What do all languages have in common? - Cameron Morin

譯者: Lilian Chiu 審譯者: Pui-Ching Siu

Language is endlessly variable.

語言的多變性無窮無盡。

Each of us can come up with an infinite number of sentences

我們每個人都能用母語 說出無限個句子，

in our native language,

and we’re able to do so from an early age—

且我們從小就能做到這一點——

almost as soon as we start to communicate in sentences.

幾乎早在我們開始 用句子溝通時就會了。

How is this possible?

這怎麼可能？

In the early 1950s, Noam Chomsky proposed a theory

在 1950 年代初期， 諾姆．杭士基提出了一個理論，

based on the observation that the key to this versatility seems to be grammar:

理論基於他觀察發現， 語言多樣性關鍵在於文法：

the familiar grammatical structure of an unfamiliar sentence

即使我們不熟悉某個句子， 只要熟悉它的文法結構，

points us toward its meaning.

這結構就能指出它的意思。

He suggested that there are grammatical rules

他指出，有些文法規則

that apply to all languages, and that the rules are innate—

適用於所有語言， 且那些規則是天生的——

the human brain is hardwired to process language according to these rules.

人類大腦本來就會根據 這些規則來處理語言。

He labelled this faculty universal grammar,

他把這種機能稱為普遍文法，

and it launched lines of inquiry that shaped both the field of linguistics

為普遍文法開展的各種調查塑造了

接下來數十年的語言學領域 以及新興的認知科學領域。

and the emerging field of cognitive science for decades to come.

Chomsky and other researchers set out to investigate

杭士基和其他研究者打算要探究

the two main components of universal grammar:

普遍文法的兩個主要要素：

first, whether there are, in fact, grammar rules

第一，實際上是否有些文法規則

that are universal to all languages,

是所有語言通用的；

and, second, whether these rules are hardwired in the brain.

第二，這些規則 是否與生俱來在腦裡。

In attempts to establish the universal rules of grammar,

為了嘗試建立文法的通用規則，

Chomsky developed an analytical tool known as generative syntax,

杭士基開發了一種分析工具， 就是所謂的生成文法。

which represents the order of words in a sentence in hierarchical syntax trees

它代表著句子字詞 在階層語法樹上的順序，

that show what structures are possible.

並顯示哪些結構是可能的。

Based on this tree, we could suggest a grammar rule

根據語法樹，我們能夠 提出一條文法規則：

that adverbs must occur in verb phrases.

副詞一定會出現在動詞片語中。

But with more data, it quickly becomes clear

但有了更多資料後， 很快就能清楚知道

that adverbs can appear outside of verb phrases.

副詞也會出現在 動詞片語以外的地方。

This simplified example illustrates a major problem:

這個簡單的例子說明一個重大問題：

it takes a lot of data from each individual language

每種語言需要有大量資料

to establish the rules for that language,

才能為該語言建立規則，

before we can even begin to determine

早於我們開始判斷

which rules all languages might have in common.

所有語言會有什麼共同規則之前。

When Chomsky proposed universal grammar,

當杭士基提出普遍文法時，

many languages lacked the volume of recorded samples

許多語言缺少記錄樣本，

necessary to analyze them using generative syntax.

無法生成文法來分析它們。

Even with lots of data,

就算有很多資料，

mapping the structure of a language is incredibly complex.

描繪出語言的結構也非常複雜。

After 50 years of analysis, we still haven’t completely figured out English.

在 50 年的分析之後，

我們仍然無法完全理解英文。

As more linguist data was gathered and analyzed,

隨著我們收集和分析 越來越多語言資料，

it became clear that languages around the world differ widely,

我們越來越清楚知道 全世界的語言大大不同，

challenging the theory that there were universal grammar rules.

挑戰了存在普遍文法規則的理論。

In the 1980s, Chomsky revised his theory

1980 年代，杭士基修改了他的理論，

in an attempt to accommodate this variation.

試圖將這些變異納入考量。

According to his new hypothesis of principles and parameters,

根據他對原則和參數做的新假設，

all languages shared certain grammatical principles,

語言全都具有某些共同的文法原則，

but could vary in their parameters, or the application of these principles.

但在參數或原則的 應用上可能會有差異。

For example, a principle is “every sentence must have a subject,"

比如，有一條原則是 「每個句子必須要有主詞」，

but the parameter of whether the subject must be explicitly stated

但「是否要明確陳述主詞」這個參數

could vary between languages.

就會因語言而異。

The hypothesis of principles and parameters

原則和參數的假設

still didn’t answer the question of which grammatical principles are universal.

仍無法解答哪些是共通的文法原則。

In the early 2000s, Chomsky suggested that there’s just one shared principle,

在 2000 年代初期， 杭士基指出只有一條通用原則，

called recursion, which means structures can be nested inside each other.

叫做遞迴，意思就是結構 可以套疊在另一個結構中。

Take this sentence,

以這個句子為例， 一個句子嵌在一個句子中，

which embeds a sentence within a sentence within a sentence.

然後又嵌在一個句子中。

Or this sentence, which embeds a noun phrase in a noun phrase

又或這個句子，

一個名詞片語崁在一個名詞片語中，

in a noun phrase.

再崁在一個名詞片語中。

Recursion was a good candidate for a universal grammar rule

遞迴的確很有可能 會是普遍文法規則，

because it can take many forms.

因為它有許多不同的形式。

However, in 2005 linguists published findings

然而語言學家在 2005 年 發表他們的發現：

on an Amazonian language called Piraha,

一種亞馬遜語言，叫做皮拉罕語，

which doesn’t appear to have any recursive structures.

似乎沒有任何遞迴結構。

So what about the other part of Chomsky’s theory,

那杭士基理論的另一個部分：

that our language faculty is innate?

我們的語言機能是天生的嗎？

When he first proposed universal grammar,

當他初次提出普遍文法時，

the idea that there was a genetically determined aspect of language acquisition

「某部分語言學習由基因決定」這想法

had a profound, revolutionary impact.

產生了很深且革命性的影響。

It challenged the dominant paradigm, called behaviorism.

它挑戰了主流的範式：行為主義。

Behaviorists argued that all animal and human behaviors, including language,

行為主義者主張所有的 動物和人類行為，包括語言，

were acquired from the outside by the mind,

都是大腦從外在習得的，

which starts out as a blank slate.

而大腦一開始完全是張白紙。

Today, scientists agree that behaviorism was wrong,

現今，科學家同意 行為主義者是錯的，

and there is underlying, genetically encoded biological machinery

語言學習背後的確有 基因編碼的生物結構。

for language learning.

Many think the same biology responsible for language

許多人認為語言背後的生物學

is also responsible for other aspects of cognition.

同時也負責處理認知的其他方面。

So they disagree with Chomsky’s idea

所以他們不同意 杭士基的這個想法：

that there is a specific, isolated, innate language faculty in the brain.

大腦中有一種明確、 獨立的天生語言機能。

The theory of universal grammar prompted the documentation and study

普遍文法理論促成 許多過去沒被研究的語言

of many languages that hadn’t been studied before.

也開始被記錄和研究。

It also caused an old idea to be reevaluated and eventually overthrown

它也導致一個古老的想法 重新被評估，最終被推翻，

to make room for our growing understanding of the human brain.

騰出空間讓我們放入 更多對人類大腦的理解。