James Watson: How we discovered DNA

294,416 views ใƒป 2007-05-16

TED


ูŠุฑุฌู‰ ุงู„ู†ู‚ุฑ ู†ู‚ุฑู‹ุง ู…ุฒุฏูˆุฌู‹ุง ููˆู‚ ุงู„ุชุฑุฌู…ุฉ ุงู„ุฅู†ุฌู„ูŠุฒูŠุฉ ุฃุฏู†ุงู‡ ู„ุชุดุบูŠู„ ุงู„ููŠุฏูŠูˆ.

ุงู„ู…ุชุฑุฌู…: Karmel Khaldi ุงู„ู…ุฏู‚ู‘ู‚: Anwar Dafa-Alla
00:25
Well, I thought there would be a podium, so I'm a bit scared.
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ุญุณู†ุงู‹ุŒ ุงุนุชู‚ุฏุช ุจุฃู†ู‡ ุณุชูˆุฌุฏ ู…ู†ุตุฉุŒ ู„ุฐู„ูƒ ุฃู†ุง ุฎุงุฆู ู‚ู„ูŠู„ุงู‹
00:28
(Laughter)
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(ุถุญูƒ)
00:31
Chris asked me to tell again how we found the structure of DNA.
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ุทู„ุจ ู…ู†ูŠ ูƒุฑูŠุณ ุฃู† ุฃุฑูˆูŠ ู…ุฌุฏุฏุงู‹ ูƒูŠู ูˆุฌุฏู†ุง ุจู†ูŠุฉ ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ุงู„ู†ูˆูˆูŠ (DNA)
00:34
And since, you know, I follow his orders, I'll do it.
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ูˆุจู…ุง ุฃู†ูŠุŒ ูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ ุฃุชุจุน ุฃูˆุงู…ุฑู‡ุŒ ุณุฃูุนู„ ุฐู„ูƒ
00:37
But it slightly bores me.
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ู„ูƒู† ุฐู„ูƒ ูŠุดุนุฑู†ูŠ ุจุงู„ู…ู„ู„ ู‚ู„ูŠู„ุงู‹
00:39
(Laughter)
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(ุถุญูƒ)
00:41
And, you know, I wrote a book. So I'll say something --
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ูˆูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ ู„ู‚ุฏ ู‚ู…ุช ุจูƒุชุงุจุฉ ูƒุชุงุจ.. ู„ุฐู„ูƒ ุณุฃู‚ูˆู„ ุดูŠุฆุงู‹...
00:46
(Laughter)
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(ุถุญูƒ)
00:48
-- I'll say a little about, you know, how the discovery was made,
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ุณุฃุชุญุฏุซ ู‚ู„ูŠู„ุงู‹ ุนู†ุŒ ูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ ูƒูŠู ุชู… ุงู„ุงูƒุชุดุงู
00:51
and why Francis and I found it.
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ูˆู„ู…ุงุฐุง ุฃูƒุชุดูู†ุงู‡ ุงู†ุง ูˆูุฑุงู†ุณูŠุณ .
00:53
And then, I hope maybe I have at least five minutes to say
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ูˆุจุนุฏู‡ุง ุฃุชู…ู†ู‰ ุฃู† ุฃุญุตู„ ุนู„ู‰ ุฎู…ุณุฉ ุฏู‚ุงุฆู‚ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฃู‚ู„ ู„ุฃู‚ูˆู„
00:57
what makes me tick now.
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ู…ุง ุงู„ุฐูŠ ูŠุฌุนู„ู†ูŠ ุงู„ูุช ุงู„ุงู†ุชุจุงู‡ ุงู„ุขู†
01:01
In back of me is a picture of me when I was 17.
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ุชูˆุฌุฏ ุฎู„ููŠ ุตูˆุฑุชูŠ ูˆุฃู†ุง ููŠ ุงู„ุณุงุจุนุฉ ุนุดุฑ ู…ู† ุนู…ุฑูŠ
01:06
I was at the University of Chicago, in my third year,
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ูƒู†ุช ููŠ ุฌุงู…ุนุฉ ุดูŠูƒุงุบูˆ ููŠ ุงู„ุณู†ุฉ ุงู„ุซุงู„ุซุฉ
01:09
and I was in my third year because the University of Chicago
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ูˆูƒู†ุช ููŠ ุงู„ุณู†ุฉ ุงู„ุซุงู„ุซุฉ ู„ุฃู† ุฌุงู…ุนุฉ ุดูŠูƒุงุบูˆ
01:15
let you in after two years of high school.
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ุชุณู…ุญ ู„ูƒ ุจุงู„ุงู†ุถู…ุงู… ุจุนุฏ ุนุงู…ูŠู† ู…ู† ุงู„ุฏุฑุงุณุฉ ุงู„ุซุงู†ูˆูŠุฉ
01:17
So you -- it was fun to get away from high school -- (Laughter) --
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ู„ุฐู„ูƒ ุฃู†ุช.. ูƒุงู† ุงู„ุชู…ู„ุต ู…ู† ุงู„ุฏุฑุงุณุฉ ุงู„ุซุงู†ูˆูŠุฉ ู…ู…ุชุนุงู‹
01:23
because I was very small, and I was no good in sports,
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ู„ุฃู†ู†ูŠ ูƒู†ุช ุตุบูŠุฑุงู‹ ุฌุฏุงู‹ ูˆู„ู… ุฃูƒู† ุฌูŠุฏุงู‹ ููŠ ุงู„ุฑูŠุงุถุฉ
01:26
or anything like that.
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ุฃูˆ ุดูŠุก ุขุฎุฑ ู…ุซู„ู‡ุง
01:27
But I should say that my background -- my father was, you know,
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ู„ูƒู† ูŠุฌุจ ุฃู† ุฃู‚ูˆู„ ุฃู† ุฎู„ููŠุชูŠ.. ุฃุจูŠ ูƒุงู† ู‚ุฏ
01:33
raised to be an Episcopalian and Republican,
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ุชุฑุจู‰ ุนู„ู‰ ุฃู† ูŠูƒูˆู† ุฃุณู‚ููŠุงู‹ ูˆุฌู…ู‡ูˆุฑูŠุงู‹
01:35
but after one year of college, he became an atheist and a Democrat.
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ู„ูƒู† ุจุนุฏ ุณู†ุฉ ูˆุงุญุฏุฉ ู…ู† ุงู„ุฏุฑุงุณุฉ ุงู„ุฌุงู…ุนูŠุฉุŒ ุฃุตุจุญ ูŠู‡ูˆุฏูŠุงู‹ ูˆุฏูŠู…ู‚ุฑุงุทูŠุงู‹.
01:40
(Laughter)
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(ุถุญูƒ)
01:43
And my mother was Irish Catholic,
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ูˆุฃู…ูŠ ูƒุงู†ุช ุงูŠุฑู„ู†ุฏูŠุฉ ูƒุงุซูˆู„ูˆูƒูŠุฉ
01:45
and -- but she didn't take religion too seriously.
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ูˆ.. ู„ูƒู†ู‡ุง ู„ู… ุชุฃุฎุฐ ุงู„ุฏูŠู† ุจุฌุฏูŠุฉ ูƒุจูŠุฑุฉ
01:50
And by the age of 11, I was no longer going to Sunday Mass,
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ูˆููŠ ุณู† ุงู„ุญุงุฏูŠุฉ ุนุดุฑุŒ ุชูˆู‚ูุช ุนู† ุงู„ุฐู‡ุงุจ ู„ู‚ุฏุงุณ ุงู„ุฃุญุฏ
01:54
and going on birdwatching walks with my father.
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ูˆ ูƒู†ุช ุฃุฐู‡ุจ ู…ุน ูˆุงู„ุฏูŠ ู„ู„ู…ุดูŠ ูˆู…ุฑุงู‚ุจุฉ ุงู„ุทูŠูˆุฑ
01:58
So early on, I heard of Charles Darwin.
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ูˆููŠ ู…ุฑุญู„ุฉ ู…ุจูƒุฑุฉุŒ ุณู…ุนุช ุจุชุดุงุฑู„ุฒ ุฏุงุฑูˆูŠู†.
02:02
I guess, you know, he was the big hero.
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ุฃุนุชู‚ุฏ ุจุฃู†ูƒู… ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู† ุฃู†ู‡ ูƒุงู† ุงู„ุจุทู„ ุงู„ูƒุจูŠุฑ.
02:05
And, you know, you understand life as it now exists through evolution.
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ูˆูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ ุฃู†ุช ุชูู‡ู… ุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉ ูƒู…ุง ู‡ูŠ ุงู„ุขู† ุนู† ุทุฑูŠู‚ ุงู„ุชุทูˆุฑ.
02:11
And at the University of Chicago I was a zoology major,
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ูˆููŠ ุฌุงู…ุนุฉ ุดูŠูƒุงุบูˆุŒ ูƒู†ุช ุฃุชุฎุตุต ููŠ ุนู„ู… ุงู„ุญูŠูˆุงู†
02:15
and thought I would end up, you know, if I was bright enough,
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ูˆููƒุฑุช ุฃู†ู†ูŠ ู‚ุฏ ูŠู†ุชู‡ูŠ ุจูŠ ุงู„ู…ุทุงูุŒ ูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ ุฅุฐุง ูƒู†ุช ุฐูƒูŠุงู‹ ุจุดูƒู„ ูƒุงููุŒ
02:18
maybe getting a Ph.D. from Cornell in ornithology.
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ุญุงุตู„ุงู‹ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ูƒุชูˆุฑุงู‡ ููŠ ุนู„ู… ุงู„ุทูŠูˆุฑ ู…ู† ุฌุงู…ุนุฉ ูƒูˆุฑู†ูŠู„
02:23
Then, in the Chicago paper, there was a review of a book
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ุจุนุฏ ุฐู„ูƒุŒ ููŠ ุงู„ูˆุฑู‚ุฉ ุงู„ุนู„ู…ูŠุฉ ู…ู† ุฌุงู…ุนุฉ ุดูŠูƒุงุบูˆุŒ ูƒุงู†ุช ุชูˆุฌุฏ ู†ุดุฑุฉ ุนู† ูƒุชุงุจ
02:29
called "What is Life?" by the great physicist, Schrodinger.
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ุจุงุณู… "ู…ุง ู‡ูŠ ุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉุŸ" ู…ู† ุชุฃู„ูŠู ุงู„ููŠุฒูŠุงุฆูŠ ุงู„ูƒุจูŠุฑ ุดุฑูˆุฏูŠู†ุฌุฑ
02:33
And that, of course, had been a question I wanted to know.
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ูˆูƒุงู† ุฐู„ูƒ ุจุงู„ุทุจุน ุณุคุงู„ุงู‹ ุฃุฑุฏุช ู…ุนุฑูุฉ ุงู„ุฅุฌุงุจุฉ ุนู†ู‡.
02:36
You know, Darwin explained life after it got started,
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ูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ุŒ ุฏุงุฑูˆูŠู† ูุณุฑ ุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉ ุจุนุฏ ุจุฏุฆู‡ุงุŒ
02:39
but what was the essence of life?
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ู„ูƒู† ู…ุงุฐุง ูƒุงู†ุช ู…ุงู‡ูŠุฉ ุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉุŸ
02:41
And Schrodinger said the essence was information
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ูˆู‚ุงู„ ุดุฑูˆุฏูŠู†ุฌุฑ ุฃู† ู…ุงู‡ูŠุฉ ุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉ ูƒุงู†ุช ุนุจุงุฑุฉ ุนู† ู…ุนู„ูˆู…ุงุช
02:45
present in our chromosomes, and it had to be present
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ู…ูˆุฌูˆุฏุฉ ููŠ ูƒุฑูˆู…ูˆุณูˆู…ุงุชู†ุงุŒ ูˆูŠุฌุจ ุฃู† ุชูƒูˆู† ู…ูˆุฌูˆุฏุฉ
02:49
on a molecule. I'd never really thought of molecules before.
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ุนู„ู‰ ุฌุฒูŠุก. ู„ู… ุฃูƒู† ู‚ุฏ ููƒุฑุช ุจุงู„ุฌุฒูŠุฆุงุช ู…ู† ู‚ุจู„.
02:55
You know chromosomes, but this was a molecule,
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ุชุนุฑููˆู† ุงู„ูƒุฑูˆู…ูˆุณูˆู…ุงุชุŒ ู„ูƒู† ูƒุงู† ู‡ุฐุง ุฌุฒูŠุฆุงู‹ุŒ
02:59
and somehow all the information was probably present
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ูˆุจุทุฑูŠู‚ุฉ ู…ุงุŒ ูƒู„ ุงู„ู…ุนู„ูˆู…ุงุช ูƒุงู†ุช ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฃุฑุฌุญ ู…ูˆุฌูˆุฏุฉ
03:02
in some digital form. And there was the big question
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ุนู„ู‰ ู‡ูŠุฆุฉ ุฑู‚ู…ูŠุฉ ู…ุง. ูˆูƒุงู† ู‡ู†ุงู„ูƒ ุงู„ุณุคุงู„ ุงู„ูƒุจูŠุฑ
03:06
of, how did you copy the information?
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ุนู† ูƒูŠู ูŠุชู… ู†ุณุฎ ุงู„ู…ุนู„ูˆู…ุงุชุŸ
03:08
So that was the book. And so, from that moment on,
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ุฅุฐุงุŒ ูƒุงู† ุฐู„ูƒ ู‡ูˆ ุงู„ูƒุชุงุจ. ูˆุจุงู„ุชุงู„ูŠุŒ ู…ู† ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ู„ุญุธุฉุŒ
03:13
I wanted to be a geneticist --
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ุฃุฑุฏุช ุฃู† ุฃุตุจุญ ุนุงู„ู… ูˆุฑุงุซุฉ --
03:18
understand the gene and, through that, understand life.
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ุฃูู‡ู… ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ุŒ ูˆู…ู† ุฎู„ุงู„ ุฐู„ูƒ ุฃูู‡ู… ุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉ.
03:20
So I had, you know, a hero at a distance.
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ุฅุฐุงู‹ ูƒุงู† ู„ุฏูŠุŒ ูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ ุจุทู„ุงู‹ ุจุนูŠุฏุงู‹ ุนู†ูŠ.
03:25
It wasn't a baseball player; it was Linus Pauling.
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ู„ู… ูŠูƒู† ู„ุงุนุจ ูƒุฑุฉ ุณู„ุฉุŒ ูƒุงู† "ู„ุงูŠู†ุณ ุจูˆู„ูŠู†ุบ".
03:27
And so I applied to Caltech and they turned me down.
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ูˆู„ุฐู„ูƒ ู‚ุฏู…ุช ุทู„ุจุงู‹ ู„ูƒุงู„ุชูŠูƒ ูˆุฑูุถูˆู†ูŠ.
03:33
(Laughter)
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(ุถุญูƒ)
03:35
So I went to Indiana,
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ูˆุจุงู„ุชุงู„ูŠ ุฐู‡ุจุช ู„ ุฅู†ุฏูŠุงู†ุงุŒ
03:36
which was actually as good as Caltech in genetics,
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ูˆุงู„ุชูŠ ูƒุงู†ุช ููŠ ุงู„ุญู‚ูŠู‚ุฉ ุจุฌูˆุฏุฉ ูƒุงู„ุชูŠูƒ ููŠ ุนู„ู… ุงู„ูˆุฑุงุซุฉุŒ
03:39
and besides, they had a really good basketball team. (Laughter)
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ุจุงู„ุฅุถุงูุฉ ุฅู„ู‰ ุงู…ุชู„ุงูƒู‡ู… ู„ูุฑูŠู‚ ูƒุฑุฉ ุณู„ุฉ ุฌูŠุฏ ุจุงู„ูุนู„.
03:43
So I had a really quite happy life at Indiana.
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ูˆุจุงู„ุชุงู„ูŠ ูƒุงู† ู„ุฏูŠ ููŠ ุฅู†ุฏูŠุงู†ุง ุญูŠุงุฉ ุณุนูŠุฏุฉ ุจุนุถ ุงู„ุดูŠุก.
03:46
And it was at Indiana I got the impression
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ูˆููŠ ุงู†ุฏูŠุงู†ุง ุญุตู„ุช ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ููƒุฑุฉ
03:49
that, you know, the gene was likely to be DNA.
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ุจุฃู†ู‡ุŒ ูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ุŒ ุงู„ุฌูŠู† ู‡ูˆ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฃุฑุฌุญ DNA.
03:51
And so when I got my Ph.D., I should go and search for DNA.
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ุจุงู„ุชุงู„ูŠ ุนู†ุฏู…ุง ุฃุญุตู„ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฏูƒุชูˆุฑุงู‡ุŒ ูŠุฌุจ ุฃู† ุฃุฐู‡ุจ ู„ุฃุจุญุซ ููŠ ุงู„ DNA.
03:55
So I first went to Copenhagen because I thought, well,
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ูุฐู‡ุจุช ููŠ ุงู„ุจุฏุงูŠุฉ ุงู„ู‰ ูƒูˆุจู†ู‡ุงุฌู† ู„ุฃู†ู†ูŠ ููƒุฑุช ุจุฃู†ู†ูŠุŒ ุญุณู†ุงู‹ุŒ
04:01
maybe I could become a biochemist,
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ู‚ุฏ ุฃุตุจุญ ุนุงู„ู…ุงู‹ ููŠ ุงู„ูƒูŠู…ูŠุงุก ุงู„ุญูŠูˆูŠุฉ.
04:02
but I discovered biochemistry was very boring.
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ู„ูƒู†ู†ูŠ ุงูƒุชุดูุช ุจุฃู† ุงู„ูƒูŠู…ูŠุงุก ุงู„ุญูŠูˆูŠุฉ ูƒู†ุช ู…ู…ู„ุฉ ุฌุฏุงู‹.
04:05
It wasn't going anywhere toward, you know, saying what the gene was;
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ู„ู… ุชูƒู† ุชุชุฌู‡ ุจุฃูŠ ุดูƒู„ ุจุงุชุฌุงู‡ ุงู„ู‚ูˆู„ ุจู…ุง ู‡ูˆ ุงู„ุฌูŠู†.
04:09
it was just nuclear science. And oh, that's the book, little book.
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ูƒุงู†ุช ู…ุฌุฑุฏ ุนู„ู… ุงู„ู†ูˆุงุฉ. ูˆู‡ุฐุง ู‡ูˆ ุงู„ูƒุชุงุจุŒ ูƒุชุงุจ ุตุบูŠุฑ.
04:13
You can read it in about two hours.
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ุชุณุชุทูŠุน ุฃู† ุชู‚ุฑุฃู‡ ุจู…ุง ูŠู‚ุงุฑุจ ุงู„ุณุงุนุชูŠู†.
04:15
And -- but then I went to a meeting in Italy.
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ูˆ.. ู„ูƒู† ุจุนุฏู‡ุง ุฐู‡ุจุช ู„ุญุถูˆุฑ ู„ู‚ุงุก ุนู„ู…ูŠ ููŠ ุงูŠุทุงู„ูŠุง.
04:19
And there was an unexpected speaker who wasn't on the program,
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ูˆูƒุงู† ู‡ู†ุงูƒ ู…ุชุญุฏุซุงู‹ ุบูŠุฑ ู…ุชูˆู‚ุน ูˆู„ู… ูŠูƒู† ุจุจุฑู†ุงู…ุฌ ุงู„ู…ุชุญุฏุซูŠู†ุŒ
04:24
and he talked about DNA.
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ูˆุชุญุฏุซ ุนู† ุงู„ DNA.
04:26
And this was Maurice Wilkins. He was trained as a physicist,
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ูˆูƒุงู† ุฐู„ูƒ ู…ูˆุฑูŠุณ ูˆู„ูƒู†ุฒ. ูƒุงู† ู…ุฏุฑุจุงู‹ ูƒููŠุฒูŠุงุฆูŠุŒ
04:29
and after the war he wanted to do biophysics, and he picked DNA
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ูˆุจุนุฏ ุงู„ุญุฑุจ ุฃุฑุงุฏ ุฃู† ูŠุชุฌู‡ ุงู„ู‰ ุงู„ููŠุฒูŠุงุก ุงู„ุญูŠูˆูŠุฉุŒ ูˆุงุฎุชุงุฑ ุงู„ DNA
04:33
because DNA had been determined at the Rockefeller Institute
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ู„ุฃู†ู‡ ูƒุงู† ู‚ุฏ ุชู… ุชุญุฏูŠุฏ ุงู„ DNA ููŠ ู…ุนู‡ุฏ ุฑูˆูƒูู„ุฑ
04:36
to possibly be the genetic molecules on the chromosomes.
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ู„ุงุญุชู…ุงู„ ุฃู† ูŠูƒูˆู† ุงู„ุฌุฒูŠุก ุงู„ู…ุญุชูˆูŠ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ุงุช ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ูƒุฑูˆู…ูˆุณูˆู…ุงุช.
04:40
Most people believed it was proteins.
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ุงุนุชู‚ุฏ ู…ุนุธู… ุงู„ู†ุงุณ ุฃู† ุงู„ุจุฑูˆุชูŠู†ุงุช ูƒุงู†ุช ู‡ูŠ ุงู„ู…ุณุคูˆู„ุฉ.
04:41
But Wilkins, you know, thought DNA was the best bet,
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ู„ูƒู† ูˆูŠู„ูƒูŠู†ุฒุŒ ูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ ุงุนุชู‚ุฏ ุฃู† ุงู„ DNA ูƒุงู† ุงู„ู…ุฑุดุญ ุงู„ุฃูุถู„ุŒ
04:45
and he showed this x-ray photograph.
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ูˆู‚ุงู… ุจุนุฑุถ ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ุตูˆุฑุฉ ุงู„ู…ุฃุฎูˆุฐุฉ ุจุฃุดุนุฉ X.
04:49
Sort of crystalline. So DNA had a structure,
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ุดูƒู„ ุจู„ูˆุฑูŠ ู…ุง. ุฅุฐุง ุงู„ DNA ูƒุงู† ู„ู‡ ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ุจู†ูŠุฉุŒ
04:53
even though it owed it to probably different molecules
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ู…ุน ุฃู†ู‡ุง ุฃุชุช ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฃุฑุฌุญ ู…ู† ุนุฏุฉ ุฌุฒูŠุฆุงุช
04:56
carrying different sets of instructions.
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ุชุญู…ู„ ู…ุฌู…ูˆุนุงุช ู…ุฎุชู„ูุฉ ู…ู† ุงู„ุชุนู„ูŠู…ุงุช.
04:58
So there was something universal about the DNA molecule.
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ุฅุฐุงู‹ ูƒุงู† ู‡ู†ุงู„ูƒ ุดูŠุก ุนุงู… ุนู† ุฌุฒูŠุก ุงู„ DNA.
05:00
So I wanted to work with him, but he didn't want a former birdwatcher,
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ู„ุฐุง ุฃุฑุฏุช ุงู„ุนู…ู„ ู…ุนู‡ุŒ ู„ูƒู†ู‡ ู„ู… ูŠุฑุฏ ู…ุฑุงู‚ุจ ุนุตุงููŠุฑ ุณุงุจู‚ุŒ
05:05
and I ended up in Cambridge, England.
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ูˆุงู†ุชู‡ู‰ ุจูŠ ุงู„ู…ุทุงู ููŠ ุฌุงู…ุนุฉ ูƒูŠู…ุจุฑุฏุฌ ููŠ ุงู†ุฌู„ุชุฑุง.
05:06
So I went to Cambridge,
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ุฅุฐุง ุฐู‡ุจุช ู„ูƒูŠู…ุจุฑุฏุฌุŒ
05:08
because it was really the best place in the world then
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ู„ุฃู†ู‡ุง ูƒุงู†ุช ูุนู„ุงู‹ ุฃูุถู„ ู…ูƒุงู† ููŠ ุงู„ุนุงู„ู… ุญูŠู†ู‡ุง
05:11
for x-ray crystallography. And x-ray crystallography is now a subject
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ู„ู„ุชุตูˆูŠุฑ ุงู„ุจู„ูˆุฑูŠ ุจุฃุดุนุฉ X. ูˆุงู„ุชุตูˆูŠุฑ ุงู„ุจู„ูˆุฑูŠ ุจุฃุดุนุฉ X ู‡ูˆ ุงู„ุขู† ู…ูˆุถูˆุน
05:15
in, you know, chemistry departments.
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ููŠุŒ ูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ ุฃู‚ุณุงู… ุงู„ูƒูŠู…ูŠุงุก.
05:17
I mean, in those days it was the domain of the physicists.
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ุฃุนู†ูŠุŒ ููŠ ุฐู„ูƒ ุงู„ุฒู…ู† ูƒุงู† ุถู…ู† ู…ุฌุงู„ ุนู„ู…ุงุก ุงู„ููŠุฒูŠุงุก.
05:20
So the best place for x-ray crystallography
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ุฅุฐุง ูƒุงู† ุฃูุถู„ ู…ูƒุงู† ู„ู„ุชุตูˆูŠุฑ ุงู„ุจู„ูˆุฑูŠ ุจุฃุดุนุฉ X
05:24
was at the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge.
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ููŠ ู…ุฎุชุจุฑ ูƒุงูู†ุฏูŠุด ููŠ ูƒู…ุจุฑุฏุฌ.
05:27
And there I met Francis Crick.
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ูˆู‡ู†ุงูƒ ุงู„ุชู‚ูŠุช ุจูุฑุงู†ุณูŠุณ ูƒุฑูŠูƒ.
05:33
I went there without knowing him. He was 35. I was 23.
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ุฐู‡ุจุช ู‡ู†ุงู„ูƒ ุฏูˆู† ุฃู† ุฃุนุฑูู‡. ูƒุงู† ููŠ ุณู† ุงู„ 35. ูˆุฃู†ุง ููŠ ุณู† ุงู„ 23.
05:36
And within a day, we had decided that
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ูˆุฎู„ุงู„ ูŠูˆู…ุŒ ู‚ุฑุฑู†ุง ุฃู†ู†ุง
05:41
maybe we could take a shortcut to finding the structure of DNA.
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ู‚ุฏ ู†ุณุชุทูŠุน ุงุชุจุงุน ุทุฑูŠู‚ ู…ุฎุชุตุฑุฉ ู„ู†ุนุฑู ุจู†ูŠุฉ ุงู„ DNA.
05:46
Not solve it like, you know, in rigorous fashion, but build a model,
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ู„ุง ุฃู† ู†ุฌุฏ ุฐู„ูƒุŒ ูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ ุจุฃุณู„ูˆุจ ูุงุฆู‚ ุงู„ุฏู‚ุฉุŒ ู„ูƒู† ุจุจู†ุงุก ู…ุฌุณู….
05:52
an electro-model, using some coordinates of, you know,
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ู…ุฌุณู… ูƒู‡ุฑุจุงุฆูŠุŒ ุจุงุณุชุฎุฏุงู… ุจุนุถ ุงุญุฏุงุซูŠุงุช ุงู„.. ูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ
05:56
length, all that sort of stuff from x-ray photographs.
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ุงู„ุทูˆู„ุŒ ูƒู„ ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ุฃุดูŠุงุก ู…ู† ุตูˆุฑ ุฃุดุนุฉ X.
05:59
But just ask what the molecule -- how should it fold up?
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ู„ูƒู† ูู‚ุท ุจุงู„ุณุคุงู„ ู…ุง ู‡ูˆ ุงู„ุฌุฒูŠุก -- ูƒูŠู ูŠุฌุจ ุฃู† ูŠู„ุชู.
06:02
And the reason for doing so, at the center of this photograph,
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ูˆุณุจุจ ุงู„ู‚ูŠุงู… ุจุฐู„ูƒุŒ ููŠ ูˆุณุท ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ุตูˆุฑุฉุŒ
06:06
is Linus Pauling. About six months before, he proposed
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ูŠูˆุฌุฏ ู„ุงูŠู†ุณ ุจุงูˆู„ูŠู†ุบ. ู‚ุจู„ 6 ุฃุดู‡ุฑ ุชู‚ุฑูŠุจุงู‹ ู…ู† ุงู‚ุชุฑุงุญู‡
06:09
the alpha helical structure for proteins. And in doing so,
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ู„ุจู†ูŠุฉ ุฃู„ูุง ุงู„ุญู„ุฒูˆู†ูŠุฉ ู„ู„ุจุฑูˆุชูŠู†ุงุช. ูˆุจูุนู„ู‡ ู„ุฐู„ูƒุŒ
06:13
he banished the man out on the right,
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ูƒุงู† ู‚ุฏ ู†ูู‰ ุงู„ุฑุฌู„ ุงู„ุฐูŠ ูŠู‚ู ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ูŠู…ูŠู†ุŒ
06:15
Sir Lawrence Bragg, who was the Cavendish professor.
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ุงู„ุณูŠุฑ ู„ูˆุฑู†ุณ ุจุฑุงุบุŒ ุงู„ุฐูŠ ูƒุงู† ุฃุณุชุงุฐ ู…ุฎุชุจุฑ ูƒุงูู†ุฏุด.
06:18
This is a photograph several years later,
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ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ุตูˆุฑุฉ ุงู„ุชู‚ุทุช ุจุนุฏ ุจุถุนุฉ ุณู†ูˆุงุชุŒ
06:20
when Bragg had cause to smile.
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ุนู†ุฏู…ุง ูƒุงู† ู„ุฏู‰ ุจุฑุงุบ ุณุจุจุงู‹ ู„ูŠุจุชุณู….
06:22
He certainly wasn't smiling when I got there,
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ู„ู… ูŠูƒู† ูŠุจุชุณู… ุจุงู„ุทุจุน ุนู†ุฏู…ุง ูˆุตู„ุช ุฃู†ุง ู‡ู†ุงูƒุŒ
06:24
because he was somewhat humiliated by Pauling getting the alpha helix,
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ู„ุฃู†ู‡ ูƒุงู† ู‚ุฏ ุฃู‡ูŠู† ู†ูˆุนุงู‹ ู…ุง ุจุชูˆุตู„ ุจุงูˆู„ูŠู†ุบ ู„ุฃู„ูุง ุงู„ุญู„ุฒูˆู†ูŠุฉุŒ
06:28
and the Cambridge people failing because they weren't chemists.
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ูˆุงู„ุฌู…ุงุนุฉ ููŠ ูƒู…ุจุฑุฏุฌ ูŠุฎูู‚ูˆู† ู„ุฃู†ู‡ู… ู„ู… ูŠูƒูˆู†ูˆุง ูƒูŠู…ูŠุงุฆูŠูŠู†.
06:32
And certainly, neither Crick or I were chemists,
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ูˆุจุงู„ุทุจุน ู„ู… ู†ูƒู† ู„ุง ุฃู†ุง ูˆู„ุง ูƒุฑูŠูƒ ูƒูŠู…ูŠุงุฆูŠูŠู†ุŒ
06:37
so we tried to build a model. And he knew, Francis knew Wilkins.
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ู„ุฐุง ุญุงูˆู„ู†ุง ุจู†ุงุก ู…ุฌุณู…. ูˆู„ู‚ุฏ ุนุฑู ู‡ูˆ.. ูุฑุงู†ุณูŠุณ ุนุฑู ูˆู„ูƒู†ุฒ.
06:43
So Wilkins said he thought it was the helix.
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ู„ุฐุง ู‚ุงู„ ูˆู„ูƒู†ุฒ ุจุฃู†ู‡ ูŠุนุชู‚ุฏ ุจุฃู†ู‡ ุญู„ุฒูˆู†ูŠ.
06:45
X-ray diagram, he thought was comparable with the helix.
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ุชุฎุทูŠุท ุฃุดุนุฉ XุŒ ููƒุฑ ุจุฃู†ู‡ ูŠุดุจู‡ ุงู„ุดูƒู„ ุงู„ู„ูˆู„ุจูŠ.
06:48
So we built a three-stranded model.
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ู„ุฐุง ู‚ู…ู†ุง ุจุจู†ุงุก ู…ุฌุณู… ุจุซู„ุงุซุฉ ุฃุดุฑุทุฉ.
06:50
The people from London came up.
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ุฌุงุฆุช ุงู„ุฌู…ุงุนุฉ ู…ู† ู„ู†ุฏู†.
06:52
Wilkins and this collaborator, or possible collaborator,
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ูˆูŠู„ูƒู†ุฒ ูˆู…ุนุงูˆู†ุชู‡ุŒ ุฃูˆ ู…ุนุงูˆู†ุชู‡ ุงู„ู…ุญุชู…ู„ุฉุŒ
06:57
Rosalind Franklin, came up and sort of laughed at our model.
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ุฑูˆุฒุงู„ูŠู†ุฏ ูุฑุงู†ูƒู„ูŠู†ุŒ ุฌุงุกุง ูˆุถุญูƒุง ู†ูˆุนุงู‹ ู…ุง ู…ู† ู…ุฌุณู…ู†ุง.
07:00
They said it was lousy, and it was.
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ู‚ุงู„ูˆุง ุจุฃู†ู‡ ูƒุงู† ุฑุฏูŠุกุŒ ูˆูƒุงู† ูƒุฐู„ูƒ.
07:02
So we were told to build no more models; we were incompetent.
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ู„ุฐู„ูƒ ู‚ูŠู„ ู„ู†ุง ุจุฃู† ู„ุง ู†ุจู†ูŠ ู…ุฌุณู…ุงุช ุฃุฎุฑู‰ุ› ู„ุฃู†ู†ุง ุบูŠุฑ ู…ุคู‡ู„ูŠู†.
07:07
(Laughter)
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(ุถุญูƒ)
07:11
And so we didn't build any models,
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ู„ุฐู„ูƒ ู„ู… ู†ู‚ู… ุจุจู†ุงุก ุฃูŠ ู…ุฌุณู…ุงุชุŒ
07:13
and Francis sort of continued to work on proteins.
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ูˆุฃูƒู…ู„ ูุฑุงู†ุณูŠุณ ู†ูˆุนุงู‹ ู…ุง ุนู…ู„ู‡ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุจุฑูˆุชูŠู†ุงุช.
07:16
And basically, I did nothing. And -- except read.
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ูˆุจุจุณุงุทุฉุŒ ู„ู… ุฃูุนู„ ุดูŠุฆุงู‹. ูˆ -- ุนุฏุง ุงู„ู‚ุฑุงุกุฉ.
07:22
You know, basically, reading is a good thing; you get facts.
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ูˆุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ ููŠ ุงู„ุฃุณุงุณุŒ ุงู„ู‚ุฑุงุกุฉ ุดูŠุก ุฌูŠุฏุ› ุชุญุตู„ูˆู† ุนู„ู‰ ุญู‚ุงุฆู‚.
07:25
And we kept telling the people in London
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ูˆุงุณุชู…ุฑูŠู†ุง ุจุงู„ู‚ูˆู„ ู„ู„ุฌู…ุงุนุฉ ููŠ ู„ู†ุฏู†
07:28
that Linus Pauling's going to move on to DNA.
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ุจุฃู† ู„ุงูŠู†ุณ ุจุงูˆู„ูŠู†ุบ ุณูŠู†ุชู‚ู„ ู„ูŠุจุฏุฃ ุงู„ุจุญุซ ููŠ ุงู„ DNA.
07:30
If DNA is that important, Linus will know it.
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ุฅุฐุง ูƒุงู† ุงู„ DNA ุจุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ุฃู‡ู…ูŠุฉุŒ ูุณูŠุนู„ู… ู„ุงูŠู†ุณ ุฐู„ูƒ.
07:32
He'll build a model, and then we're going to be scooped.
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ุณูŠู‚ูˆู… ุจุจู†ุงุก ู…ุฌุณู…ุŒ ูˆุจุนุฏู‡ุง ุณู†ุญู‚ู‚ ุณุจู‚ุงู‹ ุตุญููŠุงู‹.
07:34
And, in fact, he'd written the people in London:
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ูˆููŠ ุงู„ุญู‚ูŠู‚ุฉุŒ ู‚ุงู… ุจู…ุฑุงุณู„ุฉ ุงู„ุฌู…ุงุนุฉ ููŠ ู„ู†ุฏู†:
07:36
Could he see their x-ray photograph?
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ู‡ู„ ุจุฅู…ูƒุงู†ู‡ ุฑุคูŠุฉ ุตูˆุฑุฉ ุฃุดุนุฉ X ุงู„ุฎุงุตุฉ ุจู‡ู…ุŸ
07:39
And they had the wisdom to say "no." So he didn't have it.
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ูˆูƒุงู† ู„ุฏูŠู‡ู… ู…ู† ุงู„ุญูƒู…ุฉ ู…ุง ูŠูƒููŠ ู„ูŠู‚ูˆู„ูˆุง "ู„ุง". ู„ุฐู„ูƒ ู„ู… ูŠุญุตู„ ุนู„ูŠู‡ุง.
07:42
But there was ones in the literature.
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ู„ูƒู† ูƒุงู† ูŠูˆุฌุฏ ุนุฏุฏ ู…ู†ู‡ุง ููŠ ุงู„ู†ุดุฑุงุช ุงู„ุนู„ู…ูŠุฉ.
07:44
Actually, Linus didn't look at them that carefully.
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ููŠ ุงู„ุญู‚ูŠู‚ุฉุŒ ู„ุงูŠู†ุณ ู„ู… ูŠุจุญุซ ุนู†ู‡ุง ุจุฏู‚ุฉ.
07:46
But about, oh, 15 months after I got to Cambridge,
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ู„ูƒู† ุจุนุฏ ุญูˆุงู„ูŠุŒ ุขู‡ุŒ 15 ุดู‡ุฑุงู‹ ู…ู† ูˆุตูˆู„ูŠ ู„ูƒู…ุจุฑุฏุฌุŒ
07:52
a rumor began to appear from Linus Pauling's son,
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ุจุฏุฃุช ุฅุดุงุนุฉ ุจุงู„ุธู‡ูˆุฑ ู…ู† ุงุจู† ู„ุงูŠู†ุณ ุจุงูˆู„ูŠู†ุบุŒ
07:55
who was in Cambridge, that his father was now working on DNA.
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ุงู„ุฐูŠ ูƒุงู† ููŠ ูƒู…ุจุฑุฏุฌุŒ ู‚ุงู„ ุจุฃู† ุฃุจุงู‡ ูƒุงู† ูŠุนู…ู„ ุญุงู„ูŠุงู‹ ุนู„ู‰ ุฌุฒูŠุก ุงู„ DNA.
07:59
And so, one day Peter came in and he said he was Peter Pauling,
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ูˆุฅุฐุงู‹ุŒ ููŠ ูŠูˆู… ู…ุง ุฌุงุก ุจูŠุชุฑ ูˆู‚ุงู„ ุจุฃู†ู‡ ุจูŠุชุฑ ุจุงูˆู„ูŠู†ุบุŒ
08:03
and he gave me a copy of his father's manuscripts.
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ูˆุฃุนุทุงู†ูŠ ู†ุณุฎุฉ ู…ู† ู…ุฎุทูˆุทุงุช ูˆุงู„ุฏู‡.
08:05
And boy, I was scared because I thought, you know, we may be scooped.
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ูˆูŠุง ู„ู„ู‡ูˆู„ุŒ ูƒู†ุช ุฎุงุฆูุงู‹ ู„ุฃู†ู†ูŠ ููƒุฑุชุŒ ูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ ุจุฃู†ู†ุง ู‚ุฏ ู†ุญู‚ู‚ ุณุจู‚ุงู‹ ุตุญููŠุงู‹.
08:11
I have nothing to do, no qualifications for anything.
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ู„ู… ูŠูƒู† ู„ุฏูŠ ุดูŠุก ู„ูุนู„ู‡ุŒ ู„ูŠุณ ู„ุฏูŠ ู…ุคู‡ู„ุงุช ู„ุดูŠุก.
08:14
(Laughter)
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(ุถุญูƒ)
08:16
And so there was the paper, and he proposed a three-stranded structure.
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ูˆุฅุฐุงุŒ ู‡ุง ู‡ูŠ ุงู„ูˆุฑู‚ุฉ ุงู„ุนู„ู…ูŠุฉุŒ ูŠู‚ุชุฑุญ ููŠู‡ุง ุจู†ูŠุฉ ุจุซู„ุงุซุฉ ุฃุดุฑุทุฉ.
08:22
And I read it, and it was just -- it was crap.
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ูˆู‚ุฑุฃุชู‡ุงุŒ ูˆูƒุงู†ุช ู…ุฌุฑุฏ -- ูƒุงู†ุช ู‡ุฑุงุกุงู‹.
08:24
(Laughter)
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(ุถุญูƒ)
08:29
So this was, you know, unexpected from the world's --
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ูˆูƒุงู† ู‡ุฐุงุŒ ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ ุบูŠุฑ ู…ุชูˆู‚ุน ู…ู…ู† ู‡ูˆ ุนู„ู‰ ู…ุณุชูˆู‰ ุงู„ุนุงู„ู…...
08:32
(Laughter)
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(ุถุญูƒ)
08:34
-- and so, it was held together by hydrogen bonds
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-- ูˆุฅุฐุงู‹ุŒ ูƒุงู†ุช ู…ุฑุชุจุทุฉ ู…ุน ุจุนุถู‡ุง ุงู„ุจุนุถ ุจุฑูˆุงุจุท ู‡ูŠุฏุฑูˆุฌูŠู†ูŠุฉ
08:37
between phosphate groups.
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ุจูŠู† ู…ุฌู…ูˆุนุงุช ุงู„ููˆุณูุงุช.
08:39
Well, if the peak pH that cells have is around seven,
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ุญุณู†ุงู‹ุŒ ุฅุฐุง ูƒุงู† ุฃุนู„ู‰ ู…ุณุชูˆู‰ ุญู…ูˆุถุฉ ููŠ ุงู„ุฎู„ุงูŠุง ู‡ูˆ 7ุŒ
08:43
those hydrogen bonds couldn't exist.
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ู„ู… ูŠูƒู† ู„ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ุฑูˆุงุจุท ุงู„ู‡ูŠุฏุฑูˆุฌูŠู†ูŠุฉ ุฃู† ุชูƒูˆู† ู…ูˆุฌูˆุฏุฉ.
08:46
We rushed over to the chemistry department and said,
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ุฐู‡ุจู†ุง ู…ุณุฑุนูŠู† ู„ู‚ุณู… ุงู„ูƒูŠู…ูŠุงุก ูˆู‚ู„ู†ุงุŒ
08:48
"Could Pauling be right?" And Alex Hust said, "No." So we were happy.
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"ู‡ู„ ูŠู…ูƒู† ุฃู† ูŠูƒูˆู† ุจุงูˆู„ูŠู†ุบ ุนู„ู‰ ุญู‚ุŸ" ูู‚ุงู„ ุงู„ูŠูƒุณ ู‡ุณุช: "ู„ุง". ู„ุฐุง ูƒู†ุง ูุฑุญูŠู†.
08:54
(Laughter)
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(ุถุญูƒ)
08:56
And, you know, we were still in the game, but we were frightened
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ูˆุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ ูƒู†ุง ู„ุง ู†ุฒุงู„ ููŠ ุงู„ู„ุนุจุฉุŒ ู„ูƒู†ู†ุง ูƒู†ุง ุฎุงุฆููŠู†
08:59
that somebody at Caltech would tell Linus that he was wrong.
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ุจุฃู† ูŠู‚ูˆู„ ุฃุญุฏู‡ู… ู…ู† ูƒุงู„ุชูŠูƒ ู„ู„ุงูŠู†ุณ ุจุฃู†ู‡ ู…ุฎุทุฆ.
09:03
And so Bragg said, "Build models."
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ู„ุฐู„ูƒ ู‚ุงู„ ุจุฑุงุบ: "ุงุจู†ูˆุง ู…ุฌุณู…ุงุช."
09:05
And a month after we got the Pauling manuscript --
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ูˆุจุนุฏ ุดู‡ุฑ ู…ู† ุญุตูˆู„ู†ุง ุนู„ู‰ ู…ุฎุทูˆุทุงุช ุจุงูˆู„ูŠู†ุบ..
09:09
I should say I took the manuscript to London, and showed the people.
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ูŠุฌุจ ุฃู† ุฃู‚ูˆู„ ุจุฃู†ูŠ ุฃุฎุฐุช ุงู„ู…ุฎุทูˆุทุฉ ุฅู„ู‰ ู„ู†ุฏู†ุŒ ูˆุนุฑุถุชู‡ุง ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฌู…ุงุนุฉ.
09:14
Well, I said, Linus was wrong and that we're still in the game
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ุฅุฐุงู‹ุŒ ู‚ู„ุช ุจุฃู† ู„ุงูŠู†ุณ ูƒุงู† ู…ุฎุทุฆุงู‹ ูˆุจุฃู†ู†ุง ู…ุงุฒู„ู†ุง ููŠ ุงู„ู„ุนุจุฉ
09:17
and that they should immediately start building models.
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ูˆุจุฃู†ู‡ ุนู„ูŠู‡ู… ุงู„ุจุฏุก ุจุจู†ุงุก ู…ุฌุณู…ุงุช ููˆุฑุงู‹.
09:19
But Wilkins said "no." Rosalind Franklin was leaving in about two months,
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ู„ูƒู† ูˆู„ูƒู†ุฒ ู‚ุงู„: "ู„ุง"ุŒ ุฑูˆุฒุงู„ูŠู†ุฏ ูุฑุงู†ูƒู„ูŠู† ูƒุงู†ุช ุณุชุบุงุฏุฑ ุฎู„ุงู„ ุดู‡ุฑูŠู†ุŒ
09:24
and after she left he would start building models.
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ูˆุจุนุฏ ุฃู† ุชุบุงุฏุฑ ุณูŠุจุฏุฃ ุจุจู†ุงุก ู…ุฌุณู…ุงุช.
09:27
And so I came back with that news to Cambridge,
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ูˆุฅุฐุงู‹ ุนุฏุช ุฅู„ู‰ ูƒู…ุจุฑุฏุฌ ุจุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ุฃุฎุจุงุฑุŒ
09:31
and Bragg said, "Build models."
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ูˆู‚ุงู„ ุจุฑุงุบ: "ุงุจู†ูˆุง ู…ุฌุณู…ุงุช."
09:32
Well, of course, I wanted to build models.
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ุญุณู†ุงู‹ุŒ ุจุงู„ุทุจุน ุฃุฑุฏุช ุจู†ุงุก ู…ุฌุณู…ุงุช.
09:33
And there's a picture of Rosalind. She really, you know,
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ูˆู‡ุฐู‡ ุตูˆุฑุฉ ู„ุฑูˆุฒุงู„ูŠู†ุฏ. ูƒุงู†ุช ูุนู„ุงู‹ุŒ ูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ
09:39
in one sense she was a chemist,
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ูƒุงู†ุช ู…ู† ู†ุงุญูŠุฉ ุนุงู„ู…ุฉ ูƒูŠู…ูŠุงุกุŒ
09:41
but really she would have been trained --
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ู„ูƒู† ูƒุงู† ู‚ุฏ ุชู… ุชุฏุฑูŠุจู‡ุง ...
09:43
she didn't know any organic chemistry or quantum chemistry.
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ู„ู… ุชูƒู† ุชุนุฑู ุฃูŠ ู…ู† ุงู„ูƒูŠู…ูŠุงุก ุงู„ุนุถูˆูŠุฉ ุฃูˆ ุงู„ูƒูŠู…ูŠุงุก ุงู„ูƒู…ู‘ูŠุฉ.
09:46
She was a crystallographer.
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ูƒุงู†ุช ุฎุจูŠุฑุฉ ููŠ ุงู„ุชุตูˆูŠุฑ ุงู„ุจู„ูˆุฑูŠ.
09:47
And I think part of the reason she didn't want to build models
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ูˆุฃุธู† ุจุฃู† ุฌุฒุกุงู‹ ู…ู† ุณุจุจ ุนุฏู… ุฑุบุจุชู‡ุง ููŠ ุจู†ุงุก ู…ุฌุณู…ุงุช
09:52
was, she wasn't a chemist, whereas Pauling was a chemist.
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ูƒุงู† ุนุฏู… ูƒูˆู†ู‡ุง ุนุงู„ู…ุฉ ูƒูŠู…ูŠุงุก ุจูŠู†ู…ุง ูƒุงู† ุจุงูˆู„ูŠู†ุบ ุนุงู„ู… ูƒูŠู…ูŠุงุก.
09:55
And so Crick and I, you know, started building models,
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ูˆุจุงู„ุชุงู„ูŠุŒ ู‚ู…ุช ุฃู†ุง ูˆูƒุฑูŠูƒุŒ ูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ ุจุงู„ุจุฏุก ุจุจู†ุงุก ู…ุฌุณู…ุงุชุŒ
10:00
and I'd learned a little chemistry, but not enough.
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ูˆู‚ู…ุช ุจุชุนู„ู… ุงู„ู‚ู„ูŠู„ ู…ู† ุงู„ูƒูŠู…ูŠุงุกุŒ ู„ูƒู† ู„ูŠุณ ุจุงู„ู‚ุฏุฑ ุงู„ูƒุงููŠ.
10:03
Well, we got the answer on the 28th February '53.
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ุฅุฐุงู‹ุŒ ุญุตู„ู†ุง ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฅุฌุงุจุฉ ููŠ 28 ู…ู† ุดุจุงุท ุนุงู… 1953.
10:07
And it was because of a rule, which, to me, is a very good rule:
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ูˆูƒุงู† ุฐู„ูƒ ุจุณุจุจ ู‚ุงุนุฏุฉุŒ ูˆุงู„ุชูŠ ู‡ูŠ ุจุงู„ู†ุณุจุฉ ู„ูŠ ู‚ุงุนุฏุฉ ุฌูŠุฏุฉ ุฌุฏุงู‹:
10:11
Never be the brightest person in a room, and we weren't.
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ู„ุง ุชูƒู† ู…ุทู„ู‚ุงู‹ ุฃุฐูƒู‰ ุดุฎุต ููŠ ุงู„ุบุฑูุฉุŒ ูˆู„ู… ู†ูƒู† ูƒุฐู„ูƒ.
10:17
We weren't the best chemists in the room.
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ู„ู… ู†ูƒู† ุฃูุถู„ ูƒูŠู…ูŠุงุฆูŠูŠู† ููŠ ุงู„ุบุฑูุฉ.
10:19
I went in and showed them a pairing I'd done,
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ุฏุฎู„ุช ู‡ู†ุงูƒ ูˆุนุฑุถุช ุนู„ูŠู‡ู… ุงู‚ุชุฑุงู†ุงู‹ ูƒู†ุช ู‚ุฏ ู‚ู…ุช ุจู‡ุŒ
10:21
and Jerry Donohue -- he was a chemist -- he said, it's wrong.
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ูˆูƒุงู† ุฌูŠุฑูŠ ุฏูˆู†ูˆ -- ุนุงู„ู… ูƒูŠู…ูŠุงุก -- ู‚ุงู„ ุจุฃู†ู‡ ุฎุงุทุฆ.
10:25
You've got -- the hydrogen atoms are in the wrong place.
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ุญุตู„ุช ุนู„ู‰ ุฐุฑุงุช ุงู„ู‡ูŠุฏุฑูˆุฌูŠู† ููŠ ุงู„ู…ูƒุงู† ุงู„ุฎุงุทุฆ.
10:28
I just put them down like they were in the books.
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ูƒู†ุช ู‚ุฏ ูˆุถุนุชู‡ู… ูƒู…ุง ูƒุงู† ูˆุตูู‡ู… ููŠ ุงู„ูƒุชุจ.
10:31
He said they were wrong.
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ู‚ุงู„ ู‡ูˆ ุจุฃู†ู‡ู… ููŠ ุงู„ู…ูƒุงู† ุงู„ุฎุงุทุฆ.
10:32
So the next day, you know, after I thought, "Well, he might be right."
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ุฅุฐุงู‹ ููŠ ุงู„ูŠูˆู… ุงู„ุชุงู„ูŠุŒ ูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ ุจุนุฏ ุฃู† ููƒุฑุช: "ุญุณู†ุงู‹ุŒ ู‚ุฏ ูŠูƒูˆู† ุนู„ู‰ ุญู‚."
10:36
So I changed the locations, and then we found the base pairing,
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ุฅุฐุงู‹ ู‚ู…ุช ุจุชุบูŠูŠุฑ ุงู„ุฃู…ุงูƒู†ุŒ ูˆุจุนุฏู‡ุง ูˆุฌุฏู†ุง ุงู‚ุชุฑุงู† ุงู„ู‚ูˆุงุนุฏ,
10:40
and Francis immediately said the chains run in absolute directions.
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ูˆู‚ุงู„ ูุฑุงู†ุณุณ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ููˆุฑ ุจุฃู† ุงู„ุณู„ุงุณู„ ุชุณูŠุฑ ููŠ ุงุชุฌุงู‡ ุซุงุจุช.
10:43
And we knew we were right.
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ูˆูƒู†ุง ู†ุนู„ู… ุจุฃู†ู†ุง ุนู„ู‰ ุญู‚.
10:45
So it was a pretty, you know, it all happened in about two hours.
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ู„ุฐุง ูƒุงู†ุช ู‚ู„ูŠู„ุงู‹ุŒ ูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ ุญุตู„ ูƒู„ ุฐู„ูƒ ููŠ ุณุงุนุชูŠู† ุชู‚ุฑูŠุจุงู‹.
10:52
From nothing to thing.
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ู…ู† ู„ุง ุดูŠุก ู„ุดูŠุก.
10:56
And we knew it was big because, you know, if you just put A next to T
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ูˆูƒู†ุง ู†ุนู„ู… ุจุฃู†ู‡ ุดูŠุก ูƒุจูŠุฑุŒ ู„ุฃู†ู‡ุŒ ูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ ุฅุฐุง ูˆุถุนุช A ุจู…ุญุงุฐุงุฉ T
11:01
and G next to C, you have a copying mechanism.
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ูˆ G ุจู…ุญุงุฐุงุฉ CุŒ ุชุญุตู„ ุนู„ู‰ ุนู…ู„ูŠุฉ ู†ุณุฎ.
11:04
So we saw how genetic information is carried.
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ู„ุฐู„ูƒ ุดุงู‡ุฏู†ุง ูƒูŠู ุชุญู…ู„ ุงู„ู…ุนู„ูˆู…ุงุช ุงู„ูˆุฑุงุซูŠุฉ.
11:08
It's the order of the four bases.
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ุฅู†ู‡ ุชุฑุชูŠุจ ุงู„ู‚ูˆุงุนุฏ ุงู„ุฃุฑุจุนุฉ.
11:09
So in a sense, it is a sort of digital-type information.
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ุฅุฐุงู‹ ุฅู†ู‡ุง ููŠ ุฃุญุณู† ุชู‚ุฏูŠุฑ ู†ูˆุน ู…ุง ู…ู† ุงู„ู…ุนู„ูˆู…ุงุช ุงู„ุฑู‚ู…ูŠุฉ.
11:13
And you copy it by going from strand-separating.
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ูˆูŠุชู… ุงู„ู†ุณุฎ ุงุจุชุฏุงุฆุงู‹ ู…ู† ูุตู„ ุงู„ุฃุดุฑุทุฉ.
11:18
So, you know, if it didn't work this way, you might as well believe it,
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ู„ุฐุงุŒ ูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ ุงุฐุง ู„ู… ุชูƒู† ุงู„ุฃู…ูˆุฑ ุนู„ู‰ ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ู†ุญูˆุŒ ู‚ุฏ ุชุตุฏู‚ู‡ ุฃูŠุถุงู‹ุŒ
11:26
because you didn't have any other scheme.
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ู„ุฃู†ูƒ ู„ุง ุชู…ู„ูƒ ุฃูŠ ู…ุฎุทุท ุขุฎุฑ.
11:27
(Laughter)
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(ุถุญูƒ)
11:30
But that's not the way most scientists think.
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ู„ูƒู† ู‡ุฐู‡ ู„ูŠุณุช ุงู„ุทุฑูŠู‚ุฉ ุงู„ุชูŠ ูŠููƒุฑ ุจู‡ุง ู…ุนุธู… ุงู„ุนู„ู…ุงุก.
11:33
Most scientists are really rather dull.
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ู…ุนุธู… ุงู„ุนู„ู…ุงุก ุจู„ุฏุงุก ุญู‚ุงู‹.
11:36
They said, we won't think about it until we know it's right.
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ู‚ุงู„ูˆุงุŒ ู„ู† ู†ููƒุฑ ุจู‡ ุฅู„ุง ุจุนุฏ ุฃู† ู†ุนู„ู… ุฃู†ู‡ ุตุญูŠุญ.
11:38
But, you know, we thought, well, it's at least 95 percent right or 99 percent right.
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ู„ูƒู†ุŒ ูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ ุญุณู†ุฃู‹ุŒ ุฅู†ู‡ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฃู‚ู„ ุตุญูŠุญ ุจู†ุณุจุฉ 95 ุจุงู„ู…ุฆุฉ ุฃูˆ 99 ุจุงู„ู…ุฆุฉ.
11:44
So think about it. The next five years,
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ุฅุฐุงู‹ ููƒุฑูˆุง ุจู‡. ููŠ ุงู„ุฎู…ุณ ุณู†ูˆุงุช ุงู„ุชุงู„ูŠุฉุŒ
11:48
there were essentially something like five references
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ูƒุงู† ูŠูˆุฌุฏ ุญูˆุงู„ูŠ 5 ู…ุฑุงุฌุน
11:50
to our work in "Nature" -- none.
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ู„ุนู…ู„ู†ุง ููŠ ู…ุฌู„ุฉ Nature... ู„ุง ุดูŠุก.
11:53
And so we were left by ourselves,
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ุฅุฐุงู‹ ูƒู†ุง ู‚ุฏ ุชุฑูƒู†ุง ุจู…ูุฑุฏู†ุงุŒ
11:55
and trying to do the last part of the trio: how do you --
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ูˆููŠ ู…ุญุงูˆู„ุฉ ู„ุงู†ุฌุงุฒ ุงู„ู‚ุณู… ุงู„ุฃุฎูŠุฑ ู…ู† ุงู„ุซู„ุงุซูŠุฉ: ูƒูŠู ุชู‚ูˆู…..
12:00
what does this genetic information do?
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ู…ุงุฐุง ุชูุนู„ ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ู…ุนู„ูˆู…ุงุช ุงู„ูˆุฑุงุซูŠุฉุŸ
12:04
It was pretty obvious that it provided the information
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ูƒุงู† ู…ู† ุงู„ูˆุงุถุญ ุฃู†ู‡ุง ู‚ุฏ ู‚ุฏู…ุช ุงู„ู…ุนู„ูˆู…ุงุช
12:08
to an RNA molecule, and then how do you go from RNA to protein?
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ู„ุฌุฒูŠุก ุงู„ RNA ุŒ ูˆุจุนุฏู‡ุง ูƒูŠู ุชู†ุชู‚ู„ ู…ู† ุงู„ RNA ุฅู„ู‰ ุงู„ุจุฑูˆุชูŠู†ุงุชุŸ
12:11
For about three years we just -- I tried to solve the structure of RNA.
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ูˆู„ุซู„ุงุซุฉ ุณู†ูˆุงุช ูƒู†ุง ูู‚ุท -- ุญุงูˆู„ุช ุฃู† ุฃุฌุฏ ุจู†ูŠุฉ ุงู„ RNA.
12:16
It didn't yield. It didn't give good x-ray photographs.
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ู„ู… ูŠูƒู† ู‚ุฏ ุฃุนุทู‰... ู„ู… ุชูƒู† ู‚ุฏ ุฃุนุทุช ุตูˆุฑ ุฌูŠุฏุฉ ุจุฃุดุนุฉ X.
12:19
I was decidedly unhappy; a girl didn't marry me.
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ูƒู†ุช ุจุงู„ุชุฃูƒูŠุฏ ุบูŠุฑ ุณุนูŠุฏุ› ูุชุงุฉ ู„ู… ุชุชุฒูˆุฌู†ูŠ.
12:22
It was really, you know, sort of a shitty time.
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ูƒุงู† ูุนู„ุงู‹ุŒ ูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ ูˆู‚ุชุงู‹ ุณูŠุฆุงู‹ ู†ูˆุนุงู‹ ู…ุง.
12:25
(Laughter)
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(ุถุญูƒ)
12:28
So there's a picture of Francis and I before I met the girl,
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ู„ุฐุง ูƒุงู† ู‡ู†ุงู„ูƒ ุตูˆุฑุฉ ู„ูุฑุงู†ุณูŠุณ ู…ุนูŠ ู‚ุจู„ ุฃู† ุฃู„ุชู‚ูŠ ุจุงู„ูุชุงุฉุŒ
12:32
so I'm still looking happy.
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ู„ุฐุง ู…ุงุฒู„ุช ุฃุจุฏูˆ ุณุนูŠุฏุงู‹.
12:33
(Laughter)
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(ุถุญูƒ)
12:36
But there is what we did when we didn't know
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ูˆู‡ุฐุง ู…ุง ู‚ู…ู†ุง ุจู‡ ุนู†ุฏู…ุง ู„ู… ู†ุนุฑู
12:39
where to go forward: we formed a club and called it the RNA Tie Club.
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ุฅู„ู‰ ุฃูŠู† ู†ุชู‚ุฏู…: ู‚ู…ู†ุง ุจุฅู†ุดุงุก ู†ุงุฏู ูˆุฃุณู…ูŠู†ุงู‡ ู†ุงุฏูŠ ุฑุจุทุฉ ุนู†ู‚ ุงู„ DNA.
12:45
George Gamow, also a great physicist, he designed the tie.
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ุฌูˆุฑุฌ ุบุงู…ูˆุŒ ููŠุฒูŠุงุฆูŠ ุฑุงุฆุน ุฃูŠุถุงู‹ุŒ ู‚ุงู… ุจุชุตู…ูŠู… ุงู„ุฑุจุทุฉ.
12:49
He was one of the members. The question was:
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ูƒุงู† ูˆุงุญุฏุงู‹ ู…ู† ุงู„ุฃุนุถุงุก. ูˆูƒุงู† ุงู„ุณุคุงู„:
12:52
How do you go from a four-letter code
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ูƒูŠู ุชู†ุชู‚ู„ ู…ู† ุงู„ุดูŠูุฑุฉ ุจุฃุฑุจุนุฉ ุฃุญุฑู
12:54
to the 20-letter code of proteins?
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ุฅู„ู‰ ุดูŠูุฑุฉ ุงู„ุจุฑูˆุชูŠู†ุงุช ุฐุงุช ุงู„ 20 ุญุฑูุŸ
12:56
Feynman was a member, and Teller, and friends of Gamow.
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ูƒุงู† ููŠู†ู…ุงู† ุนุถูˆุงู‹ุŒ ูˆุชูŠู„ุฑุŒ ูˆุฃุตุฏู‚ุงุก ู„ุบุงู…ูˆ.
13:01
But that's the only -- no, we were only photographed twice.
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ู„ูƒู† ู‡ุฐู‡ ูƒุงู†ุช ุงู„ูˆุญูŠุฏุฉ ... ู„ุงุŒ ูƒู†ุง ู‚ุฏ ุชุตูˆุฑู†ุง ู…ุฑุชูŠู† ูู‚ุท.
13:07
And on both occasions, you know, one of us was missing the tie.
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ูˆููŠ ูƒู„ุง ุงู„ู…ู†ุงุณุจุชูŠู†ุŒ ูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ ูƒุงู† ุฃุญุฏู†ุง ู‚ุฏ ู†ุณูŠ ุฑุจุทุฉ ุงู„ุนู†ู‚.
13:10
There's Francis up on the upper right,
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ูŠูˆุฌุฏ ูุฑุงู†ุณุณ ููŠ ุฃุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ูŠู…ูŠู†ุŒ
13:13
and Alex Rich -- the M.D.-turned-crystallographer -- is next to me.
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ูˆ ุฃู„ูŠูƒุณ ุฑูŠุชุด... ุงู„ุทุจูŠุจ ุงู„ุฐูŠ ุชุญูˆู„ ุฅู„ู‰ ู…ุฎุชุต ููŠ ุงู„ุตูˆุฑ ุงู„ุจู„ูˆุฑูŠุฉ.. ุฅู„ู‰ ุฌุงู†ุจูŠ.
13:18
This was taken in Cambridge in September of 1955.
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ุชู… ุงู„ุชู‚ุงุท ู‡ุฐู‡ ููŠ ูƒูŠู…ุจุฑุฏุฌ ููŠ ุดู‡ุฑ ุฃูŠู„ูˆู„ ุนุงู… 1955.
13:22
And I'm smiling, sort of forced, I think,
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ูˆุฃู†ุง ุฃุจุชุณู…ุŒ ู…ุฌุจุฑุงู‹ ู†ูˆุนุงู‹ ู…ุงุŒ ุนู„ู‰ ู…ุง ุฃุธู†ุŒ
13:28
because the girl I had, boy, she was gone.
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ู„ุฃู† ุงู„ูุชุงุฉ ุงู„ุชูŠ ุญุตู„ุช ุนู„ูŠู‡ุงุŒ ูŠุง ู„ู„ู‡ูˆู„ุŒ ูƒุงู†ุช ู‚ุฏ ุฑุญู„ุช.
13:31
(Laughter)
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(ุถุญูƒ)
13:35
And so I didn't really get happy until 1960,
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ูˆู„ุฐู„ูƒ ู„ู… ุฃูุฑุญ ูุนู„ุงู‹ ู…ุฑุฉ ุซุงู†ูŠุฉ ุญุชู‰ ุณู†ุฉ 1960ุŒ
13:40
because then we found out, basically, you know,
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ู„ุฃู†ู‡ ุจุนุฏู‡ุง ุงูƒุชุดูู†ุงุŒ ูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ
13:44
that there are three forms of RNA.
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ุจุฃู†ู‡ ุชูˆุฌุฏ ุซู„ุงุซุฉ ุฃุดูƒุงู„ ู„ู„ RNA.
13:46
And we knew, basically, DNA provides the information for RNA.
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ูˆูƒู†ุง ู‚ุฏ ุนู„ู…ู†ุงุŒ ุฃุณุงุณุงู‹ุŒ ุจุฃู† ุงู„ DNA ูŠูˆูุฑ ุงู„ู…ุนู„ูˆู…ุงุช ู„ู„ RNA
13:49
RNA provides the information for protein.
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ูˆุงู„ RNA ูŠูˆูุฑ ุงู„ู…ุนู„ูˆู…ุงุช ู„ู„ุจุฑูˆุชูŠู†.
13:51
And that let Marshall Nirenberg, you know, take RNA -- synthetic RNA --
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ูˆุฐู„ูƒ ุฌุนู„ ู…ุงุฑุดุงู„ ู†ุงูŠุฑู†ุจุฑุบุŒ ูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ ุจุฃู† ูŠุฃุฎุฐ ุงู„ RNAุŒ RNA ุงู„ู…ุตู†ู‘ุนุŒ
13:56
put it in a system making protein. He made polyphenylalanine,
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ูˆูŠุถุนู‡ ููŠ ู†ุธุงู… ู„ูŠุตู†ุน ุจุฑูˆุชูŠู†. ุตู†ุน ููŠู†ู„ ุงู„ุงู†ูŠู† ู…ุชุนุฏุฏุŒ
14:02
polyphenylalanine. So that's the first cracking of the genetic code,
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ููŠู†ู„ ุงู„ุงู†ูŠู† ู…ุชุนุฏุฏ. ุฅุฐุง ุฐู„ูƒ ูƒุงู† ุงู„ุงู‚ุชุญุงู… ุงู„ุฃูˆู„ ู„ู„ุดูŠูุฑุฉ ุงู„ูˆุฑุงุซูŠุฉุŒ
14:10
and it was all over by 1966.
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ูˆูƒุงู† ู‚ุฏ ุชู… ุงูƒุชุดุงูู‡ ูƒู„ู‡ ุณู†ุฉ 1966.
14:12
So there, that's what Chris wanted me to do, it was --
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ุฅุฐุงู‹ ู‡ู†ุงูƒุŒ ุฐู„ูƒ ู‡ูˆ ู…ุง ุฃุฑุงุฏู†ูŠ ูƒุฑูŠุณ ุฃู† ุฃูุนู„ุŒ ูƒุงู†...
14:15
so what happened since then?
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ุฅุฐุงู‹ ู…ุงู„ุฐูŠ ุญุฏุซ ู…ู†ุฐ ุฐู„ูƒ ุงู„ุญูŠู†ุŸ
14:19
Well, at that time -- I should go back.
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ุญุณู†ุงู‹ุŒ ููŠ ุฐู„ูƒ ุงู„ูˆู‚ุช.. ูŠุฌุจ ุฃู† ุฃุนูˆุฏ ุฅู„ู‰ ุงู„ูˆุฑุงุก.
14:22
When we found the structure of DNA, I gave my first talk
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ุนู†ุฏู…ุง ุงูƒุชุดูู†ุง ุจู†ูŠุฉ ุงู„ DNAุŒ ุฃู„ู‚ูŠุช ุญุฏูŠุซูŠ ุงู„ุฃูˆู„
14:27
at Cold Spring Harbor. The physicist, Leo Szilard,
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ููŠ ูƒูˆู„ุฏ ุณุจุฑู†ุบ ู‡ุงุฑุจุฑ. ุงู„ููŠุฒูŠุงุฆูŠุŒ ู„ูŠูˆ ุณูŠุฒู„ุฑุฏุŒ
14:30
he looked at me and said, "Are you going to patent this?"
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ู†ุธุฑ ุฅู„ูŠ ูˆู‚ุงู„: "ู‡ู„ ุณุชุณุฌู„ ุจุฑุงุกุฉ ุงุฎุชุฑุงุน ู„ู‡ุฐุงุŸ"
14:33
And -- but he knew patent law, and that we couldn't patent it,
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ูˆ.. ู„ูƒู†ู‡ ูƒุงู† ูŠุนู„ู… ุจู‚ุงู†ูˆู† ุจุฑุงุกุฉ ุงู„ุงุฎุชุฑุงุนุŒ ูˆุจุฃู†ู†ุง ู„ู… ู†ุณุชุทุน ุชุณุฌูŠู„ ุฐู„ูƒุŒ
14:38
because you couldn't. No use for it.
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ู„ุฃู†ูƒ ู„ู… ุชุณุชุทุน ุฐู„ูƒ. ูุฅู†ู‡ ุบูŠุฑ ู…ููŠุฏ.
14:40
(Laughter)
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(ุถุญูƒ)
14:42
And so DNA didn't become a useful molecule,
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ูˆู„ุฐู„ูƒ ู„ุง ูŠุตุจุญ ุงู„ DNA ุฌุฒูŠุฆุงู‹ ู…ู‡ู…ุงู‹.
14:46
and the lawyers didn't enter into the equation until 1973,
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ูˆู„ู… ูŠุฏุฎู„ ุงู„ู…ุญุงู…ูˆู† ููŠ ุงู„ู…ุนุงุฏู„ุฉ ู„ุบุงูŠุฉ 1973ุŒ
14:51
20 years later, when Boyer and Cohen in San Francisco
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ุจุนุฏ 20 ุณู†ุฉุŒ ุนู†ุฏู…ุง ุฌุงุก ุจูˆูŠุฑ ูˆูƒูˆู‡ู† ููŠ ุณุงู† ูุฑุงู†ุณูŠุณูƒูˆ
14:56
and Stanford came up with their method of recombinant DNA,
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ูˆุณุชุงู†ููˆุฑุฏ ุจุทุฑูŠู‚ุชู‡ู… ููŠ ุชู‡ุฌูŠู† ุงู„ DNAุŒ
14:58
and Stanford patented it and made a lot of money.
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ูˆุณุฌู„ุช ุณุชุงู†ููˆุฑุฏ ุจุฑุงุกุฉ ุงู„ุงุฎุชุฑุงุน ูˆุฌู†ุช ุงู„ูƒุซูŠุฑ ู…ู† ุงู„ุฃู…ูˆุงู„.
15:01
At least they patented something
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ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฃู‚ู„ ู‚ุงู…ูˆุง ุจุชุณุฌูŠู„ ุจุฑุงุกุฉ ุงุฎุชุฑุงุน ู„ุดูŠุก
15:02
which, you know, could do useful things.
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ูˆุงู„ุฐูŠุŒ ูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ ู‚ุฏ ูŠู‚ูˆู… ุจุฃุดูŠุงุก ู…ููŠุฏุฉ.
15:05
And then, they learned how to read the letters for the code.
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ูˆุจุนุฏู‡ุงุŒ ุชุนู„ู…ูˆุง ูƒูŠููŠุฉ ู‚ุฑุงุกุฉ ุงู„ุฃุญุฑู ููŠ ุงู„ุดูŠูุฑุฉ.
15:08
And, boom, we've, you know, had a biotech industry. And,
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ูˆุจุนุฏู‡ุงุŒ ุฌุงุก ุงู„ุงู†ูุฌุงุฑุŒ ู„ู‚ุฏ ุญุตู„ู†ุง ุŒูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ ุนู„ู‰ ุตู†ุงุนุฉ ููŠ ุงู„ุชูƒู†ูˆู„ูˆุฌูŠุง ุงู„ุญูŠูˆูŠุฉ. ูˆ..
15:13
but we were still a long ways from, you know,
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ู„ูƒู†ุง ูƒู†ุง ู…ุง ู†ุฒุงู„ ุจุนูŠุฏูŠู† ู…ุณุงูุฉ ุทูˆูŠู„ุฉ ุนู†ุŒ ูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ
15:20
answering a question which sort of dominated my childhood,
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ุฅุฌุงุจุฉ ุณุคุงู„ ูƒุงู† ู‚ุฏ ุณูŠุทุฑุนู„ู‰ ุทููˆู„ุชูŠ ู†ูˆุนุงู‹ ู…ุงุŒ
15:22
which is: How do you nature-nurture?
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ูˆู‡ูˆ: ู…ุง ู‡ูˆ ุชุฃุซูŠุฑ ูƒู„ ู…ู† ุงู„ุจูŠุฆุฉ ูˆุงู„ูˆุฑุงุซุฉุŸ
15:27
And so I'll go on. I'm already out of time,
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ูˆู„ุฐุง ุณุฃูƒู…ู„ ุญุฏูŠุซูŠ. ู„ู‚ุฏ ุจุฏุฃ ุงู„ูˆู‚ุช ุจุงู„ู†ูุงุฏุŒ
15:31
but this is Michael Wigler, a very, very clever mathematician
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ู„ูƒู† ู‡ุฐุง ู‡ูˆ ู…ูŠูƒู„ ูˆุบู„ุฑุŒ ุนุงู„ู… ุฑูŠุงุถูŠุงุช ุฐูƒูŠ ุฌุฏุงู‹ ุฌุฏุงู‹
15:34
turned physicist. And he developed a technique
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ูˆุงู„ุฐูŠ ุชุญูˆู„ ุฅู„ู‰ ุงู„ููŠุฒูŠุงุก. ูˆู‚ุงู… ุจุชุทูˆูŠุฑ ุทุฑูŠู‚ุฉ
15:37
which essentially will let us look at sample DNA
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ูˆุงู„ุชูŠ ุณุชุฌุนู„ู†ุง ู†ุดุงู‡ุฏ ุนูŠู†ุฉ DNA
15:41
and, eventually, a million spots along it.
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ูˆููŠ ุงู„ู†ู‡ุงูŠุฉุŒ ู…ู„ูŠูˆู† ุจู‚ุนุฉ ููŠ ู…ูˆุงุฒุงุชู‡ุง.
15:43
There's a chip there, a conventional one. Then there's one
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ุชูˆุฌุฏ ุดุฑูŠุญุฉ ู‡ู†ุงูƒุŒ ุดุฑูŠุญุฉ ุชู‚ู„ูŠุฏูŠุฉ. ุซู… ุชูˆุฌุฏ ูˆุงุญุฏุฉ
15:46
made by a photolithography by a company in Madison
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ุชุตู†ุน ุจูˆุงุณุทุฉ ุงู„ู„ูŠุซูˆุบุฑุงููŠุง ุงู„ุถูˆุฆูŠุฉ ู…ู† ู‚ุจู„ ุดุฑูƒุฉ ููŠ ู…ุงุฏูŠุณู†
15:49
called NimbleGen, which is way ahead of Affymetrix.
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ุชุฏุนู‰ ู†ู…ุจู„ุฌูŠู†ุŒ ูˆุงู„ุชูŠ ุชุณุจู‚ ุฃููŠู…ุชุฑูƒุณ ุจูƒุซูŠุฑ.
15:54
And we use their technique.
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ูˆู†ุญู† ู†ุณุชุฎุฏู… ุชู‚ู†ูŠุชู‡ู….
15:56
And what you can do is sort of compare DNA of normal segs versus cancer.
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ูˆุงู„ุฐูŠ ุชุณุชุทูŠุน ุงู„ู‚ูŠุงู… ุจู‡ ู‡ูˆ ู…ู‚ุงุฑู†ุฉ ุงู„ DNA ู…ู† ุฎู„ุงูŠุง ุทุจูŠุนูŠุฉ ู…ู‚ุงุจู„ ุฃุฎุฑู‰ ุณุฑุทุงู†ูŠุฉ.
16:01
And you can see on the top
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ูˆุชุณุชุทูŠุน ุฑุคูŠุฉ ููŠ ุงู„ุฃุนู„ู‰
16:05
that cancers which are bad show insertions or deletions.
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ุฃู† ุงู„ุณุฑุทุงู†ุงุช ุงู„ุณูŠุฆุฉ ุชุธู‡ุฑ ุฅุฏุฎุงู„ุงุช ุฃูˆ ุญุฐูˆูุงุช.
16:10
So the DNA is really badly mucked up,
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ุฅุฐุงู‹ุŒ ุงู„ DNA ุญู‚ุงู‹ ู…ุชุบูŠู‘ุฑ ุจุทุฑูŠู‚ุฉ ุณูŠุฆุฉุŒ
16:13
whereas if you have a chance of surviving,
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ุจูŠู†ู…ุง ู„ูˆ ู„ุฏูŠูƒ ุงู„ูุฑุตุฉ ู„ู„ู†ุฌุงุฉุŒ
16:15
the DNA isn't so mucked up.
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ู„ู† ูŠูƒูˆู† ุงู„ DNA ู…ุชุบูŠุฑุงู‹ ูƒุซูŠุฑุงู‹.
16:17
So we think that this will eventually lead to what we call
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ู„ุฐุง ู†ุนุชู‚ุฏ ุจุฃู† ู‡ุฐุง ุณูŠู‚ูˆุฏู†ุง ููŠ ู†ู‡ุงูŠุฉ ุงู„ู…ุทุงู ุฅู„ู‰ ู…ุง ู†ุณู…ูŠู‡
16:20
"DNA biopsies." Before you get treated for cancer,
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ุจ "ุฎุฒุนุงุช ุงู„ DNA." ู‚ุจู„ ุฃู† ูŠุชู… ุนู„ุงุฌูƒ ู…ู† ุงู„ุณุฑุทุงู†ุŒ
16:24
you should really look at this technique,
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ูŠุฌุจ ุนู„ูŠูƒ ุญู‚ุงู‹ ุงู„ู†ุธุฑ ุฅู„ู‰ ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ุชู‚ู†ูŠุฉุŒ
16:26
and get a feeling of the face of the enemy.
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ูˆุฃู† ุชู†ุธุฑ ุฅู„ู‰ ูˆุฌู‡ ุงู„ุนุฏูˆ.
16:29
It's not a -- it's only a partial look, but it's a --
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ู‡ูŠ ู„ูŠุณุช... ุฅู†ู‡ุง ู†ุธุฑุฉ ุฌุฒุฆูŠุฉ ูู‚ุทุŒ ู„ูƒู†ู‡ุง...
16:32
I think it's going to be very, very useful.
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ุฃุนุชู‚ุฏ ุจุงู†ู‡ุง ุณุชูƒูˆู† ู…ููŠุฏุฉ ุฌุฏุงู‹ ุฌุฏุงู‹.
16:35
So, we started with breast cancer
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ูˆุจุงู„ุชุงู„ูŠุŒ ุจุฏุฃู†ุง ุจุณุฑุทุงู† ุงู„ุซุฏูŠ
16:37
because there's lots of money for it, no government money.
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ู„ุฃู†ู‡ ุชูˆุฌุฏ ุฃู…ูˆุงู„ ูƒุซูŠุฑุฉ ู„ุฏุนู…ู‡ุŒ ู„ุง ุชูˆุฌุฏ ุฃู…ูˆุงู„ ู…ู† ุงู„ุญูƒูˆู…ุฉ.
16:40
And now I have a sort of vested interest:
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ูˆุงู„ุขู† ู„ุฏูŠ ู…ุตุงู„ุญ ุดุฎุตูŠุฉ ู†ูˆุนุงู‹ ู…ุง:
16:44
I want to do it for prostate cancer. So, you know,
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ุฃุฑูŠุฏ ุฃู† ุฃูุนู„ ุฐู„ูƒ ู„ุณุฑุทุงู† ุงู„ุจุฑูˆุณุชุงุช. ุฅุฐุงุŒ ูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ
16:46
you aren't treated if it's not dangerous.
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ู„ุง ุชุชู„ู‚ูˆู† ุงู„ุนู„ุงุฌ ุฅุฐุง ู„ู… ูŠูƒู† ุฎุทุฑุงู‹.
16:49
But Wigler, besides looking at cancer cells, looked at normal cells,
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ู„ูƒู† ูˆุบู„ุฑุŒ ุจุงู„ุฅุถุงูุฉ ุฅู„ู‰ ุงู„ู†ุธุฑ ููŠ ุงู„ุฎู„ุงูŠุง ุงู„ุณุฑุทุงู†ูŠุฉุŒ ู†ุธุฑ ุฅู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฎู„ุงูŠุง ุงู„ุทุจูŠุนูŠุฉุŒ
16:55
and made a really sort of surprising observation.
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ูˆู‚ุงู… ุจุทุฑุญ ู…ู„ุงุญุธุฉ ู…ูุงุฌุฆุฉ ู†ูˆุนุงู‹ ู…ุง.
16:58
Which is, all of us have about 10 places in our genome
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ูˆุงู„ุชูŠ ู‡ูŠ: ูƒู„ ู…ู†ุง ูŠู…ู„ูƒ ู…ุง ูŠู‚ุงุฑุจ ุงู„ุนุดุฑุฉ ุฃู…ุงูƒู† ููŠ ู…ุงุฏุชู‡ ุงู„ูˆุฑุงุซูŠุฉ
17:02
where we've lost a gene or gained another one.
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ูƒุณุจู†ุง ููŠู‡ุง ู…ูˆุฑุซุงู‹ ุฃูˆ ูู‚ุฏู†ุง ุขุฎุฑ.
17:05
So we're sort of all imperfect. And the question is well,
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ุฅุฐุงู‹ ู†ุญู† ุฌู…ูŠุนุงู‹ ุบูŠุฑ ู…ุซุงู„ูŠูŠู† ู†ูˆุนุงู‹ ู…ุง. ูˆุงู„ุณุคุงู„ ู‡ูˆุŒ ุญุณู†ุงู‹ุŒ
17:11
if we're around here, you know,
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ูˆุจู…ุง ุฃู†ู†ุง ุฌู…ูŠุนุงู‹ ู‡ู†ุงุŒ ูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ
17:13
these little losses or gains might not be too bad.
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ู‚ุฏ ู„ุง ูŠูƒูˆู† ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ูู‚ุฏ ูˆุงู„ูƒุณุจ ุณูŠุก ุฌุฏุงู‹.
17:16
But if these deletions or amplifications occurred in the wrong gene,
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ู„ูƒู† ุฅุฐุง ุญุฏุซุช ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ุญุฐูˆูุงุช ุฃูˆ ุงู„ุชุถุฎู…ุงุช ููŠ ุงู„ู…ูˆุฑุซ ุงู„ุฎุงุทุฆุŒ
17:21
maybe we'll feel sick.
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ู‚ุฏ ู†ุดุนุฑ ุจุงู„ู…ุฑุถ.
17:22
So the first disease he looked at is autism.
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ุฅุฐุงู‹ ูƒุงู† ุฃูˆู„ ู…ุฑุถ ูŠุจุญุซ ููŠู‡ ู‡ูˆ ุงู„ุชูˆุญุฏ.
17:26
And the reason we looked at autism is we had the money to do it.
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ูˆุงู„ุณุจุจ ูˆุฑุงุก ุจุญุซู†ุง ููŠ ุงู„ุชูˆุญุฏ ู‡ูˆ ุงู…ุชู„ุงูƒู†ุง ู„ู„ู…ุงู„ ู„ูุนู„ ุฐู„ูƒ.
17:31
Looking at an individual is about 3,000 dollars. And the parent of a child
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ุงู„ุจุญุซ ููŠ ุงู„ุดุฎุต ุงู„ูˆุงุญุฏ ูŠูƒู„ู 3000 ุฏูˆู„ุงุฑ ุชู‚ุฑูŠุจุงู‹. ูˆูˆุงู„ุฏ ุงู„ุทูู„
17:36
with Asperger's disease, the high-intelligence autism,
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ุงู„ู…ุตุงุจ ุจู…ุฑุถ ุฃุณุจุฑุฌุฑุฒุŒ ุงู„ุชูˆุญุฏ ุฐูˆ ุงู„ุฐูƒุงุก ุงู„ุนุงู„ูŠุŒ
17:38
had sent his thing to a conventional company; they didn't do it.
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ู‚ุงู… ุจุฅุฑุณุงู„ ุนูŠู†ุงุช ู„ุดุฑูƒุฉ ุชู‚ู„ูŠุฏูŠุฉุ› ู„ู… ูŠู‚ูˆู…ูˆุง ุจู‡ุง.
17:43
Couldn't do it by conventional genetics, but just scanning it
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ู„ู… ูŠู‚ูˆู…ูˆุง ุจู‡ุง ุจุงุณุชุฎุฏุงู… ุงู„ูˆุฑุงุซุฉ ุงู„ุชู‚ู„ูŠุฏูŠุฉ. ู„ูƒู† ุจุงู„ู…ุณุญ ูู‚ุท
17:46
we began to find genes for autism.
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ุจุฏุฃู†ุง ุจุงู„ุนุซูˆุฑ ุนู„ู‰ ู…ูˆุฑุซุงุช ู„ู„ุชูˆุญุฏ.
17:49
And you can see here, there are a lot of them.
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ูˆุชุณุชุทูŠุนูˆู† ุฃู† ุชุฑูˆุง ู‡ู†ุงุŒ ุจุฃู†ู‡ ูŠูˆุฌุฏ ุงู„ูƒุซูŠุฑ ู…ู†ู‡ุง.
17:53
So a lot of autistic kids are autistic
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ุฅุฐุงู‹ ุงู„ูƒุซูŠุฑ ู…ู† ุงู„ุฃุทูุงู„ ุงู„ู…ุตุงุจูŠู† ุจุงู„ุชูˆุญุฏ ู‡ู… ู…ุชูˆุญุฏูˆู†
17:57
because they just lost a big piece of DNA.
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ูู‚ุท ู„ุฃู†ู‡ู… ูู‚ุฏูˆุง ู‚ุทุนุฉ ูƒุจูŠุฑุฉ ู…ู† ุงู„ DNA .
17:59
I mean, big piece at the molecular level.
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ุฃุนู†ูŠ ู‚ุทุนุฉ ูƒุจูŠุฑุฉ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ู…ุณุชูˆู‰ ุงู„ุฌุฒูŠุฆูŠ.
18:01
We saw one autistic kid,
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ู„ู‚ุฏ ูุญุตู†ุง ุทูู„ุงู‹ ู…ุชูˆุญุฏุงู‹ุŒ
18:03
about five million bases just missing from one of his chromosomes.
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ู„ุฏูŠู‡ ุญูˆุงู„ูŠ ุฎู…ุณุฉ ู…ู„ุงูŠูŠู† ู‚ุงุนุฏุฉ ู…ูู‚ูˆุฏุฉ ู…ู† ุฅุญุฏู‰ ูƒุฑูˆู…ูˆุณูˆู…ุงุชู‡.
18:06
We haven't yet looked at the parents, but the parents probably
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ู„ู… ู†ูุญุต ุงู„ุฃุจูˆูŠู† ุจุนุฏุŒ ู„ูƒู† ุงู„ุฃุจูˆูŠู† ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฃุฑุฌุญ
18:09
don't have that loss, or they wouldn't be parents.
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ู„ูŠุณ ู„ุฏูŠู‡ู… ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ูู‚ุฏุŒ ูˆุฅู„ุง ู„ู…ุง ูƒุงู†ุง ุฃุจูˆูŠู†.
18:12
Now, so, our autism study is just beginning. We got three million dollars.
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ุงู„ุขู†ุŒ ุฅุฐุงู‹ุŒ ุฏุฑุงุณุชู†ุง ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุชูˆุญุฏ ุจุฏุฃุช ู„ู„ุชูˆ. ู„ู‚ุฏ ุญุตู„ู†ุง ุนู„ู‰ ุซู„ุงุซุฉ ู…ู„ุงูŠูŠู†.
18:19
I think it will cost at least 10 to 20 before you'd be in a position
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ุฃุธู† ุจุฃู†ู‡ุง ุณุชูƒู„ู 10 ุฅู„ู‰ 20 ู…ู„ูŠูˆู† ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฃู‚ู„ ู‚ุจู„ ุฃู† ุชูƒูˆู† ููŠ ูˆุถุน
18:23
to help parents who've had an autistic child,
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ูŠุณู…ุญ ู„ูƒ ุจู…ุณุงุนุฏุฉ ุงู„ุขุจุงุก ุงู„ุฐูŠู† ู„ุฏูŠู‡ู… ุทูู„ ู…ุชูˆุญุฏุŒ
18:26
or think they may have an autistic child,
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ุฃูˆ ูŠุธู†ูˆู† ุจุฃู†ู‡ู… ู‚ุฏ ูŠูƒูˆู† ู„ุฏูŠู‡ู… ุทูู„ ู…ุชูˆุญุฏุŒ
18:28
and can we spot the difference?
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ูˆู‡ู„ ู†ุณุชุทูŠุน ุฃู† ู†ุญุฏุฏ ุงู„ูุฑู‚ุŸ
18:30
So this same technique should probably look at all.
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ู„ุฐุง ูŠุฌุจ ุฃู† ุชูุญุต ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ุชู‚ู†ูŠุฉ ุฐุงุชู‡ุง ูƒู„...
18:33
It's a wonderful way to find genes.
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ุฅู†ู‡ุง ุทุฑูŠู‚ุฉ ุฑุงุฆุนุฉ ู„ุฅูŠุฌุงุฏ ุงู„ู…ูˆุฑุซุงุช.
18:37
And so, I'll conclude by saying
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ุฅุฐุงู‹ุŒ ุณุฃุฎุชู… ุจู‚ูˆู„:
18:39
we've looked at 20 people with schizophrenia.
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ุฃู†ู†ุง ู‚ุฏ ูุญุตู†ุง 20 ุดุฎุตุงู‹ ู…ุตุงุจูˆู† ุจุงู„ูุตุงู….
18:41
And we thought we'd probably have to look at several hundred
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ูˆุฃุนุชู‚ุฏู†ุง ุจุฃู†ู†ุง ุจุญุงุฌุฉ ู„ูุญุต ุนุฏุฉ ู…ุฆุงุช
18:45
before we got the picture. But as you can see,
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ู‚ุจู„ ุฃู† ู†ุญุตู„ ุนู„ู‰ ุตูˆุฑุฉ ุนู† ุงู„ูˆุถุน. ู„ูƒู† ูƒู…ุง ุชุฑูˆู†ุŒ
18:47
there's seven out of 20 had a change which was very high.
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ูŠูˆุฌุฏ 7 ู…ู† ุฃุตู„ 20 ูƒุงู† ู„ุฏูŠู‡ู… ุชุบูŠุฑุŒ ูˆุงู„ุฐูŠ ูƒุงู† ูƒุจูŠุฑุงู‹ ุฌุฏุงู‹.
18:51
And yet, in the controls there were three.
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ูˆู…ุน ุฐู„ูƒุŒ ููŠ ู…ุฌู…ูˆุนุฉ ุงู„ู…ู‚ุงุฑู†ุฉ ูƒุงู† ูŠูˆุฌุฏ ุซู„ุงุซุฉ.
18:54
So what's the meaning of the controls?
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ุฅุฐุงู‹ ู…ุง ู‡ูˆ ู…ุนู†ู‰ ู…ุฌู…ูˆุนุฉ ุงู„ู…ู‚ุงุฑู†ุฉุŸ
18:56
Were they crazy also, and we didn't know it?
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ู‡ู„ ูƒุงู†ูˆุง ู…ุฌุงู†ูŠู† ุฃูŠุถุงู‹ุŒ ูˆู„ูƒู† ู„ู… ู†ุนู„ู… ุจุฐู„ูƒุŸ
18:58
Or, you know, were they normal? I would guess they're normal.
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ุฃูˆุŒ ูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ ูƒุงู†ูˆุง ุทุจูŠุนูŠูŠู†ุŸ ุณุฃุฎู…ู† ุจุฃู†ู‡ู… ุทุจูŠุนูŠูˆู†.
19:02
And what we think in schizophrenia is there are genes of predisposure,
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ูˆู…ุง ู†ุนุชู‚ุฏู‡ ุจุงู„ูุตุงู… ู‡ูˆ ูˆุฌูˆุฏ ู…ูˆุฑุซุงุช ู„ู„ุนุฑุถุฉุŒ
19:09
and whether this is one that predisposes --
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ูˆูƒูˆู† ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ุฌูŠู† ูŠุฒูŠุฏ ุงู„ุนุฑุถุฉ...
19:15
and then there's only a sub-segment of the population
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ูˆุจุนุฏู‡ุง ูŠูˆุฌุฏ ูู‚ุท ู‚ุทุนุฉ ุซุงู†ูˆูŠุฉ ู…ู† ุงู„ุณูƒุงู†
19:19
that's capable of being schizophrenic.
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ูˆุงู„ุชูŠ ู‡ูŠ ู‚ุงุจู„ุฉ ู„ุฃู† ุชุตุงุจ ุจุงู„ูุตุงู….
19:21
Now, we don't have really any evidence of it,
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ุงู„ุขู†ุŒ ู„ุง ูŠูˆุฌุฏ ู„ุฏูŠู†ุง ูุนู„ุงู‹ ุฃูŠ ุฏู„ูŠู„ ุนู„ูŠู‡ุŒ
19:25
but I think, to give you a hypothesis, the best guess
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ู„ูƒู† ุฃุธู†ุŒ ู„ุฅุนุทุงุฆูƒู… ูุฑุถูŠุฉุŒ ุฃูุถู„ ุชุฎู…ูŠู†
19:30
is that if you're left-handed, you're prone to schizophrenia.
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ู‡ูˆ ุฃู†ูƒ ุฅุฐุง ูƒู†ุช ุชูƒุชุจ ุจุงู„ูŠุณุงุฑุŒ ูุฃู†ุช ู…ุนุฑุถ ู„ู„ุฅุตุงุจุฉ ุจุงู„ูุตุงู….
19:36
30 percent of schizophrenic people are left-handed,
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30 ุจุงู„ู…ุฆุฉ ู…ู† ุงู„ู…ุตุงุจูŠู† ุจุงู„ูุตุงู… ูŠูƒุชุจูˆู† ุจูŠุณุฑุงู‡ู….
19:39
and schizophrenia has a very funny genetics,
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ูˆู„ุฏู‰ ุงู„ูุตุงู… ู†ู…ุท ูˆุฑุงุซูŠ ู…ุถุญูƒุŒ
19:42
which means 60 percent of the people are genetically left-handed,
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ูˆู‡ูˆ ุฃู† 60 ุจุงู„ู…ุฆุฉ ู…ู† ุงู„ู†ุงุณ ูŠูƒุชุจูˆู† ุจูŠุณุฑุงู‡ู… ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ู…ุณุชูˆู‰ ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ูŠุŒ
19:46
but only half of it showed. I don't have the time to say.
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ู„ูƒู† ู†ุตูู‡ุง ูู‚ุท ุธู‡ุฑุช. ู„ูŠุณ ู„ุฏูŠ ุงู„ูˆู‚ุช ู„ุฃู‚ูˆู„.
19:49
Now, some people who think they're right-handed
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ุงู„ุขู†ุŒ ุจุนุถ ุงู„ู†ุงุณ ู…ู…ู† ูŠุนุชู‚ุฏูˆู† ุจุฃู†ู‡ู… ูŠูƒุชุจูˆู† ุจูŠู…ู†ุงู‡ู…
19:52
are genetically left-handed. OK. I'm just saying that, if you think,
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ู‡ู… ูŠุณุงุฑูŠูˆู† ูˆุฑุงุซูŠุงู‹. ุญุณู†ุงู‹. ุฃู†ุง ูู‚ุท ุฃู‚ูˆู„ ุฐู„ูƒุŒ ุฅุฐุง ูƒู†ุช ุชุนุชู‚ุฏุŒ
19:58
oh, I don't carry a left-handed gene so therefore my, you know,
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ุฃู†ุง ู„ุง ุฃุญู…ู„ ู…ูˆุฑุซ ุงู„ูƒุชุงุจุฉ ุจุงู„ูŠุฏ ุงู„ูŠุณุฑู‰ ู„ุฐุง ุฃูˆู„ุงุฏูŠุŒ ูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ
20:02
children won't be at risk of schizophrenia. You might. OK?
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ู„ู† ูŠูƒูˆู†ูˆุง ุนุฑุถุฉ ู„ุฎุทุฑ ุงู„ุฅุตุงุจุฉ ุจุงู„ูุตุงู…. ู‚ุฏ ุชูƒูˆู† ูƒุฐู„ูƒ. ุญุณู†ุงู‹ุŸ
20:05
(Laughter)
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(ุถุญูƒ)
20:08
So it's, to me, an extraordinarily exciting time.
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ู„ุฐุง ุจุงู„ู†ุณุจุฉ ู„ูŠุŒ ุฅู†ู‡ ูˆู‚ุช ู…ุซูŠุฑ ุนู„ู‰ ู†ุญูˆ ุบูŠุฑ ุนุงุฏูŠ.
20:11
We ought to be able to find the gene for bipolar;
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ุณูˆู ู†ูƒูˆู† ู‚ุงุฏุฑูŠู† ุนู„ู‰ ุฅูŠุฌุงุฏ ุงู„ุฌูŠู† ุงู„ู…ุณุคูˆู„ ุนู† ุงู„ุฃู…ุฑุงุถ ุซู†ุงุฆูŠุฉ ุงู„ู‚ุทุจุ›
20:13
there's a relationship.
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ูŠูˆุฌุฏ ุฑุงุจุท.
20:14
And if I had enough money, we'd find them all this year.
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ูˆุฅุฐุง ุชูˆูุฑ ู„ุฏูŠ ุงู„ู…ุงู„ ุงู„ูƒุงููŠุŒ ุณู†ุฌุฏู‡ุง ูƒู„ู‡ุง ููŠ ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ุณู†ุฉ.
20:18
I thank you.
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ุฃุดูƒุฑูƒู….
ุญูˆู„ ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ู…ูˆู‚ุน

ุณูŠู‚ุฏู… ู„ูƒ ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ู…ูˆู‚ุน ู…ู‚ุงุทุน ููŠุฏูŠูˆ YouTube ุงู„ู…ููŠุฏุฉ ู„ุชุนู„ู… ุงู„ู„ุบุฉ ุงู„ุฅู†ุฌู„ูŠุฒูŠุฉ. ุณุชุฑู‰ ุฏุฑูˆุณ ุงู„ู„ุบุฉ ุงู„ุฅู†ุฌู„ูŠุฒูŠุฉ ุงู„ุชูŠ ูŠุชู… ุชุฏุฑูŠุณู‡ุง ู…ู† ู‚ุจู„ ู…ุฏุฑุณูŠู† ู…ู† ุงู„ุฏุฑุฌุฉ ุงู„ุฃูˆู„ู‰ ู…ู† ุฌู…ูŠุน ุฃู†ุญุงุก ุงู„ุนุงู„ู…. ุงู†ู‚ุฑ ู†ู‚ุฑู‹ุง ู…ุฒุฏูˆุฌู‹ุง ููˆู‚ ุงู„ุชุฑุฌู…ุฉ ุงู„ุฅู†ุฌู„ูŠุฒูŠุฉ ุงู„ู…ุนุฑูˆุถุฉ ุนู„ู‰ ูƒู„ ุตูุญุฉ ููŠุฏูŠูˆ ู„ุชุดุบูŠู„ ุงู„ููŠุฏูŠูˆ ู…ู† ู‡ู†ุงูƒ. ูŠุชู… ุชู…ุฑูŠุฑ ุงู„ุชุฑุฌู…ุงุช ุจุงู„ุชุฒุงู…ู† ู…ุน ุชุดุบูŠู„ ุงู„ููŠุฏูŠูˆ. ุฅุฐุง ูƒุงู† ู„ุฏูŠูƒ ุฃูŠ ุชุนู„ูŠู‚ุงุช ุฃูˆ ุทู„ุจุงุช ุŒ ูŠุฑุฌู‰ ุงู„ุงุชุตุงู„ ุจู†ุง ุจุงุณุชุฎุฏุงู… ู†ู…ูˆุฐุฌ ุงู„ุงุชุตุงู„ ู‡ุฐุง.

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