David Anderson: Your brain is more than a bag of chemicals

163,785 views ・ 2013-03-12

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00:00
Translator: Joseph Geni Reviewer: Morton Bast
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譯者: William Choi 審譯者: Yuen-Lam Tsang
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So raise your hand if you know someone
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如果你的家人或者朋友
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in your immediate family or circle of friends
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曾經遭受到精神疾病的困擾,
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who suffers from some form of mental illness.
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請舉手。
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Yeah. I thought so. Not surprised.
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耶。我想應該如此的,不必驚訝。
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And raise your hand if you think that
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如果你認為
00:30
basic research on fruit flies has anything to do
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利用果蠅進行基本研究
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with understanding mental illness in humans.
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與了解人類精神疾病 有關聯的話,請舉手。
00:37
Yeah. I thought so. I'm also not surprised.
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耶。我想應該如此的,我也不會感到驚訝。
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I can see I've got my work cut out for me here.
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我知道在這裡 我的任務非常困難,
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As we heard from Dr. Insel this morning,
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正如Dr. Insel今早對我們說,
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psychiatric disorders like autism, depression and schizophrenia
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精神疾病,如:自閉症、 憂鬱症、精神分裂症等,
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take a terrible toll on human suffering.
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讓人類遭受無比的痛苦,
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We know much less about their treatment
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我們對精神疾病的治療
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and the understanding of their basic mechanisms
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和基本機制的了解
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than we do about diseases of the body.
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比身體疾病的認識知道得更少,
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Think about it: In 2013,
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試想想:在2013年,
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the second decade of the millennium,
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21世紀第二個十年,
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if you're concerned about a cancer diagnosis
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如果你想進行癌症診斷,
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and you go to your doctor, you get bone scans,
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你會找醫師安排去做骨骼掃瞄、
01:11
biopsies and blood tests.
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切片檢查和血液檢查。
01:14
In 2013, if you're concerned about a depression diagnosis,
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在2013年,如果你想進行憂鬱症診斷,
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you go to your doctor, and what do you get?
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你會找醫師,你會得到甚麼呢?
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A questionnaire.
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一份問卷調查。
01:22
Now, part of the reason for this is that we have
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部分導致目前的情況的原因是由於
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an oversimplified and increasingly outmoded view
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我們對精神疾病的生物基礎,
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of the biological basis of psychiatric disorders.
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持有過份簡單和 越來越過時的觀點,
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We tend to view them --
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我們傾向於認為大眾媒體
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and the popular press aids and abets this view --
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對這觀點形成有所幫助和煽動 -
01:36
as chemical imbalances in the brain,
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腦中的化學物質失衡了,
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as if the brain were some kind of bag of chemical soup
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腦部就像一盒含化學物質成分 的羹湯,
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full of dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine.
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充滿了多巴胺、血清素和去甲腎上腺素,
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This view is conditioned by the fact
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這觀點取決於以下事實,
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that many of the drugs that are prescribed to treat these disorders,
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很多治療這類疾病的 處方藥物如百憂解(Prozac),
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like Prozac, act by globally changing brain chemistry,
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全面地改變了大腦化學物質,
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as if the brain were indeed a bag of chemical soup.
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好像腦部確實是一盒含 化學物質成分的羹湯。
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But that can't be the answer,
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但這不是答案,
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because these drugs actually don't work all that well.
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因為這些藥物事實上不是那麼好,
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A lot of people won't take them, or stop taking them,
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很多病人不會服用 或者停止服用了,
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because of their unpleasant side effects.
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由於那些令人不快的副作用。
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These drugs have so many side effects
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這些藥物有那麼多副作用,
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because using them to treat a complex psychiatric disorder
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用以治療複雜精神疾病,
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is a bit like trying to change your engine oil
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有點像更換引擎機油時,
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by opening a can and pouring it all over the engine block.
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打開了罐,把機油傾倒 在引擎本體上,
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Some of it will dribble into the right place,
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部分流入了正確位置,
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but a lot of it will do more harm than good.
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但大部分弊大於利,
02:30
Now, an emerging view
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現在,一項新興觀點,
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that you also heard about from Dr. Insel this morning,
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今早你也從Dr. Insel那裡聽說過,
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is that psychiatric disorders are actually
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說明精神疾病其實是
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disturbances of neural circuits that mediate
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神經中樞回路的擾亂,
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emotion, mood and affect.
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在感情、情緒和感動之間 起中介作用。
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When we think about cognition,
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我們想起認知時,
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we analogize the brain to a computer. That's no problem.
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將腦部比喻為電腦, 是沒有問題的。
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Well it turns out that the computer analogy
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那麼證明了這比喻
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is just as valid for emotion.
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也可以應用到情緒上,
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It's just that we don't tend to think about it that way.
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只是我們不會有這樣子的想法。
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But we know much less about the circuit basis
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但是我們對精神疾病的
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of psychiatric disorders
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回路基礎知道得很少,
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because of the overwhelming dominance
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因為這個化學物質不平衡假設
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of this chemical imbalance hypothesis.
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勢不可擋兼具主導地位。
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Now, it's not that chemicals are not important
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化學物質在精神疾病中
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in psychiatric disorders.
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並不是不重要,
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It's just that they don't bathe the brain like soup.
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只是他們不會在腦部沉浸,像羹湯一樣,
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Rather, they're released in very specific locations
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而是將化學物質釋放在特定位置,
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and they act on specific synapses
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作用於特定的突觸,
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to change the flow of information in the brain.
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以改變腦部資訊的流向。
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So if we ever really want to understand
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如果我們真的想理解
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the biological basis of psychiatric disorders,
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精神疾病的生物基礎,
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we need to pinpoint these locations in the brain
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就需要找出化學物質
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where these chemicals act.
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在腦部作用的位置,
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Otherwise, we're going to keep pouring oil all over our mental engines
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否則我們不停把精神機器加滿油,
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and suffering the consequences.
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並遭受到痛苦的結果。
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Now to begin to overcome our ignorance
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現在開始戰勝我們的無知,
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of the role of brain chemistry in brain circuitry,
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尤其腦部化學物質在腦部回路中的角色,
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it's helpful to work on what we biologists call
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對於我們生物學家稱為
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"model organisms,"
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「模式生物」的研究還有幫助,
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animals like fruit flies and laboratory mice,
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一些動物如果蠅和實驗小鼠,
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in which we can apply powerful genetic techniques
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我們能以強勁的基因技術
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to molecularly identify and pinpoint
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在分子裡找出及確定
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specific classes of neurons,
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特定類型的神經元,
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as you heard about in Allan Jones's talk this morning.
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正如今早Allan Jones 所講。
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Moreover, once we can do that,
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此外,當我們確定哪類型後,
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we can actually activate specific neurons
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就能激活特定的神經元細胞,
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or we can destroy or inhibit the activity of those neurons.
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也能毀滅或抑制神經元的活動。
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So if we inhibit a particular type of neuron,
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如果我們抑制特定種類的神經元,
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and we find that a behavior is blocked,
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就會發現某些行為被阻止了。
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we can conclude that those neurons
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我們可以得出這樣的結論,
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are necessary for that behavior.
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某些行為確實需要那些神經元。
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On the other hand, if we activate a group of neurons
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此外,如果我們激活某組的神經元細胞,
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and we find that that produces the behavior,
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就會發現那組細胞產生這行為,
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we can conclude that those neurons are sufficient for the behavior.
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我們可以得出這樣的結論, 那些神經元足以應付行為。
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So in this way, by doing this kind of test,
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由此可見,我們憑這樣的測試,
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we can draw cause and effect relationships
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能為特定神經元之間的活動
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between the activity of specific neurons
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其因果關係作出結論,
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in particular circuits and particular behaviors,
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尤其是特定的回路和特定的行為,
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something that is extremely difficult, if not impossible,
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現在還未能在人類身上作同樣測試,
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to do right now in humans.
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測試是極之困難的。
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But can an organism like a fruit fly, which is --
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但是一個生物體例如果蠅 ─
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it's a great model organism
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牠是非常重要的模式生物,
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because it's got a small brain,
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因為它有一個細小的腦部,
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it's capable of complex and sophisticated behaviors,
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可以控制複雜的行為。
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it breeds quickly, and it's cheap.
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它們繁殖得很快,價錢便宜。
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But can an organism like this
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但是像這樣的生物體
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teach us anything about emotion-like states?
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能否教導我們有關情緒狀態的事情嗎?
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Do these organisms even have emotion-like states,
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究竟這些生物體有沒有情緒狀態
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or are they just little digital robots?
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或只是一些微小的數碼機械人?
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Charles Darwin believed that insects have emotion
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查爾斯·達爾文相信昆蟲也有情緒,
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and express them in their behaviors, as he wrote
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並在行為中流露出來,
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in his 1872 monograph on the expression of the emotions in man and animals.
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1872年他把動物和人類的 情緒表達寫進了專著中,
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And my eponymous colleague, Seymour Benzer, believed it as well.
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與我齊名的同事Seymour Benzer 同樣相信。
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Seymour is the man that introduced the use of drosophila
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在六十年代,Seymour於 加州理工學院這裡,
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here at CalTech in the '60s as a model organism
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開始採用黑腹果蠅作為模式生物,
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to study the connection between genes and behavior.
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去研究基因與行為之間的關係,
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Seymour recruited me to CalTech in the late 1980s.
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在八十年代後期,Seymour招募我 加入加州理工學院,
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He was my Jedi and my rabbi while he was here,
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他是我的絕地武師、猶太教教士,
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and Seymour taught me both to love flies
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Seymour不僅教我愛上果蠅,
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and also to play with science.
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還教我玩科學。
06:04
So how do we ask this question?
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因此,我們該如何提出這問題呢?
06:07
It's one thing to believe that flies have emotion-like states,
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我們可以選擇相信 蒼蠅有情緒狀態這回事,
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but how do we actually find out whether that's true or not?
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但如何事實上分辨真假呢?
06:14
Now, in humans we often infer emotional states,
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我們現在往往從人類面部表情 推測情緒狀態,
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as you'll hear later today, from facial expressions.
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今天晚些你會聽到的,
06:22
However, it's a little difficult to do that in fruit flies.
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然而,有些難以在果蠅身上 做到這一點,
06:26
(Laughter)
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(笑聲)
06:29
It's kind of like landing on Mars
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這像登陸火星一樣,
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and looking out the window of your spaceship
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在太空船上,望向窗外,
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at all the little green men who are surrounding it
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被很多小綠人包圍,
06:37
and trying to figure out, "How do I find out
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並試圖找出,
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if they have emotions or not?"
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「我怎樣找出他們有沒有情緒 ?」
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What can we do? It's not so easy.
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我們可以做些什麼呢? 這不是那麼容易的。
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Well, one of the ways that we can start
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那麼我們可以嘗試其中一個方法,
06:48
is to try to come up with some general characteristics
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就是盡量想出一些
06:52
or properties of emotion-like states
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情緒狀態的特徵或屬性,
06:56
such as arousal, and see if we can identify
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例如警醒程度,看看能否找出
06:59
any fly behaviors that might exhibit some of those properties.
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一些果蠅行為,表現出那些屬性。
07:04
So three important ones that I can think of
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因此,我能想到的三個重要屬性,
07:07
are persistence, gradations in intensity, and valence.
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就是堅持、漸變強度、效價。
07:12
Persistence means long-lasting.
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堅持即是要長期持久的,
07:14
We all know that the stimulus that triggers an emotion
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我們都知道刺激會引發情緒,
07:18
causes that emotion to last long after the stimulus is gone.
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就算刺激消失後, 情緒仍會持續一段很長時間。
07:23
Gradations of intensity means what it sounds like.
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漸變強度即是它聽起來像什麼,
07:26
You can dial up the intensity or dial down the intensity of an emotion.
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您可以把情緒強度增加或減少,
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If you're a little bit unhappy, the corners of your mouth
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如果你有點兒不高興,
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turn down and you sniffle,
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你的嘴角會向下, 你也會流鼻涕,
07:35
and if you're very unhappy, tears pour down your face
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如果你真的不高興, 淚水傾瀉而下,
07:38
and you might sob.
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那麼你可會抽泣。
07:40
Valence means good or bad, positive or negative.
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效價是指「好」還是「壞」, 「正面」或「負面」,
07:44
So we decided to see if flies could be provoked into showing
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因此,我們決定去看看 果蠅可否被激怒後,
07:49
the kind of behavior that you see
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展示出那種行為,
07:51
by the proverbial wasp at the picnic table,
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就像那些出現在野餐桌上 聞名遐爾的黃蜂,
07:54
you know, the one that keeps coming back to your hamburger
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對吧,總是徘徊到你的漢堡包,
07:57
the more vigorously you try to swat it away,
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你趕走得越起勁,
07:59
and it seems to keep getting irritated.
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它似乎變得更惱火。
08:02
So we built a device, which we call a puff-o-mat,
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因此,我們製造了一個裝置, 稱為噴風墊 ("puff-o-mat"),
08:05
in which we could deliver little brief air puffs to fruit flies
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我們可以把短暫的空氣噴到果蠅,
08:10
in these plastic tubes in our laboratory bench
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就在我們實驗室台上的塑膠管裡,
08:12
and blow them away.
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吹走他們。
08:14
And what we found is that if we gave these flies
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我們還發現如果給這些果蠅
08:17
in the puff-o-mat several puffs in a row,
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在噴風墊上連續噴氣幾次,
08:20
they became somewhat hyperactive
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他們變得有些過動,
08:23
and continued to run around for some time after the air puffs actually stopped
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在停止噴空氣後, 還繼續到處跑了一段時間,
08:27
and took a while to calm down.
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好一會才冷靜下來。
08:30
So we quantified this behavior
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因此,我們使用自訂的
08:32
using custom locomotor tracking software
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運動跟踪軟件去量化這種行為,
08:35
developed with my collaborator Pietro Perona,
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這軟件由我的協作者 彼得羅佩羅娜(Pietro Perona)開發,
08:38
who's in the electrical engineering division here at CalTech.
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他在加州理工學院這裡 的電氣工程系工作,
08:42
And what this quantification showed us is that,
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這些量化數據顯示出
08:45
upon experiencing a train of these air puffs,
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當果蠅遇到這些噴氣管時,
08:48
the flies appear to enter a kind of state of hyperactivity
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就會進入過動狀態,
08:52
which is persistent, long-lasting,
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而且是持久的,
08:55
and also appears to be graded.
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然後我們會評分。
08:57
More puffs, or more intense puffs,
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多噴些空氣、或噴出更強烈的空氣,
09:00
make the state last for a longer period of time.
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使這狀態持續較長一段的時間。
09:04
So now we wanted to try to understand something
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所以,現在我們嘗試去了解那些東西
09:06
about what controls the duration of this state.
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可控制此狀態多久。
09:10
So we decided to use our puff-o-mat
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我們決定使用噴風墊
09:13
and our automated tracking software
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和自動運動跟踪軟件,
09:15
to screen through hundreds of lines of mutant fruit flies
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通過對數百串突變果蠅進行篩選,
09:19
to see if we could find any that showed abnormal responses to the air puffs.
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看看能否發現對噴氣 產生任何異常反應。
09:24
And this is one of the great things about fruit flies.
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而這是關於果蠅最棒的地方之一,
09:26
There are repositories where you can just pick up the phone
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你可以拿起電話筒接駁到儲存庫,
09:29
and order hundreds of vials of flies of different mutants
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訂購幾百瓶不同突變型式的果蠅,
09:32
and screen them in your assay and then find out
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在分析試驗中進行篩選,然後找出
09:35
what gene is affected in the mutation.
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哪些基因受到突變的影響。
09:38
So doing the screen, we discovered one mutant
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因此,做了篩選後,我們發現一個突變,
09:41
that took much longer than normal to calm down
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使果蠅在噴氣後, 需要比正常更多一點的時間
09:45
after the air puffs,
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才平靜下來,
09:47
and when we examined the gene that was affected in this mutation,
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當我們研究這個基因 如何受到突變的影響時,
09:51
it turned out to encode a dopamine receptor.
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整件事變成將一個多巴胺受體進行編碼。
09:55
That's right -- flies, like people, have dopamine,
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這是正確的 - 果蠅也分泌多巴胺, 就像人一樣,
09:58
and it acts on their brains and on their synapses
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而通過多巴胺受體,
10:00
through the same dopamine receptor molecules
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它作用於大腦和突觸,
10:03
that you and I have.
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而你和我也擁有相同的受體分子。
10:05
Dopamine plays a number of important functions in the brain,
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在大腦中,多巴胺發揮了一些重要作用,
10:09
including in attention, arousal, reward,
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包括注意力、警醒、報應,
10:12
and disorders of the dopamine system have been linked
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而多巴胺系統的疾病與 很多精神疾病互相關聯的,
10:15
to a number of mental disorders including drug abuse,
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例如:濫用藥物、
10:19
Parkinson's disease, and ADHD.
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帕金森氏病、注意力不足過動症等。
10:23
Now, in genetics, it's a little counterintuitive.
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現時,在遺傳學上, 這是有點違反直覺的。
10:26
We tend to infer the normal function of something
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我們傾向於推斷, 當我們把某東西拿走時,
10:29
by what doesn't happen when we take it away,
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那正常功能也會跟著消失,
10:33
by the opposite of what we see when we take it away.
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與之相反,當我們拿走它時, 看到了什麼。
10:36
So when we take away the dopamine receptor
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所以當我們拿掉多巴胺受體時,
10:39
and the flies take longer to calm down,
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果蠅需要較長時間冷靜下來,
10:41
from that we infer that the normal function of this receptor and dopamine
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由此推斷,這些受體 和多巴胺的正常功能,
10:45
is to cause the flies to calm down faster after the puff.
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就是導致果蠅在噴氣後 較快冷靜下來的原因。
10:49
And that's a bit reminiscent of ADHD,
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也有點讓人聯想到 注意力不足過動症,
10:52
which has been linked to disorders of the dopamine system in humans.
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已被證實與人類 多巴胺系統疾病有關。
10:56
Indeed, if we increase the levels of dopamine in normal flies
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事實上,如果我們用可卡因 餵養正常果蠅,
11:01
by feeding them cocaine
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以增加多巴胺的水平,
11:03
after getting the appropriate DEA license
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在取得美國緝毒局許可證的情況下,
11:06
— oh my God -- (Laughter) —
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噢!我的天呀! - (笑聲) -
11:10
we find indeed that these cocaine-fed flies
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事實上,我們發現這些體內 含可卡因的蒼蠅,
11:13
calm down faster than normal flies do,
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比正常果蠅較快冷靜下來,
11:16
and that's also reminiscent of ADHD,
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也讓人聯想到注意力不足過動症,
11:19
which is often treated with drugs like Ritalin
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醫師常處方藥物如利他能,
11:21
that act similarly to cocaine.
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與可卡因的作用相近。
11:24
So slowly I began to realize that what started out
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因此,我慢慢地開始了解到,
11:27
as a rather playful attempt to try to annoy fruit flies
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試圖惹惱果蠅, 這個頗為有趣的玩笑,
11:31
might actually have some relevance to a human psychiatric disorder.
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實際上可能與人類精神疾病相關。
11:35
Now, how far does this analogy go?
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現在,這個比喻有多貼題?
11:37
As many of you know, individuals afflicted with ADHD
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正如你們許多人知道, 注意力不足過動症患者
11:40
also have learning disabilities.
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也有學習障礙。
11:43
Is that true of our dopamine receptor mutant flies?
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多巴胺受體發生突變的果蠅 也是如此嗎?
11:46
Remarkably, the answer is yes.
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令人意想不到的是,答案是肯定的。
11:49
As Seymour showed back in the 1970s,
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Seymour於七十年代己指出,
11:52
flies, like songbirds, as you just heard,
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果蠅像燕雀一樣,正如你剛聽到的,
11:54
are capable of learning.
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也有學習的能力。
11:56
You can train a fly to avoid an odor, shown here in blue,
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你可以訓練果蠅迴避一股氣味, 此處顯示為藍色,
12:00
if you pair that odor with a shock.
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如果你將那種氣味 與震驚來進行配對,
12:03
Then when you give those trained flies the chance to choose
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然後,讓那些受過訓練的果蠅有機會
12:06
between a tube with the shock-paired odor and another odor,
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在與震驚配對的氣味和另一氣味 的塑膠管之間進行選擇,
12:09
it avoids the tube containing the blue odor that was paired with shock.
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果蠅迴避了含有與震驚搭配 含藍色氣味的塑膠管,
12:13
Well, if you do this test on dopamine receptor mutant flies,
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好的,如果你在多巴胺受體突變 的果蠅身上進行這項測試,
12:17
they don't learn. Their learning score is zero.
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他們不會學習,他們的學習分數為零,
12:19
They flunk out of CalTech.
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在加州理工學院考試不及格而退學。
12:23
So that means that these flies have two abnormalities,
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實驗結果顯示這些果蠅有兩種異常,
12:28
or phenotypes, as we geneticists call them,
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或顯型,如我們遺傳學家稱他們為,
12:31
that one finds in ADHD: hyperactivity and learning disability.
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過動和學習障礙, 注意力不足過動症中找到的,
12:36
Now what's the causal relationship, if anything, between these phenotypes?
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在兩個顯型之間,如有的話, 是什麼樣的因果關係呢?
12:41
In ADHD, it's often assumed that the hyperactivity
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在注意力不足過動症中,往往假設
12:45
causes the learning disability.
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過動造成了學習障礙。
12:47
The kids can't sit still long enough to focus, so they don't learn.
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小孩坐也坐不住,無法集中注意力, 所以不能學習。
12:50
But it could equally be the case that it's the learning disabilities
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也可會是同樣的情況,學習障礙
12:54
that cause the hyperactivity.
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造成了過動。
12:55
Because the kids can't learn, they look for other things to distract their attention.
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由於孩子無法學習,他們得 尋找其他事來分散注意力。
13:00
And a final possibility is that there's no relationship at all
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最後的可能是
13:03
between learning disabilities and hyperactivity,
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學習障礙和過動之間 根本沒有關係。
13:05
but that they are caused by a common underlying mechanism in ADHD.
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但是他們由一個過動症的 共同內在機制所造成的。
13:10
Now people have been wondering about this for a long time
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長久以來人們一直想知道人體上的機制,
13:13
in humans, but in flies we can actually test this.
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但是我們可以在果蠅身上實際測試,
13:16
And the way that we do this is to delve deeply into the mind
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而我們這樣做的方式是 深入鑽研果蠅的頭腦,
13:19
of the fly and begin to untangle its circuitry using genetics.
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開始採用遺傳基因以解開其回路,
13:23
We take our dopamine receptor mutant flies
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我們拿掉突變果蠅的多巴胺受體,
13:26
and we genetically restore, or cure, the dopamine receptor
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然後以遺傳學方法, 修復或治療多巴胺受體,
13:30
by putting a good copy of the dopamine receptor gene
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把多巴胺受體基因的好拷貝
13:34
back into the fly brain.
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放回果蠅腦中,
13:36
But in each fly, we put it back only into certain neurons
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但是在每隻果蠅身上, 我們只放回某些神經元,
13:40
and not in others, and then we test each of these flies
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不是其他神經元, 然後我們測試每隻果蠅的
13:43
for their ability to learn and for hyperactivity.
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學習和過動的能力。
13:47
Remarkably, we find we can completely dissociate these two abnormalities.
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我們出奇地發現,兩種異常可完全分離。
13:52
If we put a good copy of the dopamine receptor back
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如果我們把多巴胺受體的好拷貝
13:54
in this elliptical structure called the central complex,
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放回這個橢圓形的中央複合體,
13:57
the flies are no longer hyperactive, but they still can't learn.
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果蠅就不再過動,但仍不能學習,
14:01
On the other hand, if we put the receptor back in a different structure
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另一方面,我們把受體放到別的組織,
14:04
called the mushroom body,
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名為蕈狀體,
14:06
the learning deficit is rescued, the flies learn well,
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學習缺陷從而得以倖免,果蠅便好好學習,
14:09
but they're still hyperactive.
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但他們仍然過動。
14:11
What that tells us is that dopamine
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這事告訴我們,多巴胺
14:13
is not bathing the brain of these flies like soup.
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沒有在這些果蠅大腦中像羹湯一樣沐浴,
14:16
Rather, it's acting to control two different functions
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相反,它對兩個不同回路上的
14:19
on two different circuits,
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兩個不同功能,擔任控制角色,
14:21
so the reason there are two things wrong with our dopamine receptor flies
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所以有兩件關於果蠅多巴胺受體 的事情是錯誤了,
14:25
is that the same receptor is controlling two different functions
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是同一個受體控制腦部
14:29
in two different regions of the brain.
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兩個不同區域的兩個不同功能。
14:32
Whether the same thing is true in ADHD in humans
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我們不知道同樣的事情在 人類的注意力不足過動症上
14:35
we don't know, but these kinds of results
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是否相同,但是這些結果
14:37
should at least cause us to consider that possibility.
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至少導致我們考慮那個可能性,
14:41
So these results make me and my colleagues more convinced than ever
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所以這些結果使我和我的同事 更加深信,
14:45
that the brain is not a bag of chemical soup,
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腦部不是一盒含化學物質的羹湯,
14:48
and it's a mistake to try to treat complex psychiatric disorders
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把治療複雜的精神疾病看成
14:52
just by changing the flavor of the soup.
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改變羹湯味道是錯誤的。
14:55
What we need to do is to use our ingenuity and our scientific knowledge
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我們需要運用聰明才智和科學知識,
14:59
to try to design a new generation of treatments
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去嘗試設計新一代的治療方法,
15:01
that are targeted to specific neurons and specific regions of the brain
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針對特定的神經元和特定的腦部區域,
15:06
that are affected in particular psychiatric disorders.
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受特定精神疾病所影響的,
15:09
If we can do that, we may be able to cure these disorders
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如果我們能夠做到這點, 或者可治癒這些疾病,
15:12
without the unpleasant side effects,
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而沒有令人不快的副作用,
15:14
putting the oil back in our mental engines,
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把汽油加回我們的精神引擎,
15:17
just where it's needed. Thank you very much.
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這就是那裡所需要的。謝謝。
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