David Anderson: Your brain is more than a bag of chemicals

Translator: Joseph Geni Reviewer: Morton Bast

Prevodilac: Mile Živković Lektor: Anja Saric

So raise your hand if you know someone

Podignite ruku ako znate nekoga

in your immediate family or circle of friends

u vašoj užoj porodici ili krugu prijatelja

who suffers from some form of mental illness.

ko pati od nekog oblika duševne bolesti.

Yeah. I thought so. Not surprised.

Tako sam i mislio. Nisam iznenađen.

And raise your hand if you think that

I podignite ruku ako mislite

basic research on fruit flies has anything to do

da osnovna istraživanja na vinskim mušicama imaju neke veze

with understanding mental illness in humans.

sa našim razumevanjem duševnih bolesti kod ljudi.

Yeah. I thought so. I'm also not surprised.

Tako sam i mislio. Nisam iznenađen.

I can see I've got my work cut out for me here.

Vidim da mi je posao unapred olakšan.

As we heard from Dr. Insel this morning,

Kao što smo jutros čuli od dr Insela

psychiatric disorders like autism, depression and schizophrenia

psihički poremećaji poput autizma, depresije i šizofrenije

take a terrible toll on human suffering.

uzimaju velik danak na ljudsko zdravlje.

We know much less about their treatment

O njihovom lečenju

and the understanding of their basic mechanisms

i razumevanju njihovih osnovnih mehanizama

than we do about diseases of the body.

znamo manje nego kod telesnih bolesti.

Think about it: In 2013,

Razmislite o tome: 2013. je,

the second decade of the millennium,

druga decenija milenijuma

if you're concerned about a cancer diagnosis

i ako vas brine dijagnoza raka

and you go to your doctor, you get bone scans,

odete kod svog doktora, uradite snimak kostiju,

biopsies and blood tests.

biopsije i testove krvne slike.

In 2013, if you're concerned about a depression diagnosis,

U 2013., ako vas brine dijagnoza depresije,

you go to your doctor, and what do you get?

odete kod svog doktora, i šta dobijate?

A questionnaire.

Upitnik.

Now, part of the reason for this is that we have

Jedan od razloga za ovo je to što imamo

an oversimplified and increasingly outmoded view

previše pojednostavljen i veoma zastareo pogled

of the biological basis of psychiatric disorders.

na biološku osnovu duševnih poremećaja.

We tend to view them --

Gledamo na njih -

and the popular press aids and abets this view --

a populana štampa samo pomaže ovom viđenju -

as chemical imbalances in the brain,

kao na hemijske neravnoteže u mozgu,

as if the brain were some kind of bag of chemical soup

kao da je mozak neka vrsta kesice hemijske supe

full of dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine.

puna dopamina, serotonina i norepinefrina.

This view is conditioned by the fact

Ovo viđenje uslovljeno je činjenicom

that many of the drugs that are prescribed to treat these disorders,

da puno lekova koji se prepisuju za lečenje ovih bolesti

like Prozac, act by globally changing brain chemistry,

poput Prozaka, deluju globalno tako što menjaju hemiju mozga

as if the brain were indeed a bag of chemical soup.

kao da je mozak zaista kesica hemijske supe.

But that can't be the answer,

Ali nemoguće је da je to odgovor,

because these drugs actually don't work all that well.

jer ovi lekovi, zapravo, ne funkcionišu baš dobro.

A lot of people won't take them, or stop taking them,

Puno ljudi neće da ih uzima ili prestaje da ih uzima,

because of their unpleasant side effects.

zbog neprijatnih neželjenih dejstava.

These drugs have so many side effects

Ovi lekovi imaju toliko neželjenih dejstava

because using them to treat a complex psychiatric disorder

jer je lečenje kompleksnih duševnih poremećaja putem njih

is a bit like trying to change your engine oil

pomalo poput pokušavanja da zamenite ulje u motoru

by opening a can and pouring it all over the engine block.

tako što otvorite kanister i raspete ga svuda po bloku motora.

Some of it will dribble into the right place,

Nešto će kapnuti na pravo mesto,

but a lot of it will do more harm than good.

ali većina toga će naneti više štete nego koristi.

Now, an emerging view

Novo viđenje je ono

that you also heard about from Dr. Insel this morning,

o kom ste takođe čuli od dr Insela jutros,

is that psychiatric disorders are actually

a to je da su duševni poremećaji

disturbances of neural circuits that mediate

zapravo smetnje moždanih kola koja posreduju

emotion, mood and affect.

između emocija, raspoloženja i afekta.

When we think about cognition,

Kada mislimo o spoznaji,

we analogize the brain to a computer. That's no problem.

pravimo analogiju mozga i kompjutera. To nije problem.

Well it turns out that the computer analogy

Ispostavlja se da je ta analogija

is just as valid for emotion.

jednako tačna i za emocije.

It's just that we don't tend to think about it that way.

Samo što mi ne razmišljamo o tome na taj način.

But we know much less about the circuit basis

Ali o osnovi kola duševnih poremećaja

of psychiatric disorders

znamo mnogo manje toga

because of the overwhelming dominance

zbog neverovatne dominacije

of this chemical imbalance hypothesis.

ove hipoteze o hemijskoj neravnoteži.

Now, it's not that chemicals are not important

Nije da hemikalije nisu bitne

in psychiatric disorders.

kod duševnih poremećaja.

It's just that they don't bathe the brain like soup.

Samo što mozak ne pliva u njima kao u supi.

Rather, they're released in very specific locations

One se zapravo ispuštaju na veoma specifičnim mestima

and they act on specific synapses

i deluju na specifične sinapse

to change the flow of information in the brain.

kako bi promenile tok informacija u mozgu.

So if we ever really want to understand

Ako zaista želimo da razumemo

the biological basis of psychiatric disorders,

biološku osnovu duševnih poremećaja,

we need to pinpoint these locations in the brain

moramo da odredimo lokacije u mozgu

where these chemicals act.

u kojima deluju ove hemikalije.

Otherwise, we're going to keep pouring oil all over our mental engines

U suprotnom, samo ćemo prosipati ulje po našim mentalnim motorima

and suffering the consequences.

i trpeti posledice.

Now to begin to overcome our ignorance

Kako bismo počeli da prevazilazimo naše neznanje

of the role of brain chemistry in brain circuitry,

o ulozi hemije mozga u moždanim kolima,

it's helpful to work on what we biologists call

pomaže da radimo na onome što mi biolozi nazivamo

"model organisms,"

'modelnim organizmima,'

animals like fruit flies and laboratory mice,

što su životinje poput vinskih mušica i laboratorijskih miševa

in which we can apply powerful genetic techniques

kod kojih možemo primeniti moćne genetičke tehnike

to molecularly identify and pinpoint

da biсмо identifikovali i otkrili

specific classes of neurons,

specifične klase neurona na molekularnom nivou,

as you heard about in Allan Jones's talk this morning.

o čemu ste jutros čuli u govoru Alana Džounza.

Moreover, once we can do that,

Štaviše, kada uradimo to,

we can actually activate specific neurons

zapravo možemo aktivirati specifične neurone

or we can destroy or inhibit the activity of those neurons.

ili možemo uništiti ili sprečiti njihovu aktivnost.

So if we inhibit a particular type of neuron,

Ako sprečimo poseban tip neurona

and we find that a behavior is blocked,

i otkrijemo da je taj tip ponašanja blokiran,

we can conclude that those neurons

možemo zaključiti da su ti neuroni

are necessary for that behavior.

neophodni za taj tip ponašanja.

On the other hand, if we activate a group of neurons

Sa druge strane, ako aktiviramo grupu neurona

and we find that that produces the behavior,

i otkrijemo da to proizvodi taj vid ponašanja,

we can conclude that those neurons are sufficient for the behavior.

možemo zaključiti da su ti neuroni dovoljni za ponašanje.

So in this way, by doing this kind of test,

Na ovaj način, putem ovakvog testa,

we can draw cause and effect relationships

možemo povući uzročno-posledične veze

between the activity of specific neurons

između aktivnosti specifičnih neurona

in particular circuits and particular behaviors,

u pojedinim kolima i pojedinih vidova ponašanja,

something that is extremely difficult, if not impossible,

a kod ljudi je to sada veoma teško,

to do right now in humans.

ako ne i nemoguće.

But can an organism like a fruit fly, which is --

Ali može li organizam poput vinske mušice -

it's a great model organism

koji je sjajan modelni organizam

because it's got a small brain,

jer ima mali mozak,

it's capable of complex and sophisticated behaviors,

sposoban je za kompleksna i prefinjena ponašanja,

it breeds quickly, and it's cheap.

brzo se razmnožava i jeftin je.

But can an organism like this

Ali može li organizam poput ovog

teach us anything about emotion-like states?

da nas nauči nešto o stanjima poput emocija?

Do these organisms even have emotion-like states,

Da li ovi organizmi uopšte imaju stanja poput emocija

or are they just little digital robots?

ili su samo maleni digitalni roboti?

Charles Darwin believed that insects have emotion

Čarls Darvin je verovao da insekti imaju emocije

and express them in their behaviors, as he wrote

i da ih izražavaju kroz svoje ponašanje, kao što je i napisao

in his 1872 monograph on the expression of the emotions in man and animals.

u svojoj monografiji o izrazima emocija kod ljudi i životinja iz 1872.

And my eponymous colleague, Seymour Benzer, believed it as well.

Moj kolega Simor Benzer je takođe verovao u to.

Seymour is the man that introduced the use of drosophila

Simor je čovek koji je uveo korišćenje vinskih mušica

here at CalTech in the '60s as a model organism

kao modelnog organizma na Kalteku '60-tih godina

to study the connection between genes and behavior.

da bi proučavao vezu između gena i ponašanja.

Seymour recruited me to CalTech in the late 1980s.

Simor me je regrutovao na Kaltek krajem '80-tih.

He was my Jedi and my rabbi while he was here,

Dok je bio ovde, bio je moj džedaj i rabin,

and Seymour taught me both to love flies

i Simor me je naučio da volim vinske mušice

and also to play with science.

kao i da se igram naukom.

So how do we ask this question?

Kako postaviti ovakvo pitanje?

It's one thing to believe that flies have emotion-like states,

Jedno je verovati da vinske mušice imaju stanja poput emocija,

but how do we actually find out whether that's true or not?

ali kako da zaista otkrijemo da li je to istina ili ne?

Now, in humans we often infer emotional states,

Kod ljudi često vidimo stanja poput emocija

as you'll hear later today, from facial expressions.

iz izraza lica, kao što ćete čuti kasnije u toku dana.

However, it's a little difficult to do that in fruit flies.

Ipak, to je pomalo teško uraditi sa vinskim mušicama.

(Laughter)

(Smeh)

It's kind of like landing on Mars

To je kao kad biste sleteli na Mars

and looking out the window of your spaceship

i pogledali kroz prozor svemirskog broda

at all the little green men who are surrounding it

u male zelene ljude u oko njega

and trying to figure out, "How do I find out

i pokušali da odgonetnete: "Kako da otkrijem

if they have emotions or not?"

da li oni imaju ili nemaju emocije?"

What can we do? It's not so easy.

Šta možemo uraditi? Ovo nije lako.

Well, one of the ways that we can start

Jedan od načina kako početi

is to try to come up with some general characteristics

je da smislimo neke opšte karakteristike

or properties of emotion-like states

ili svojstva stanja poput emocija

such as arousal, and see if we can identify

poput nadražaja i da vidimo da li možemo prepoznati

any fly behaviors that might exhibit some of those properties.

neka ponašanja vinskih mušica sa tim istim karakteristikama.

So three important ones that I can think of

Tri bitne karakteristike koje mi padaju na pamet

are persistence, gradations in intensity, and valence.

su istrajnost, postepenost intenziteta i valenca.

Persistence means long-lasting.

Istrajnost podrazumeva trajanje.

We all know that the stimulus that triggers an emotion

Svi znamo da nadražaj koji izaziva emociju

causes that emotion to last long after the stimulus is gone.

prouzrokuje da ta emocija traje dugo nakon što je nadražaj nestao.

Gradations of intensity means what it sounds like.

Postepenost intenziteta znači upravo to.

You can dial up the intensity or dial down the intensity of an emotion.

Možete pojačati ili smanjiti intenzitet emocije.

If you're a little bit unhappy, the corners of your mouth

Ako ste pomalo nesrećni, uglovi vaših usta

turn down and you sniffle,

će se spustiti i šmrkaćete,

and if you're very unhappy, tears pour down your face

a ako ste veoma nesrećni, niz lice će vam ići suze

and you might sob.

i možda ćete jecati.

Valence means good or bad, positive or negative.

Valenca podrazumeva dobro ili loše, pozitivno ili negativno.

So we decided to see if flies could be provoked into showing

Odlučili smo da vidimo da li mušice možemo naterati da pokažu

the kind of behavior that you see

vrstu ponašanja koje vidite

by the proverbial wasp at the picnic table,

kod ose iz poslovice, za stolom na izletu.

you know, the one that keeps coming back to your hamburger

Osa će nasrtati na vaš hamburger

the more vigorously you try to swat it away,

i što više pokušavate da je smljeskate,

and it seems to keep getting irritated.

čini se da se ona više razdražuje.

So we built a device, which we call a puff-o-mat,

Stvorili smo napravu koju zovemo duvomat,

in which we could deliver little brief air puffs to fruit flies

sa kojom možemo proizvesti malene nalete vazduha ka vinskim mušicama

in these plastic tubes in our laboratory bench

u ovim plastičnim cevima u našoj laboratoriji

and blow them away.

i da ih tako oduvamo.

And what we found is that if we gave these flies

Otkrili smo da ako ovim mušicama damo

in the puff-o-mat several puffs in a row,

nekoliko naleta vazduha zaredom,

they became somewhat hyperactive

postanu pomalo hiperaktivne

and continued to run around for some time after the air puffs actually stopped

i nastave da trče okolo neko vreme nakon što naleti prestanu

and took a while to calm down.

i treba im dosta da se smire.

So we quantified this behavior

Izmerili smo ovo ponašanje

using custom locomotor tracking software

putem posebnog softvera za praćenje kretanja,

developed with my collaborator Pietro Perona,

koji smo razvili sa mojim saradnikom Pjetrom Peronom,

who's in the electrical engineering division here at CalTech.

sa odseka elektrotehnike ovde na Kalteku.

And what this quantification showed us is that,

Brojke su nam pokazale da,

upon experiencing a train of these air puffs,

nakon što iskuse niz ovih naleta vazduha,

the flies appear to enter a kind of state of hyperactivity

mušice padaju u stanje hiperaktivnosti

which is persistent, long-lasting,

koje je istrajno, dugotrajno

and also appears to be graded.

i takođe se može gradirati.

More puffs, or more intense puffs,

Više naleta vazduha ili više intenzivnijih naleta,

make the state last for a longer period of time.

prouzrokuju da stanje traje duže.

So now we wanted to try to understand something

Sada smo hteli da pokušamo da razumemo nešto

about what controls the duration of this state.

o tome šta kontroliše dužinu trajanja stanja.

So we decided to use our puff-o-mat

Odlučili smo da iskoristimo naš duvomat

and our automated tracking software

i automatski softver za praćenje

to screen through hundreds of lines of mutant fruit flies

da snimimo stotine linija mutiranih vinskih mušica

to see if we could find any that showed abnormal responses to the air puffs.

i vidimo da li možemo naći neke sa neuobičajenom reakcijom na nalete vazduha.

And this is one of the great things about fruit flies.

Ovo jedna od sjajnih stvari u vezi sa vinskim mušicama.

There are repositories where you can just pick up the phone

Postoje spremišta gde samo uzmete telefon

and order hundreds of vials of flies of different mutants

i naručite stotine ampula različitih mutanata vinskih mušica

and screen them in your assay and then find out

i pregledate ih u svom ogledu da otkrijete

what gene is affected in the mutation.

koji gen je pogođen mutacijom.

So doing the screen, we discovered one mutant

Tokom pregleda otkrili smo jednog mutanta

that took much longer than normal to calm down

kojem je trebalo puno duže da se smiri

after the air puffs,

nakon naleta vazduha

and when we examined the gene that was affected in this mutation,

i kada smo ispitali gen pogođen mutacijom,

it turned out to encode a dopamine receptor.

ispostavilo se da je to receptor dopamina.

That's right -- flies, like people, have dopamine,

Tako je - mušice, poput ljudi, imaju dopamin

and it acts on their brains and on their synapses

i on deluje na njihove mozgove i sinapse

through the same dopamine receptor molecules

kroz iste molekule receptora dopamina

that you and I have.

koje imamo vi i ja.

Dopamine plays a number of important functions in the brain,

Dopamin ima dosta važnih funkcija u mozgu,

including in attention, arousal, reward,

poput pažnje, nadražaja, nagrađivanja

and disorders of the dopamine system have been linked

i poremećaji u sistemu dopamina su povezivani

to a number of mental disorders including drug abuse,

sa nekoliko mentalnih poremećaja poput korišćenja droga

Parkinson's disease, and ADHD.

Parkinsonove bolesti, i hiperkinetičkog poremećaja.

Now, in genetics, it's a little counterintuitive.

U genetici stvari idu malo protiv intuicije.

We tend to infer the normal function of something

Normalnu funkciju nečega zaključujemo

by what doesn't happen when we take it away,

iz toga šta se ne desi kada to sklonimo,

by the opposite of what we see when we take it away.

iz suprotnog od onog što vidimo kada to sklonimo.

So when we take away the dopamine receptor

Tako da kada uklonimo receptor dopamina

and the flies take longer to calm down,

i mušicama treba više da se smire,

from that we infer that the normal function of this receptor and dopamine

iz toga zakljčujemo da je normalna funkcija dopamina i ovog receptora

is to cause the flies to calm down faster after the puff.

da dovede do toga da se mušice brže smire nakon naleta vazduha.

And that's a bit reminiscent of ADHD,

To podseća na hiperkinetički poremećaj,

which has been linked to disorders of the dopamine system in humans.

koji je povezivan sa poremećajima sistema dopamina kod ljudi.

Indeed, if we increase the levels of dopamine in normal flies

Zaista, ako povećamo nivoe dopamina kod normalnih mušica

by feeding them cocaine

tako što im dajemo kokain

after getting the appropriate DEA license

nakon što od Agencije za narkotike dobijemo odgovarajuću dozvolu

— oh my God -- (Laughter) —

- O, bože moj - (Smeh)

we find indeed that these cocaine-fed flies

zaista otkrivamo da se ove mušice na kokainu

calm down faster than normal flies do,

smiruju brže od običnih mušica,

and that's also reminiscent of ADHD,

i ovo takođe podseća na hiperkinetički poremećaj,

which is often treated with drugs like Ritalin

koji se često leči lekovima poput Ritalina

that act similarly to cocaine.

koji deluju slično kokainu.

So slowly I began to realize that what started out

Polako sam počeo da shvatam da je ono što je počelo

as a rather playful attempt to try to annoy fruit flies

kao nestašan pokušaj da se iznerviraju vinske mušice

might actually have some relevance to a human psychiatric disorder.

može da bude bitno za duševne poremećaje kod ljudi.

Now, how far does this analogy go?

Koliko daleko seže ova analogija?

As many of you know, individuals afflicted with ADHD

Kao što mnogi ovde znaju, ljudi sa hiperkinetičkim poremećajem

also have learning disabilities.

takođe imaju poremećaje u učenju.

Is that true of our dopamine receptor mutant flies?

Da li je to tačno i za naše mutantske muve sa receptorima dopamina?

Remarkably, the answer is yes.

Neverovatno, ali odgovor je da.

As Seymour showed back in the 1970s,

Kao što je Simor pokazao sedamdesetih,

flies, like songbirds, as you just heard,

mušice, poput ptica pevačica, kao što ste upravo čuli,

are capable of learning.

imaju mogućnost učenja.

You can train a fly to avoid an odor, shown here in blue,

Mušicu možete obučiti da izbegava miris, ovde obeležen plavim,

if you pair that odor with a shock.

ako taj miris uparite sa šokom.

Then when you give those trained flies the chance to choose

Onda kada tim obučenim mušicama date priliku da biraju

between a tube with the shock-paired odor and another odor,

između cevi sa mirisom koji je uparen sa šokom i drugim mirisom

it avoids the tube containing the blue odor that was paired with shock.

ona izbegava cev sa plavim mirisom koji je uparen sa šokom.

Well, if you do this test on dopamine receptor mutant flies,

Ako uradite ovaj test na mutantskim mušicama sa receptorima dopamina,

they don't learn. Their learning score is zero.

one ne uče. Njihov rezultat je nula.

They flunk out of CalTech.

Izbacuju ih sa Kalteka.

So that means that these flies have two abnormalities,

To znači da ove mušice imaju dve abnormalnosti

or phenotypes, as we geneticists call them,

ili fenotipa, kao ih zovemo mi genetičari,

that one finds in ADHD: hyperactivity and learning disability.

koji se mogu naći kod hiperkinetičkog poremečaja: hiperaktivnost i poremećaj u učenju.

Now what's the causal relationship, if anything, between these phenotypes?

Koja je uzročna veza između ova dva fenotipa, ako je uopšte i ima?

In ADHD, it's often assumed that the hyperactivity

Kod hiperkinetičkog poremećaja, često se pretpostavlja da hiperaktivnost

causes the learning disability.

izaziva poremećaj u učenju.

The kids can't sit still long enough to focus, so they don't learn.

Deca ne mogu da sede dovoljno dugo da se usredsrede, tako da ne uče.

But it could equally be the case that it's the learning disabilities

Ali isto tako može biti da poremećaj u učenju

that cause the hyperactivity.

izaziva hiperaktivnost.

Because the kids can't learn, they look for other things to distract their attention.

Kako deca ne mogu da uče, traže druge stvari da im odvuku pažnju.

And a final possibility is that there's no relationship at all

Poslednja mogućnost je da veza ne postoji uopšte

between learning disabilities and hyperactivity,

između poremećaja u učenju i hiperaktivnosti,

but that they are caused by a common underlying mechanism in ADHD.

nego da ih izaziva zajednički pozadinski mehanizam kod hiperkinetičkog poremećaja.

Now people have been wondering about this for a long time

Naučnike je ovo dugo zanimalo kod ljudi

in humans, but in flies we can actually test this.

ali kod mušica to zapravo možemo testirati.

And the way that we do this is to delve deeply into the mind

Ovo radimo tako što zaronimo duboko u um mušice

of the fly and begin to untangle its circuitry using genetics.

i počnemo da odmotavamo njegova kola kroz genetiku.

We take our dopamine receptor mutant flies

Uzmemo mutantske mušice sa receptorima dopamina

and we genetically restore, or cure, the dopamine receptor

i genetski povratimo ili izlečimo receptor dopamina

by putting a good copy of the dopamine receptor gene

tako što vratimo dobar primerak gena receptora dopamina

back into the fly brain.

nazad u mozak mušice

But in each fly, we put it back only into certain neurons

Ali kod svake mušice ga vraćamo samo u određene neurone

and not in others, and then we test each of these flies

a ne u druge i onda svaku od ovih mušica testiramo

for their ability to learn and for hyperactivity.

na sposobnost učenja i hiperaktivnost.

Remarkably, we find we can completely dissociate these two abnormalities.

Neverovatno, ali možemo u potpunosti razdvojiti ove dve abnormalnosti.

If we put a good copy of the dopamine receptor back

Ako vratimo dobar primerak receptora dopamina

in this elliptical structure called the central complex,

u ovu eliptičnu strukturu zvanu centralni kompleks

the flies are no longer hyperactive, but they still can't learn.

mušice više nisu hiperaktivne, ali još ne mogu da uče.

On the other hand, if we put the receptor back in a different structure

Sa druge strane, ako vratimo receptor u drugačiju strukturu

called the mushroom body,

zvanu telo pečurke,

the learning deficit is rescued, the flies learn well,

deficit u učenju je spašen, mušice uče dobro,

but they're still hyperactive.

ali su još uvek hiperaktivne.

What that tells us is that dopamine

To nam govori da mozak mušica

is not bathing the brain of these flies like soup.

ne pliva u dopaminu kao u supi.

Rather, it's acting to control two different functions

Dopamin zapravo kontroliše dve odvojene funkcije

on two different circuits,

na dva odvojena kola,

so the reason there are two things wrong with our dopamine receptor flies

tako da to što dve stvari ne valjaju sa našim mušicama sa receptorima dopamina,

is that the same receptor is controlling two different functions

je zbog toga što isti receptor kontroliše dve različite funkcije

in two different regions of the brain.

u dva različita dela mozga.

Whether the same thing is true in ADHD in humans

Ne znamo da li je isto tačno za hiperkinetički poremećaj

we don't know, but these kinds of results

kod ljudi, ali ovakvi rezultati

should at least cause us to consider that possibility.

u najmanju ruku treba da nas nateraju da to uzmemo u obzir.

So these results make me and my colleagues more convinced than ever

Ovi rezultati mene i moje kolege uveravaju više nego ikad

that the brain is not a bag of chemical soup,

da mozak nije kesica hemijske supe

and it's a mistake to try to treat complex psychiatric disorders

i da je greška lečiti kompleksne duševne poremećaje

just by changing the flavor of the soup.

samo menjanjem ukusa te supe.

What we need to do is to use our ingenuity and our scientific knowledge

Moramo da iskoristimo svoju genijalnost i naučno znanje

to try to design a new generation of treatments

i pokušamo da smislimo novu generaciju tretmana

that are targeted to specific neurons and specific regions of the brain

namenjenih specifičnim neuronima i delovima mozga

that are affected in particular psychiatric disorders.

koje pogađaju pojedini duševni poremećaji.

If we can do that, we may be able to cure these disorders

Ako možemo da uradimo to, možda ćemo moći da izlečimo ove poremećaje

without the unpleasant side effects,

bez neprijatnih neželjenih dejstava,

putting the oil back in our mental engines,

da vratimo ulje u naše mentalne motore,

just where it's needed. Thank you very much.

baš tamo gde treba. Hvala puno.