The neuroscience of restorative justice | Dan Reisel

譯者: Marssi Draw 審譯者: Adrienne Lin

I'd like to talk today

我今天想談談

about how we can change our brains

人類能如何改變我們的頭腦

and our society.

與我們的社會。

Meet Joe.

這位是喬。

Joe's 32 years old and a murderer.

喬 32 歲，是殺人兇手。

I met Joe 13 years ago on the lifer wing

13 年前，我在無期徒刑的牢房認識他，

at Wormwood Scrubs high-security prison in London.

位於倫敦高戒備的苦艾監獄裡。

I'd like you to imagine this place.

請你們想像這個地方。

It looks and feels like it sounds:

看起來和感覺起來就像它的名字：

Wormwood Scrubs.

苦艾監獄 （Wormwood Scrubs 有洗刷悔恨之意）。

Built at the end of the Victorian Era

在維多利亞時代末期時

by the inmates themselves,

完全由囚犯建造而成，

it is where England's most dangerous prisoners are kept.

那裡監禁著英國最危險的犯人。

These individuals have committed acts

這些人都犯了

of unspeakable evil.

難以言喻的滔天大罪。

And I was there to study their brains.

我在那裡研究他們的腦。

I was part of a team of researchers

我是倫敦大學學院研究團隊的成員之一，

from University College London,

on a grant from the U.K. department of health.

這計畫由英國健康衛生署補助。

My task was to study a group of inmates

我的任務是研究一群受刑人，

who had been clinically diagnosed as psychopaths.

他們被臨床診斷為精神病患者。

That meant they were the most

意即他們是所有受刑人中 最為冷酷無情，且最具攻擊性的罪犯。

callous and the most aggressive

of the entire prison population.

What lay at the root of their behavior?

他們行為的根源是什麼？

Was there a neurological cause for their condition?

是否有神經因素引發他們的疾病？

And if there was a neurological cause,

如果有神經因素的話，

could we find a cure?

我們能不能找到治療方式？

So I'd like to speak about change, and especially about emotional change.

我想談變化，尤其是情緒變化。

Growing up, I was always intrigued

成長期間，我總是對

by how people change.

人們改變的方式感興趣。

My mother, a clinical psychotherapist,

我的母親是臨床心理學家，

would occasionally see patients at home

晚上她偶爾會在家看診。

in the evening.

She would shut the door to the living room,

她會關上通往客廳的門，

and I imagined

我就會開始想像

magical things happened in that room.

房裡發生了神奇的事情。

At the age of five or six

在五歲或六歲時，

I would creep up in my pajamas

我會穿著睡衣偷跑到客廳，

and sit outside with my ear glued to the door.

將耳朵貼在門上，坐在外頭。

On more than one occasion, I fell asleep

我睡著了不止一次，

and they had to push me out of the way

在療程結束後， 他們得把我向外推才能出來。

at the end of the session.

And I suppose that's how I found myself

我想那大概就是

我首次踏入苦艾監獄

walking into the secure interview room

on my first day at Wormwood Scrubs.

安全面談室的原因。

Joe sat across a steel table

喬坐在鐵桌的對面，

and greeted me with this blank expression.

不發一語地看著我到來。

The prison warden, looking equally indifferent,

典獄長看來也一樣冷淡，

said, "Any trouble, just press the red buzzer,

他說：「有任何問題就按紅色警鈴，

and we'll be around as soon as we can."

我們會儘快趕到。」

(Laughter)

（笑聲）

I sat down.

我坐下。

The heavy metal door slammed shut behind me.

沉重的金屬門在我身後關上。

I looked up at the red buzzer

我擡頭看著紅色警鈴，

far behind Joe on the opposite wall.

遠在另一頭，喬身後的牆上。

(Laughter)

（笑聲）

I looked at Joe.

我看著喬。

Perhaps detecting my concern,

也許他察覺了我的擔心，

he leaned forward, and said,

便靠向前，

as reassuringly as he could,

儘可能地安慰我說：

"Ah, don't worry about the buzzer,

「噢，別在意警鈴了，

it doesn't work anyway."

那根本就壞啦。」

(Laughter)

（笑聲）

Over the subsequent months,

隨後幾個月，

we tested Joe and his fellow inmates,

我們檢測喬和他的獄友，

looking specifically at their ability

主要針對他們

to categorize different images of emotion.

分類各種情緒圖片的能力。

And we looked at their physical response

接著觀察他們對那些情緒的身體反應。

to those emotions.

So, for example, when most of us look

舉例來說，我們大部分

at a picture like this of somebody looking sad,

見到像這樣有人看似傷心的圖片，

we instantly have a slight,

都會立即有輕微、

measurable physical response:

明顯的身體反應：

increased heart rate, sweating of the skin.

心跳加快、開始流汗。

Whilst the psychopaths in our study were able

我們研究中的精神病患能

to describe the pictures accurately,

正確地敘述這些圖片，

they failed to show the emotions required.

但是他們卻無法表現出應有的情緒。

They failed to show a physical response.

他們沒有身體反應。

It was as though they knew the words

彷彿他們認得文字，

but not the music of empathy.

卻無法同理其中蘊含的意義。

So we wanted to look closer at this

因此我們想進一步探討這點，

to use MRI to image their brains.

運用核磁共振造影 (MRI) 取得他們腦部的圖像。

That turned out to be not such an easy task.

結果發現這不是項簡單的任務。

Imagine transporting a collection

想像你得運送一批

of clinical psychopaths across central London

戴著手銬、腳鐐的精神病患

in shackles and handcuffs

穿越倫敦中心，

in rush hour,

而且還在尖鋒時間，

and in order to place each of them in an MRI scanner,

且為了將他們每個人 放進核磁共振造影機，

you have to remove all metal objects,

你得移除所有金屬物品，

including shackles and handcuffs,

包括手銬和腳鐐，

and, as I learned, all body piercings.

還有所有的打洞、體環。

After some time, however, we had a tentative answer.

一段時間後，我們有了個試驗的答案。

These individuals were not just the victims

這些人不只是悲慘童年的受害者，

of a troubled childhood.

There was something else.

他們還有別的問題。

People like Joe have a deficit in a brain area

像喬這種人腦部的某個區域有缺陷，

called the amygdala.

這個部位稱為杏仁核。

The amygdala is an almond-shaped organ

杏仁核是一種杏仁形的器官，

deep within each of the hemispheres of the brain.

深藏在大腦的每個半球中，

It is thought to be key to the experience of empathy.

被視為感受同理心的關鍵。

Normally, the more empathic a person is,

一般來說，某人越有同情心，

the larger and more active their amygdala is.

他的杏仁核就越大且越活躍。

Our population of inmates

囚犯的杏仁核有缺陷，

had a deficient amygdala,

which likely led to their lack of empathy

可能會導致他們缺乏同理心，

and to their immoral behavior.

並做出不道德的行為。

So let's take a step back.

那麼，讓我們退後一步來看。

Normally, acquiring moral behavior

一般來說，養成道德行為

is simply part of growing up,

只是成長的一部分，

like learning to speak.

就像學習說話一樣。

At the age of six months, virtually every one of us

在六個月大時，幾乎每個人

is able to differentiate between animate and inanimate objects.

都能辨別東西是否有生命。

At the age of 12 months,

在一歲大時，

most children are able to imitate

大部分孩童都能模仿

the purposeful actions of others.

其他人有意義的行為。

So for example, your mother raises her hands

例如，你的母親舉起雙手做伸展，

to stretch, and you imitate her behavior.

你就會模仿她的動作。

At first, this isn't perfect.

一開始不會太完美。

I remember my cousin Sasha,

我記得堂妹莎夏

two years old at the time,

在兩歲時

looking through a picture book

就能快速翻閱繪本，

and licking one finger and flicking the page with the other hand,

舔一根手指，然後用另一隻手換頁，

licking one finger and flicking the page with the other hand.

舔一根手指，然後用另一隻手換頁。

(Laughter)

（笑聲）

Bit by bit, we build the foundations of the social brain

漸漸地，我們建立起社會腦的基礎，

so that by the time we're three, four years old,

因此我們到三、四歲的時候，

most children, not all,

大部分的孩童，並非全部，

have acquired the ability to understand

都已經能理解別人的意圖，

the intentions of others,

another prerequisite for empathy.

這是另一種同理的前提。

The fact that this developmental progression

這種發展過程舉世皆然，

is universal,

irrespective of where you live in the world

不論你住在世界何處，

or which culture you inhabit,

或是身在哪一種文化，

strongly suggests that the foundations

都強烈表示

道德行為的基礎是與生俱來的。

of moral behavior are inborn.

If you doubt this,

如果你懷疑這件事，

try, as I've done, to renege on a promise you've made

只要試一件事，我試過了，

不要遵守你對四歲孩童許下的承諾。

to a four-year-old.

You will find that the mind of a four-year old

你會發現四歲孩童的心智

is not naïve in the slightest.

一點也不天真。

It is more akin to a Swiss army knife

他們就像是把瑞士刀，

with fixed mental modules

在成長過程中

finely honed during development

用固定的心理模組精細打造，

and a sharp sense of fairness.

而且對公平的感受十分敏銳。

The early years are crucial.

年幼時期至關重要。

There seems to be a window of opportunity,

童年期似乎是千載難逢的良機，

after which mastering moral questions

在那之後

要掌握道德問題變得更加困難，

becomes more difficult,

like adults learning a foreign language.

就像成人學習外語一樣。

That's not to say it's impossible.

但那並非不可能。

A recent, wonderful study from Stanford University

最近史丹佛大學有一項很棒的研究

showed that people who have played

指出那些曾參與 虛擬實境遊戲的玩家，

a virtual reality game in which they took on

the role of a good and helpful superhero

選擇扮演善良、熱心英雄的人

actually became more caring and helpful

確實在之後會變得

比較樂於照顧與幫助他人。

towards others afterwards.

Now I'm not suggesting

我的意思並不是

we endow criminals with superpowers,

要賦予罪犯超能力，

but I am suggesting that we need to find ways

而是提議我們應該找出一些方法

to get Joe and people like him

讓喬和像他這樣的人

to change their brains and their behavior,

能夠改變他們的大腦和行為，

for their benefit

這將有利於他們，

and for the benefit of the rest of us.

也有利於我們所有的人。

So can brains change?

那麼大腦能改變嗎？

For over 100 years,

超過一百年來，

neuroanatomists and later neuroscientists

神經解剖學家和後來的神經科學家

held the view that after initial development in childhood,

都一致認為在過了 童年初期發展階段之後，

no new brain cells could grow

成人腦無法生長出新的腦細胞。

in the adult human brain.

The brain could only change

腦只能在特定條件中才能改變。

within certain set limits.

That was the dogma.

這是在過去所被深信的。

But then, in the 1990s,

但是到了 1990 年代，

studies starting showing,

開始有研究顯示，

following the lead of Elizabeth Gould at Princeton and others,

從普林斯頓的 伊莉莎白．古爾德等人開始，

studies started showing the evidence of neurogenesis,

研究開始顯示神經生成的證據，

the birth of new brain cells

新的腦細胞生成

in the adult mammalian brain,

會出現在成年哺乳動物的腦中，

first in the olfactory bulb,

一開始會在嗅球，

which is responsible for our sense of smell,

主責我們嗅覺的部位；

then in the hippocampus

接下來是在海馬迴，

involving short-term memory,

這是和短期記憶有關的地方，

and finally in the amygdala itself.

最後是在杏仁核。

In order to understand

為了理解整個流程如何運作，

how this process works,

I left the psychopaths and joined a lab in Oxford

我離開精神病患的研究， 加入哈佛的研究室，

specializing in learning and development.

專攻學習與發展。

Instead of psychopaths, I studied mice,

我研究老鼠，而非精神病患，

because the same pattern of brain responses

因為同樣的腦反應

appears across many different species of social animals.

顯現在許多不同的社會型動物上。

So if you rear a mouse in a standard cage,

因此如果你將一隻老鼠 養在普通的籠子裡，

a shoebox, essentially, with cotton wool,

基本上就是鞋盒，並放入棉花球，

alone and without much stimulation,

單獨飼養，沒有太多刺激，

not only does it not thrive,

牠不僅會了無生氣，

but it will often develop strange,

而且還常會發展出奇怪、重複的行為。

repetitive behaviors.

This naturally sociable animal

這種天生好交際的動物

will lose its ability to bond with other mice,

會失去和其他老鼠連結的能力，

even becoming aggressive when introduced to them.

甚至在接觸其他老鼠時， 會變得有攻擊性。

However, mice reared in what we called

然而，把老鼠養在所謂的

an enriched environment,

豐富環境之中，

a large habitation with other mice

和其他老鼠住在較大的地方，

with wheels and ladders and areas to explore,

附有輪子、階梯和探索區域，

demonstrate neurogenesis,

顯示了神經生成，

the birth of new brain cells,

即新的腦細胞生長，

and as we showed, they also perform better

如我們所見，牠們也會有較佳的表現

on a range of learning and memory tasks.

在學習與記憶的任務上。

Now, they don't develop morality to the point of

牠們不會建立道德觀，

carrying the shopping bags of little old mice

不會幫"老"老鼠提購物袋過馬路，

across the street,

but their improved environment results in healthy,

但是改良的環境會帶來

健康與友善的行為。

sociable behavior.

Mice reared in a standard cage, by contrast,

兩相比較，養在普通籠子裡的老鼠，

not dissimilar, you might say, from a prison cell,

你可能會說，和在牢房裡也差不多，

have dramatically lower levels of new neurons

已大幅降低腦中新神經元的數量。

in the brain.

It is now clear that the amygdala of mammals,

現在我們已清楚知道 哺乳動物的杏仁核，

including primates like us,

包含像我們的靈長類動物，

can show neurogenesis.

也能顯示神經生成。

In some areas of the brain,

在腦部的某些區塊中，

more than 20 percent of cells are newly formed.

超過 20% 的細胞都是在近期形成。

We're just beginning to understand

我們才剛開始理解

what exact function these cells have,

這些細胞真正的功能是什麼，

but what it implies is that the brain is capable

但是它意謂著腦也能夠

of extraordinary change way into adulthood.

大幅改變，一直到成年時期。

However, our brains are also

然而，我們的腦也對

exquisitely sensitive to stress in our environment.

環境中的壓力非常敏感。

Stress hormones, glucocorticoids,

壓力激素和糖皮質素

released by the brain,

都由腦部釋出，

suppress the growth of these new cells.

抑制這些新細胞的成長。

The more stress, the less brain development,

壓力越大，腦部的發展就會越少，

which in turn causes less adaptability

因而導致適應力較差，

and causes higher stress levels.

並且讓壓力更大。

This is the interplay between nature and nurture

這是先天與後天之間的相互影響，

in real time in front of our eyes.

千真萬確發生在我們眼前。

When you think about it,

當你思考這件事時，

it is ironic that our current solution

諷刺的是，我們目前提供

for people with stressed amygdalae

給有壓力杏仁核人們的解方，

is to place them in an environment

就是把他們放在

that actually inhibits any chance of further growth.

其實會抑制任何發育機會的環境。

Of course, imprisonment is a necessary part

當然，監禁是必要的處置，

of the criminal justice system

對刑事司法系統

and of protecting society.

以及保護社會的立場都是如此。

Our research does not suggest

我們的研究並不是說

that criminals should submit their MRI scans

罪犯應該將核磁共振攝影

as evidence in court

當做法庭上的證據，

and get off the hook because they've got a faulty amygdala.

讓罪犯因為有缺陷的杏仁核而免於受罰。

The evidence is actually the other way.

證據其實與此背道而馳。

Because our brains are capable of change,

因為我們的腦有改變的能力，

we need to take responsibility for our actions,

我們需要對自己的行為負責，

and they need to take responsibility

他們需要負起

for their rehabilitation.

改過遷善的責任。

One way such rehabilitation might work

有一種矯正的方式可能有效，

is through restorative justice programs.

那就是透過修復式司法計畫。

Here victims, if they choose to participate,

選擇參與計畫的被害者

and perpetrators meet face to face

會和罪犯面對面，

in safe, structured encounters,

在安全的環境下，安排好的會面場景，

and the perpetrator is encouraged

罪犯會被鼓勵

to take responsibility for their actions,

為自己的行為負責，

and the victim plays an active role in the process.

被害者在過程中擔任積極的角色。

In such a setting, the perpetrator can see,

在這種安排中，罪犯可以觀察，

perhaps for the first time,

也許是第一次，

the victim as a real person

被害者以真實人物現身，

with thoughts and feelings and a genuine

有思想、感覺

emotional response.

和真誠的情感反應。

This stimulates the amygdala

這種方式會刺激杏仁核，

and may be a more effective rehabilitative practice

也許會成為一種更有效的矯正練習，

than simple incarceration.

更勝於單純的監禁。

Such programs won't work for everyone,

這種計畫不會人人都適用，

but for many, it could be a way

但對許多人來說，這或許能成為一種

to break the frozen sea within.

解決困境的方式。

So what can we do now?

那現在我們能怎麼做呢？

How can we apply this knowledge?

我們要怎麼應用這項知識？

I'd like to leave you with

讓我和各位分享

three lessons that I learned.

我學到的三堂課。

The first thing that I learned was that

我學到的第一課是

we need to change our mindset.

我們需要改變思考方式。

Since Wormwood Scrubs was built 130 years ago,

自 130 年前苦艾監獄建造完成後，

society has advanced in virtually every aspect,

基本上社會在各方面都已提升，

in the way we run our schools, our hospitals.

像是經營學校、醫院的方式。

Yet the moment we speak about prisons,

然而當我們提到監獄時，

it's as though we're back in Dickensian times,

就好像我們回到狄更斯那個時代，

if not medieval times.

如果不是中古時期的話。

For too long, I believe,

我相信，一直以來

we've allowed ourselves to be persuaded

我們都允許自己被說服

of the false notion that human nature cannot change,

認為人類的偏差想法 是與生俱來、無法改變的，

and as a society, it's costing us dearly.

而對社會來說， 我們為此付出極大的代價。

We know that the brain is capable of extraordinary change,

我們知道腦能做出極大的改變，

and the best way to achieve that,

要達成的最好方式，

even in adults, is to change and modulate

即使成人都能做到，

就是去改變與調整我們的環境。

our environment.

The second thing I have learned

第二件我學到的事

is that we need to create an alliance

就是我們需要連結

of people who believe that science is integral

相信科學是帶領社會變遷

to bringing about social change.

不可或缺的人們。

It's easy enough for a neuroscientist to place

對神經科學家來說，把需要高戒備的囚犯

a high-security inmate in an MRI scanner.

放進核磁共振機裡很簡單。

Well actually, that turns out not to be so easy,

其實沒有那麼簡單，

but ultimately what we want to show

但最終我們還是希望能顯示

is whether we're able to reduce the reoffending rates.

我們是否能夠降低累犯率。

In order to answer complex questions like that,

為了回答像那樣複雜的問題，

we need people of different backgrounds --

我們需要不同背景的人

lab-based scientists and clinicians,

──以實驗為基礎的科學家、臨床醫生、

social workers and policy makers,

社工、政策制定者、

philanthropists and human rights activists —

慈善家和人權主義者──

to work together.

一起合作。

Finally, I believe we need

最後，我相信我們需要

to change our own amygdalae,

改變自己的杏仁核，

because this issue goes to the heart

因為這個問題直指核心，

not just of who Joe is,

不只是喬是什麼樣的人，

but who we are.

還有我們是什麼樣的人。

We need to change our view of Joe

我們需要改變

as someone wholly irredeemable,

認為喬徹底無藥可救的想法，

because if we see Joe as wholly irredeemable,

因為如果我們覺得他徹底無藥可救，

how is he going to see himself as any different?

那他怎麼會對自己有不同的看法？

In another decade, Joe will be released

再十年之後，

喬會從苦艾監獄被釋放。

from Wormwood Scrubs.

Will he be among the 70 percent of inmates

他會是 70% 的罪犯之中，

who end up reoffending

再次犯罪，

and returning to the prison system?

又被關進監獄的那一個嗎？

Wouldn't it be better if, while serving his sentence,

在他服刑期間，

Joe was able to train his amygdala,

如果喬能訓練他的杏仁核，

which would stimulate the growth of new brain cells

讓它能刺激新的腦細胞生長與連結，

and connections,

難道不會比較好嗎？

so that he will be able to face the world

如此一來，他在被釋放後

once he gets released?

就能面對這個世界。

Surely, that would be in the interest of all of us.

當然，那是為了我們每個人的福祉著想。

(Applause)

（掌聲）

Thank you. (Applause)

謝謝。（掌聲）