘,
03:18
because this is the first case of this disease
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因為這是在此種疾病中
03:20
that I saw myself.
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我所見到的第一個案例。
03:22
And I remember the horror of seeing this little female devil
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我還記得我見到這隻母塔司時的恐懼感覺。
03:25
with this huge ulcerating, foul-smelling tumor
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她的嘴裏長着一個非常大的潰瘍性腫瘤
03:27
inside her mouth
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散發出難聞的氣味。
03:29
that had actually cracked off her entire lower jaw.
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腫瘤使她的整個下顎崩塌,
03:33
She hadn't eaten for days.
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她好幾天沒吃東西。
03:36
Her guts were swimming with parasitic worms.
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她的肚子裏有許多寄生蟲,
03:38
Her body was riddled with secondary tumors.
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她的身上長滿了繼發性腫瘤,
03:41
And yet, she was feeding three little baby Tasmanian devils
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但是,她還在餵她口袋裏的
03:44
in her pouch.
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三個小寶貝。
03:47
Of course, they died along with the mother.
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當然,在母親去世後,牠們也跟着去了。
03:50
They were too young to survive without their mother.
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因為牠們還太小,無法離開母親。
03:53
In fact, in the area where she comes from,
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實際上在她生活的地區
03:56
more than 90 percent of the Tasmanian devil population
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已有百分之九十以上的塔司馬尼亞惡魔死於
03:59
has already died of this disease.
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這種疾病。
04:02
Scientists around the world
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全世界的科學傢
04:04
were intrigued by this cancer,
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都對這種癌症很感興趣,
04:06
this infectious cancer,
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這種傳染性的癌症
04:08
that was spreading through the Tasmanian devil population.
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在塔司馬尼亞惡魔中傳播,
04:11
And our minds immediately turned to cervical cancer in women,
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讓我們不由立即想起子宮頸癌
04:14
which is spread by a virus,
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也是由病毒傳播的,
04:16
and to the AIDS epidemic,
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還有愛滋病的傳播
04:18
which is associated with a number of different types of cancer.
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和好幾種不同類型的癌症有關。
04:22
All the evidence suggested that this devil cancer
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所有的證據都表明塔司馬尼亞惡魔所得的癌症
04:25
was spread by a virus.
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是由病毒傳染的。
04:28
However, we now know -- and I'll tell you right now --
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但是,我們現在知道-我現在就告訴各位:
04:31
that we know that this cancer is not spread by a virus.
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這種癌症並非由病毒傳染。
04:34
In fact, the infectious agent of disease in this cancer
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實際上,這種癌症的傳染性病原體
04:38
is something altogether more sinister,
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非常兇險,
04:40
and something that we hadn't really thought of before.
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而且是我們以前甚至不曾想到的。
04:43
But in order for me to explain what that is,
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但是為了向各位解釋它究竟是什么,
04:46
I need to spend just a couple of minutes
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我需要花一兩分鐘的時間,
04:48
talking more about cancer itself.
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談談癌症本身。
04:51
Cancer is a disease
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癌症這種疾病
04:53
that affects millions of people around the world every year.
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每年感染全球數百萬人
04:56
One in three people in this room
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在座的三分之一
04:58
will develop cancer at some stage in their lives.
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將會在今後人生的不同階段患上癌症
05:01
I myself had a tumor removed from my large intestine
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我自己就曾動過大腸腫瘤切除手術,
05:03
when I was only 14.
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當時我年僅14歲。
05:06
Cancer occurs
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癌症的發生
05:08
when a single cell in your body
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是由於體內某個細胞中
05:10
acquires a set of random mutations in important genes
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的重要基因發生了一系列突變,
05:13
that cause that cell to start to produce
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導致該細胞開始
05:16
more and more and more copies of itself.
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不斷自我複製。
05:20
Paradoxically, once established,
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矛盾的是,一旦出現這種情況,
05:23
natural selection actually favors
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‘自然選擇’實際上更傾向於
05:25
the continued growth of cancer.
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不斷增長的癌症。
05:27
Natural selection is survival of the fittest.
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因為‘自然選擇’就是適者生存。
05:30
And when you have a population of fast-dividing cancer cells,
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當你有相當數目的快速分裂的癌細胞時,
05:33
if one of them acquires new mutations,
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如果其中之一發生新的突變
05:35
which allow them to grow more quickly,
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而增長更為迅速
05:37
acquire nutrients more successfully,
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更成功的獲得營養
05:39
invade the body,
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侵入身體,
05:41
they'll be selected for by evolution.
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它就會成為演變的選擇。
05:44
That's why cancer is such a difficult disease to treat.
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這就是癌症如此難以治療的原因。
05:48
It evolves.
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因為它會進化。
05:50
Throw a drug at it,
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對它用藥,
05:52
and resistant cells will grow back.
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抗性細胞會重新生長。
05:55
An amazing fact is that,
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驚人的事實是,
05:57
given the right environment and the right nutrients,
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如果有合適的環境和營養,
06:00
a cancer cell has the potential
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一個癌細胞就有可能
06:02
to go on growing forever.
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永遠生長下去。
06:05
However cancer is constrained
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可是癌症
06:07
by living inside our bodies,
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受到生活在我們體內的限制,
06:09
and its continued growth,
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如果它繼續生長,
06:11
its spreading through our bodies
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就會遍佈我們的身體
06:13
and eating away at our tissues,
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啃噬我們的組織,
06:15
leads to the death of the cancer patient
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導致癌症病人死亡
06:18
and also to the death of the cancer itself.
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最後自己也被消滅。
06:22
So cancer could be thought of
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所以癌症是一種
06:24
as a strange, short-lived, self-destructive life form --
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奇怪的,短命的,自我毀滅的生命形式--
06:29
an evolutionary dead end.
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一種演化的死亡終結。
06:33
But that is where the Tasmanian devil cancer
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但是塔司馬尼亞惡魔所得的癌症
06:35
has acquired an absolutely amazing
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卻獲得了一種絕對神奇的
06:38
evolutionary adaptation.
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進化適應。
06:41
And the answer came from studying
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這個結論是來自
06:43
the Tasmanian devil cancer's DNA.
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對塔司馬尼亞惡魔的癌症DNA研究。
06:45
This was work from many people,
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這項研究工作有許多人參與,
06:47
but I'm going to explain it through a confirmatory experiment
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但是我想通過一個驗證實驗來向大家解釋。
06:49
that I did a few years ago.
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這個試驗是在好幾年前做的。
06:51
The next slide is going to be gruesome.
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下一張幻燈片會很可怕。
06:54
This is Jonas.
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這是喬納斯。
06:56
He's a Tasmanian devil that we found
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我們發現這隻塔司馬尼亞惡魔
06:59
with a large tumor on his face.
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的臉上長着巨大的腫瘤。
07:01
And being a geneticist,
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我是基因學家,
07:03
I'm always interested to look at DNA and mutations.
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對于DNA 和突變總是很感興趣。
07:06
So I took this opportunity
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所以我抓住這個機會,
07:08
to collect some samples from Jonas' tumor
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從喬納斯的腫瘤當中取樣,
07:10
and also some samples from other parts of his body.
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同時也從它身體的其它部分取樣。
07:13
I took these back to the lab.
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我把這些樣本帶回實驗室
07:15
I extracted DNA from them.
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從中提取DNA。
07:17
And when I looked at the sequence of the DNA,
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我研究喬納斯的DNA序列,
07:20
and compared the sequence of Jonas' tumor
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把它的腫瘤DNA的序列
07:23
to that of the rest of his body,
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和它身體其它部分作比較。
07:25
I discovered that they had a completely different genetic profile.
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我發現它們的基因圖譜完全不同。
07:30
In fact, Jonas and his tumor
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實際上,喬納斯和它身上的腫瘤的基因
07:32
were as different from each other
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就好像妳和妳的鄰座的一樣
07:35
as you and the person sitting next to you.
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完全不同。
07:38
What this told us was that Jonas' tumor
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這說明喬納斯的腫瘤
07:41
did not arise from cells of his own body.
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不是來自於它自身的細胞
07:44
In fact, more genetic profiling
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實際上,更多的基因圖譜
07:47
told us that this tumor in Jonas
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告訴我們喬納斯的這個腫瘤
07:49
actually probably first arose
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最早可能是來自於
07:51
from the cells of a female Tasmanian devil --
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一隻母惡魔的細胞,
07:53
and Jonas was clearly a male.
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而喬納斯是公的。
07:55
So how come
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那麼,為什么
07:57
a tumor that arose from the cells of another individual
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一個來自別人細胞的腫瘤
08:00
is growing on Jonas' face?
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會長在喬納斯的臉上呢?
08:03
Well the next breakthrough
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下一個突破
08:05
came from studying hundreds of Tasmanian devil cancers
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來自于對于整個塔司馬尼亞地區數百隻
08:08
from all around Tasmania.
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塔司馬尼亞惡魔的研究。
08:10
We found that all of these cancers
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我們發現所有的癌症
08:12
shared the same DNA.
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有同樣的DNA。
08:14
Think about that for a minute.
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想一想吧。
08:16
That means that all of these cancers
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這說明這些癌症
08:18
actually are the same cancer
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實際上是來源於
08:20
that arose once from one individual devil,
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一隻塔司馬尼亞惡魔,
08:23
that have broken free of that first devil's body
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癌細胞突破了這隻惡魔的身體
08:26
and spread through the entire Tasmanian devil population.
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傳染到整個種群。
08:30
But how can a cancer spread in a population?
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可是癌症是怎樣在整個族群裡傳播的呢?
08:33
Well the final piece of the puzzle came
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最後一個謎團終於解開。
08:35
when we remember how devils behave when they meet each other in the wild.
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我們想起它們在野外見面時的表現。
08:38
They tend to bite each other,
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它們喜歡啃咬對方
08:40
often quite ferociously and usually on the face.
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常常很兇猛,而且通常是咬對方的臉。
08:43
We think that cancer cells
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我們認為癌細胞
08:46
actually come off the tumor, get into the saliva.
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是從腫瘤脫落,進入唾液的。
08:49
When the devil bites another devil,
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當一隻惡魔咬了另一隻的時候,
08:51
it actually physically implants living cancer cells into the next devil,
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實際上它把活的癌細胞移植到另一隻的體內,
08:54
so the tumor continues to grow.
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由此腫瘤就繼續生長。
08:56
So this Tasmanian devil cancer
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所以這隻塔司馬尼亞惡魔感染的
08:58
is perhaps the ultimate cancer.
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可能就是已發展的癌症。
09:00
It's not constrained by living within the body that gave rise to it.
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從而使得這種癌症不受限於在體內生長,
09:03
It spreads through the population,
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而可以在整個族群中傳播。
09:05
has mutations that allow it to evade the immune system,
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它的突變體使其得以避開免疫系統。
09:08
and it's the only cancer that we know of
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它是我們所知道的唯一一種
09:10
that's threatening an entire species with extinction.
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威脅到整個種群生存的癌症。
09:14
But if this can happen in Tasmanian devils,
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但是,既然塔司馬尼亞惡魔會患上這種癌症,
09:17
why hasn't it happened in other animals
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為什麼其他動物,
09:19
or even humans?
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或者說人類就不會感染呢?
09:21
Well the answer is, it has.
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實際上已經有了。
09:25
This is Kimbo.
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這是金波,
09:27
He's a dog that belongs to a family in Mombasa in Kenya.
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是一個住在肯亞盟巴撒島的家庭所養的一隻小狗。
09:31
Last year, his owner noticed some blood
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去年,牠的主人發現
09:34
trickling from his genital region.
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牠的生殖器部位淌血。
09:37
She took him to the vet
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她帶牠去看獸醫。
09:39
and the vet discovered something quite disgusting.
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而獸醫發現情況頗為糟糕。
09:42
And if you're squeamish, please look away now.
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如果你覺得噁心,請不要看下面的畫面。
09:45
He discovered this,
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他發現了這個,
09:47
a huge bleeding tumor
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巨大的出血性腫瘤
09:49
at the base of Kimbo's penis.
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長在金波的隂莖底部。
09:53
The vet diagnosed this as transmissible venereal tumor,
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根據獸醫的診斷,這是傳染性花柳腫瘤
09:56
a sexually transmitted cancer
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是一種犬類會經過性行為感染的
09:59
that affects dogs.
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傳染性癌症。
10:01
And just as the Tasmanian devil cancer is contagious
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正如塔司馬尼亞惡魔所患的癌症,
10:04
through the spread of living cancer cells,
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是通過感染癌症活細胞而傳播的,
10:06
so is this dog cancer.
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這隻狗也是同樣情況。
10:08
But this dog cancer is quite remarkable,
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但是牠的癌症更驚人
10:10
because it spread all around the world.
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因為這種癌症傳播到全世界。
10:12
And in fact, these same cells
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實際上,同樣的細胞
10:14
that are affecting Kimbo here
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在此感染到金波,
10:17
are also found affecting dogs
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也一樣感染到
10:19
in New York City,
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紐約市、
10:21
in mountain villages in the Himalayas
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喜馬拉雅山村、
10:23
and in Outback Australia.
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和澳洲內地的狗。
10:26
We also believe this cancer might be very old.
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我們還認為這種癌症的來歷可能非常久遠。
10:28
In fact, genetic profiling tells
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事實上,根據基因圖譜,
10:30
that it may be tens of thousands of years old,
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這種癌症可能已有超過萬年以上的歷史。
10:33
which means that this cancer
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這意味著這種癌症
10:35
may have first arisen
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最早可能是
10:37
from the cells of a wolf
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來自那些住在
10:39
that lived alongside the Neanderthals.
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尼安德塔人聚落附近的狼群。
10:42
This cancer is remarkable.
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這個癌症很驚人,
10:44
It's the oldest mammalian-derived life form that we know of.
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因為這是我們迄今所知最古老的哺乳類生命,
10:48
It's a living relic
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是遠古時代的
10:50
of the distant past.
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活化石。
10:54
So we've seen that this can happen in animals.
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我們已經看到這在動物身上發生,
10:56
Could cancers be contagious between people?
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那麼癌症是否也會在人們之間傳染呢?
11:01
Well this is a question
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這個問題
11:03
which fascinated Chester Southam,
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吸引了50年代的
11:05
a cancer doctor in the 1950s.
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一位癌症專傢--切斯特.索思姆。
11:08
Ad he decided to put this to the test
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他決定做一個試驗,
11:11
by actually deliberately inoculating people
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將癌症病人的細胞
11:14
with cancer from somebody else.
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注射到其他人體內。
11:17
And this is a photograph of Dr. Southam in 1957
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這張照片是1957年索思姆醫生
11:21
injecting cancer into a volunteer,
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將癌細胞注射到在監獄服刑
11:24
who in this case was an inmate
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的志願囚犯身體的照片。
11:26
in Ohio State Penitentiary.
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這是在俄亥俄州監獄。
11:30
Most of the people that Dr. Southam injected
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大部分接受索思姆醫生注射的志願者
11:32
did not go on to develop cancer
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沒有因注射
11:34
from the injected cells.
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而產生癌症。
11:36
But a small number of them did,
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但是有一小部分人則罹患了癌症。
11:38
and they were mostly people who were otherwise ill --
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他們多數已患有其它疾病
11:41
whose immune systems were probably compromised.
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免疫系統可能早已遭到破壞。
11:46
What this tells us,
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這告訴我們
11:48
ethical issues aside,
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且不討論倫理道德
11:50
is that ...
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就是說...
11:52
(Laughter)
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(笑)
11:54
it's probably extremely rare
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癌症在人類之間傳染的
11:57
for cancers to be transferred between people.
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機率或許微乎其微。
12:01
However, under some circumstances,
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但是,在某些情況下,
12:03
it can happen.
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確實會發生。
12:06
And I think that this is something
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我覺得這是
12:08
that oncologists and epidemiologists
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腫瘤學家和流行病學家
12:10
should be aware of in the future.
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在今後應該關注的。
12:13
So just finally,
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最後,
12:15
cancer is an inevitable outcome
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癌症是
12:17
of the ability of our cells
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細胞分裂
12:19
to divide
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以及適應其自身環境的
12:21
and to adapt to their environments.
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必然結果。
12:24
But that does not mean that we should give up hope
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但是我們不應放棄
12:27
in the fight against cancer.
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擊敗癌症的信心。
12:29
In fact, I believe, given more knowledge
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實際上,我相信,如果我們掌握
12:31
of the complex evolutionary processes that drive cancer's growth,
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更多引起癌症生長的複雜進化過程相關知識
12:34
we can defeat cancer.
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我們一定能打敗癌症。
12:37
My personal aim
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我個人的目標
12:39
is to defeat the Tasmanian devil cancer.
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就是打敗塔司馬尼亞惡魔所患的癌症。
12:43
Let's prevent the Tasmanian devil
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我們不能讓塔司馬尼亞惡魔
12:45
from being the first animal
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變成第一種
12:47
to go extinct from cancer.
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因癌症而滅絕的動物。
12:49
Thank you.
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謝謝。
12:51
(Applause)
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(掌聲)
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