James Watson: How we discovered DNA

292,320 views ใƒป 2007-05-16

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืžืชืจื’ื: Oran Tzuman ืžื‘ืงืจ: Uri Yaffe
00:25
Well, I thought there would be a podium, so I'm a bit scared.
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืฆื™ืคื™ืชื™ ืฉื™ื”ื™ื” ื“ื•ื›ืŸ ืื– ืื ื™ ืงืฆืช ื—ื•ืฉืฉ.
00:28
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
00:31
Chris asked me to tell again how we found the structure of DNA.
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ื›ืจื™ืก ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืžืžื ื™ ืœืกืคืจ ืฉื•ื‘ ืื™ืš ืžืฆืื ื• ืืช ืžื‘ื ื” ื”-DNA.
00:34
And since, you know, I follow his orders, I'll do it.
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ื”ื•ืื™ืœ ื•ืื ื™ ืžื‘ืฆืข ืคืงื•ื“ื•ืช ืืขืฉื” ืืช ื–ื”.
00:37
But it slightly bores me.
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ืืš ื–ื” ืงืฆืช ืžืฉืขืžื ืื•ืชื™.
00:39
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
00:41
And, you know, I wrote a book. So I'll say something --
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ื›ืชื‘ืชื™ ืกืคืจ.
00:46
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
00:48
-- I'll say a little about, you know, how the discovery was made,
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ืืกืคืจ ื‘ืงืฆืจื” ืขืœ ื“ืจืš ืžืฆื™ืืช ื”ืชื’ืœื™ืช,
00:51
and why Francis and I found it.
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ื•ืžื“ื•ืข ืคืจื ืกื™ืก ื•ืื ื™ ืžืฆืื ื• ืื•ืชื”.
00:53
And then, I hope maybe I have at least five minutes to say
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ื•ืื ื™ ืžืงื•ื•ื” ืฉื™ื”ื™ื• ืœื™ ื—ืžืฉ ื“ืงื•ืช ืœื•ืžืจ
00:57
what makes me tick now.
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ืžื” ืื ื™ ืขื•ืฉื” ื‘ื™ืžื™ื ืืœื•.
01:01
In back of me is a picture of me when I was 17.
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ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื” ื–ื• ืื ื™ ื‘ืŸ 17.
01:06
I was at the University of Chicago, in my third year,
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ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ื‘ืฉื ื” ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™ืช ื‘ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืช ืฉื™ืงื’ื•,
01:09
and I was in my third year because the University of Chicago
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ืžืคื ื™ ืฉืœืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืช ืฉื™ืงื’ื•
01:15
let you in after two years of high school.
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ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื”ืชืงื‘ืœ ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื ืชื™ื™ื ื‘ืœื‘ื“ ื‘ื‘ื™"ืก ืชื™ื›ื•ืŸ.
01:17
So you -- it was fun to get away from high school -- (Laughter) --
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ื”ื™ื” ื›ื™ืฃ ืœืฆืืช ืžื”ืชื™ื›ื•ืŸ.
01:23
because I was very small, and I was no good in sports,
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ื›ื™ ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืžืื•ื“ ืงื˜ืŸ ื•ืœื ื˜ื•ื‘ ื‘ืกืคื•ืจื˜
01:26
or anything like that.
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ืื• ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื“ื•ืžื™ื.
01:27
But I should say that my background -- my father was, you know,
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ืืฆื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื”ืจืงืข ืฉืœื™ - ืื‘ื™ ื”ื™ื”
01:33
raised to be an Episcopalian and Republican,
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ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื ื™ ื•ืื ื’ืœื™ืงื ื™
01:35
but after one year of college, he became an atheist and a Democrat.
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ื•ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื ื” ื‘ืงื•ืœื’' ื”ืคืš ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ ื•ืืชืื™ืกื˜.
01:40
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
01:43
And my mother was Irish Catholic,
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ืื™ืžื™ ื”ื™ืชื” ืงืชื•ืœื™ืช-ืื™ืจื™ืช,
01:45
and -- but she didn't take religion too seriously.
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ืืš ืœื ืœืงื—ื” ืืช ื”ื“ืช ื‘ืจืฆื™ื ื•ืช ืจื‘ื”
01:50
And by the age of 11, I was no longer going to Sunday Mass,
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ื•ืขื“ ื’ื™ืœ 11 ื›ื‘ืจ ืœื ื”ืฉืชืชืคืชื™ ื‘ืžื™ืกื•ืช ื™ื•ื ืจืืฉื•ืŸ,
01:54
and going on birdwatching walks with my father.
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ืืœื ื”ืœื›ืชื™ ืขื ืื‘ื™ ืœื”ืชื‘ื•ื ืŸ ื‘ืฆื™ืคื•ืจื™ื.
01:58
So early on, I heard of Charles Darwin.
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ื•ื“ื™ ืžื•ืงื“ื ืฉืžืขืชื™ ืขืœ ืฆ'ืืจืœืก ื“ืจื•ื•ื™ืŸ
02:02
I guess, you know, he was the big hero.
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ื•ืฉื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ื’ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื’ื“ื•ืœ
02:05
And, you know, you understand life as it now exists through evolution.
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ื›ื™ ืื ื• ืžื‘ื™ื ื™ื ืฉื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื›ื™ื•ื ื”ืชืคืชื—ื• ื‘ื“ืจืš ื”ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื”.
02:11
And at the University of Chicago I was a zoology major,
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ื•ื‘ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืช ืฉื™ืงื’ื• ืœืžื“ืชื™ ื–ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”.
02:15
and thought I would end up, you know, if I was bright enough,
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ื•ื—ืฉื‘ืชื™ ืฉืื ืื”ื™ื” ื ื‘ื•ืŸ ืžืกืคื™ืง
02:18
maybe getting a Ph.D. from Cornell in ornithology.
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ืื•ืœื™ ืื•ื›ืœ ืœืงื‘ืœ ื“ื•ืงื˜ื•ืจื˜ ื‘ื—ืงืจ ื”ืขื•ืคื•ืช ืžืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืช ืงื•ืจื ืœ.
02:23
Then, in the Chicago paper, there was a review of a book
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ื•ืื– ื”ื•ืคื™ืขื” ื‘ืขื™ืชื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืฉื™ืงื’ื• ืกืงื™ืจื” ืฉืœ ืกืคืจ
02:29
called "What is Life?" by the great physicist, Schrodinger.
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ื‘ืฉื "ืžื”ื ื”ื—ื™ื™ื" ืžืืช ื”ืคื™ืกื™ืงืื™ ื”ื“ื’ื•ืœ ืฉืจื“ื™ื ื’ืจ.
02:33
And that, of course, had been a question I wanted to know.
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ื•ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ืฉืจืฆื™ืชื™ ืœื“ืขืช ืืช ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื”.
02:36
You know, Darwin explained life after it got started,
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ื“ืจื•ื•ื™ืŸ ื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื”ื—ืœื•,
02:39
but what was the essence of life?
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ืืš ืžื”ื™ ืžื”ื•ืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืขืฆืžื?
02:41
And Schrodinger said the essence was information
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ื•ืฉืจื“ื™ื ื’ืจ ืืžืจ ืฉื”ืžื”ื•ืช ื”ื™ื ืื™ื ืคื•ืจืžืฆื™ื”
02:45
present in our chromosomes, and it had to be present
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ื”ืงื™ื™ืžืช ืขืœ ื”ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ืžื™ื ืฉืœื ื•, ื•ื—ื™ื™ื‘ืช ืœื”ืžืฆื
02:49
on a molecule. I'd never really thought of molecules before.
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ืขืœ ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื”. ืขื“ ืื– ืืฃ ืคืขื ืœื ื—ืฉื‘ืชื™ ืขืœ ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช.
02:55
You know chromosomes, but this was a molecule,
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ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ืžื™ื ื”ื ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช,
02:59
and somehow all the information was probably present
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ื•ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืฉื”ื™ ื›ืœ ื”ืื™ื ืคื•ืจืžืฆื™ื” ืงื™ื™ืžืช
03:02
in some digital form. And there was the big question
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ื‘ืื™ื–ื•ืฉื”ื™ ืฆื•ืจื” ื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืœื™ืช. ื•ื”ืฉืืœื” ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื”
03:06
of, how did you copy the information?
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ื”ื™ืชื” ืื™ืš ืžืขืชื™ืงื™ื ืืช ื”ืื™ื ืคื•ืจืžืฆื™ื”?
03:08
So that was the book. And so, from that moment on,
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ืื– ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื”ืกืคืจ. ืžืจื’ืข ื–ื” ื•ืื™ืœืš
03:13
I wanted to be a geneticist --
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ืจืฆื™ืชื™ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื’ื ื˜ื™ืงืื™,
03:18
understand the gene and, through that, understand life.
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ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืช ื”ื’ื ื™ื ื•ื“ืจื›ื ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื.
03:20
So I had, you know, a hero at a distance.
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ื”ื™ื” ืœื™ ื’ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ืื—ื“,
03:25
It wasn't a baseball player; it was Linus Pauling.
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ืœื ืฉื—ืงืŸ ื‘ื™ื™ืกื‘ื•ืœ, ืืœื ืœื™ื™ื ื•ืก ืคืื•ืœื™ื ื’.
03:27
And so I applied to Caltech and they turned me down.
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ื ื™ืกื™ืชื™ ืœื”ืชืงื‘ืœ ืœืงืœื˜ืง ืืš ื”ื ื“ื—ื• ืื•ืชื™.
03:33
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
03:35
So I went to Indiana,
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ืื– ื ืกืขืชื™ ืœืื™ื ื“ื™ืื ื”
03:36
which was actually as good as Caltech in genetics,
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ืฉื”ื™ืชื” ื˜ื•ื‘ื” ืœืคื—ื•ืช ื›ืžื• ืงืœื˜ืง ื‘ื’ื ื˜ื™ืงื”,
03:39
and besides, they had a really good basketball team. (Laughter)
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ื•ื—ื•ืฅ ืžื–ื” ื”ื™ืชื” ืœื”ื ืงื‘ื•ืฆืช ื›ื“ื•ืจืกืœ ืžืฆื•ื™ื™ื ืช,
03:43
So I had a really quite happy life at Indiana.
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ืื– ืžืžืฉ ื ื”ื ืชื™ ืฉื.
03:46
And it was at Indiana I got the impression
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ื•ื‘ืื™ื ื“ื™ืื ื” ืงื™ื‘ืœืชื™ ืืช ื”ืจื•ืฉื
03:49
that, you know, the gene was likely to be DNA.
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ืฉื”ื’ืŸ ื”ื•ื ื›ื ืจืื” ื“ื "ื.
03:51
And so when I got my Ph.D., I should go and search for DNA.
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ื•ื›ืฉืงื™ื‘ืœืชื™ ืืช ื”ื“ื•ืงื˜ื•ืจื˜ ื™ืฆืืชื™ ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ืืช ื”ื“ื "ื.
03:55
So I first went to Copenhagen because I thought, well,
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ืจืืฉื™ืช ื ืกืขืชื™ ืœืงื•ืคื ื”ื’ืŸ, ื—ืฉื‘ืชื™ ืฉืื•ืœื™
04:01
maybe I could become a biochemist,
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ืื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื™ื•ื›ื™ืžืื™.
04:02
but I discovered biochemistry was very boring.
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ืืš ื’ื™ืœื™ืชื™ ืฉื‘ื™ื•ื›ื™ืžื™ื” ื“ื™ ืžืฉืขืžืžืช.
04:05
It wasn't going anywhere toward, you know, saying what the gene was;
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ื”ื™ื ืœื ื”ืชืงื“ืžื” ืœื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื’ื™ืœื•ื™ ื”ื’ืŸ.
04:09
it was just nuclear science. And oh, that's the book, little book.
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ื”ื™ื ื”ื™ืชื” ืจืง ืžื—ืงืจ ื’ืจืขื™ื ื™... ื–ื”ื• ื”ืกืคืจ.
04:13
You can read it in about two hours.
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ืืคืฉืจ ืœืกื™ื™ื ืื•ืชื• ื‘ืฉืขืชื™ื™ื.
04:15
And -- but then I went to a meeting in Italy.
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ืืš ืื–, ื›ืฉื ืกืขืชื™ ืœื›ื ืก ื‘ืื™ื˜ืœื™ื”
04:19
And there was an unexpected speaker who wasn't on the program,
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ื ืื ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืฉืœื ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช,
04:24
and he talked about DNA.
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ื•ื”ื•ื ื“ื™ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ื”ื“ื "ื.
04:26
And this was Maurice Wilkins. He was trained as a physicist,
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ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืžื•ืจื™ืฅ ื•ื™ืœืงื™ื ืก. ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ืคื™ืกื™ืงืื™,
04:29
and after the war he wanted to do biophysics, and he picked DNA
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ื•ืœืื—ืจ ืžืœื—"ืข ื”-II ื”ื•ื ื‘ื—ืจ ื‘ื—ืงืจ ื”ื“ื "ื
04:33
because DNA had been determined at the Rockefeller Institute
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ื›ื™ ื”ื“ื "ื ื”ืชื‘ืจืจ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืกื“ ืจื•ืงืคืœืจ
04:36
to possibly be the genetic molecules on the chromosomes.
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ื›ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื” ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™ืช ืฉื‘ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ืžื™ื.
04:40
Most people believed it was proteins.
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ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ื—ืฉื‘ื• ืฉื”ื™ื ื—ืœื‘ื•ืŸ.
04:41
But Wilkins, you know, thought DNA was the best bet,
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ืืš ื•ื™ืœืงื™ื ืก ื—ืฉื‘ ืฉื”ื“ื "ื ื”ื•ื ื”ื”ื™ืžื•ืจ ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ.
04:45
and he showed this x-ray photograph.
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ื•ื”ื•ื ื”ืจืื” ืืช ืชืžื•ื ืช ื”ืจื ื˜ื’ืŸ ื”ื–ื•.
04:49
Sort of crystalline. So DNA had a structure,
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ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ื’ื‘ื™ืฉ. ืื– ืœื“ื "ื ื™ืฉ ืžื‘ื ื”,
04:53
even though it owed it to probably different molecules
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื›ื›ืœ ื”ื ืจืื” ื™ืฉื ื ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช
04:56
carrying different sets of instructions.
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ืฉื ื•ืฉืื•ืช ื”ื•ืจืื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช.
04:58
So there was something universal about the DNA molecule.
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ืื– ื™ืฉ ืžืฉื”ื• ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกืœื™ ื‘ื“ื "ื.
05:00
So I wanted to work with him, but he didn't want a former birdwatcher,
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ืจืฆื™ืชื™ ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ ืื™ืชื• ืืš ื”ื•ื ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืžืขื•ื ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืฆืคืจ ื›ืžื•ื ื™,
05:05
and I ended up in Cambridge, England.
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ืื– ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื ื—ืชืชื™ ื‘ืงืžื‘ืจื™ื“ื’' ืื ื’ืœื™ื”.
05:06
So I went to Cambridge,
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ื ืกืขืชื™ ืœืงืžื‘ืจื™ื“ื’'
05:08
because it was really the best place in the world then
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ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ืื– ื”ืžืงื•ื ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ ื‘ืขื•ืœื
05:11
for x-ray crystallography. And x-ray crystallography is now a subject
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ืœืฆื™ืœื•ืžื™ ืงืจื™ืกื˜ืœื•ื’ืจืคื™ื”. ื›ื™ื•ื ืงืจื™ืกื˜ืœื•ื’ืจืคื™ื” ื”ื™ื ื‘ืื—ืจื™ื•ืช
05:15
in, you know, chemistry departments.
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ืžื—ืœืงื•ืช ื”ื›ื™ืžื™ื”.
05:17
I mean, in those days it was the domain of the physicists.
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ืืš ืื– ื”ื™ื ื”ื™ืชื” ื ื—ืœืชื ืฉืœ ื”ืคื™ืกื™ืงืื™ื.
05:20
So the best place for x-ray crystallography
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ืื– ื”ืžืงื•ื ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœืงืจื™ืกื˜ืœื•ื’ืจืคื™ื”
05:24
was at the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge.
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ื”ื™ื” ืžืขื‘ื“ืช ืงื‘ื ื“ื™ืฉ ื‘ืงืžื‘ืจื™ื“ื’'.
05:27
And there I met Francis Crick.
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ืฉื ื”ื›ืจืชื™ ืืช ืคืจื ืกื™ืก ืงืจื™ืง.
05:33
I went there without knowing him. He was 35. I was 23.
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ืœื ื”ื›ืจืชื™ ืื•ืชื• ืœืคื ื™ ื›ืŸ. ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืŸ 35 ื•ืื ื™ 23.
05:36
And within a day, we had decided that
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ื•ื‘ืชื•ืš ื™ื•ื ื”ื—ืœื˜ื ื•
05:41
maybe we could take a shortcut to finding the structure of DNA.
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ืœืงืฆืจ ืืช ื”ื“ืจืš ืœืžืฆื™ืืช ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ื“ื "ื.
05:46
Not solve it like, you know, in rigorous fashion, but build a model,
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ืœื ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ืกื™ื–ื™ืคื™ืช, ืืœื ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืžื•ื“ืœ.
05:52
an electro-model, using some coordinates of, you know,
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ืžื•ื“ืœ ืื˜ื•ืžื™ ื•ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื ืงื•ื“ื•ืช ืฆื™ื•ืŸ
05:56
length, all that sort of stuff from x-ray photographs.
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ื›ืžื• ืื•ืจืš ืฉื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื”ืกื™ืง ืžืฆื™ืœื•ืžื™ ื”ืจื ื˜ื’ืŸ.
05:59
But just ask what the molecule -- how should it fold up?
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ืœืฉืื•ืœ ืฉืืœื•ืช ื›ืžื• ืื™ืš ื”ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื” ืžืชืงืคืœืช?
06:02
And the reason for doing so, at the center of this photograph,
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ื•ื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ืœื›ืš, ื ืžืฆืืช ื‘ืžืจื›ื– ื”ืชืžื•ื ื”
06:06
is Linus Pauling. About six months before, he proposed
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ื–ื”ื• ืœื™ื™ื ื•ืก ืคืื•ืœื™ื ื’. ืฉื™ืฉื” ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื ืงื•ื“ื ืœื›ืŸ, ื”ื•ื ื”ืฆื™ืข
06:09
the alpha helical structure for proteins. And in doing so,
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ืืช ื”ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ืกืœื™ืœื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื—ืœื‘ื•ื ื™ื, ื•ื‘ื–ืืช
06:13
he banished the man out on the right,
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ื”ื•ื ื”ื“ื™ื— ืืช ื”ืื™ืฉ ืฉืขื•ืžื“ ืžื™ืžื™ืŸ,
06:15
Sir Lawrence Bragg, who was the Cavendish professor.
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ืกืจ ืœื•ืจื ืก ื‘ืจืื’, ืคืจื•ืคืกื•ืจ ื‘ืžืขื‘ื“ืช ืงื‘ื ื“ื™ืฉ.
06:18
This is a photograph several years later,
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ื–ื•ื”ื™ ืชืžื•ื ื” ืฉืฆื•ืœืžื” ืœืื—ืจ ื›ืžื” ืฉื ื™ื,
06:20
when Bragg had cause to smile.
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ื›ืฉืœื‘ืจืื’ ื”ื™ืชื” ืกื™ื‘ื” ืœื—ื™ื™ืš.
06:22
He certainly wasn't smiling when I got there,
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ืœืœื ืกืคืง ื”ื•ื ืœื ื—ื™ื™ืš ื‘ืชืงื•ืคื” ืฉืื ื™ ื”ื’ืขืชื™,
06:24
because he was somewhat humiliated by Pauling getting the alpha helix,
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ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ื”ื•ืฉืคืœ ืžื’ื™ืœื•ื™ ื”ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ืกืœื™ืœื™ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืคืื•ืœื™ื ื’,
06:28
and the Cambridge people failing because they weren't chemists.
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ื•ืื ืฉื™ ืงืžื‘ืจื™ื“ื’' ื ื›ืฉืœื• ื›ื™ ื”ื ืœื ื”ื™ื• ื›ื™ืžืื™ื.
06:32
And certainly, neither Crick or I were chemists,
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ื•ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ื’ื ืื ื™ ื•ืงืจื™ืง ืœื ื”ื™ื ื• ื›ื™ืžืื™ื,
06:37
so we tried to build a model. And he knew, Francis knew Wilkins.
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ืื– ื ื™ืกื™ื ื• ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืžื•ื“ืœ. ืคืจื ืกื™ืก ื”ื›ื™ืจ ืืช ื•ื™ืœืงื™ื ืก.
06:43
So Wilkins said he thought it was the helix.
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ื•ื•ื™ืœืงื™ื ืก ืกื‘ืจ ืฉื”ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ื•ื ืกืœื™ืœื™.
06:45
X-ray diagram, he thought was comparable with the helix.
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ื”ื•ื ื—ืฉื‘ ืฉืชืžื•ื ืช ื”ืจื ื˜ื’ืŸ ื”ืชืื™ืžื” ืœืžื‘ื ื” ืฉืœ ืกืœื™ืœ.
06:48
So we built a three-stranded model.
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ืื– ื‘ื ื™ื ื• ืžื•ื“ืœ ื‘ืขืœ ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืกืœื™ืœื™ื.
06:50
The people from London came up.
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ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ืžืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ ื”ื’ื™ืขื•.
06:52
Wilkins and this collaborator, or possible collaborator,
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ื•ื™ืœืงื™ื ืก ื•ื”ืงื•ืœื’ื” ืฉืœื•
06:57
Rosalind Franklin, came up and sort of laughed at our model.
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ืจื•ื–ืืœื™ื ื“ ืคืจื ืงืœื™ืŸ, ื•ื’ื™ื—ื›ื• ืขืœ ื”ืžื•ื“ืœ ืฉืœื ื•.
07:00
They said it was lousy, and it was.
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ื”ื ืืžืจื• ืฉื”ื•ื ืžื’ื•ื—ืš. ื•ื”ื•ื ื‘ืืžืช ื”ื™ื”.
07:02
So we were told to build no more models; we were incompetent.
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ื ืืžืจ ืœื ื• ืœื ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืžื•ื“ืœื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื•ืฉืื ื• ืœื ื›ืฉื™ืจื™ื ืœื›ืš.
07:07
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
07:11
And so we didn't build any models,
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ืื– ืœื ื‘ื ื™ื ื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื•ื“ืœื™ื,
07:13
and Francis sort of continued to work on proteins.
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ืคืจื ืกื™ืก ื”ืžืฉื™ืš ืืช ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื• ืขืœ ื—ืœื‘ื•ื ื™ื.
07:16
And basically, I did nothing. And -- except read.
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ื•ืื ื™ ืœื ืขืฉื™ืชื™ ื›ืœื•ื ื—ื•ืฅ ืžืœืงืจื•ื.
07:22
You know, basically, reading is a good thing; you get facts.
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ื•ืœืงืจื•ื ื–ื” ื“ื‘ืจ ื˜ื•ื‘ ื›ื™ ืืชื” ื ื—ืฉืฃ ืœืขื•ื‘ื“ื•ืช.
07:25
And we kept telling the people in London
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ื”ืžืฉื›ื ื• ืœื•ืžืจ ืœืื ืฉื™ื ื‘ืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ
07:28
that Linus Pauling's going to move on to DNA.
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ืฉืœื™ื™ื ื•ืก ืคืื•ืœื™ื ื’ ืขื•ื‘ืจ ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ืืช ื”ื“ื "ื.
07:30
If DNA is that important, Linus will know it.
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ื•ืื ื”ื“ื "ื ื”ื•ื ื›ื” ื—ืฉื•ื‘, ืœื™ื™ื ื•ืก ื™ื“ืข ืขืœ ื›ืš.
07:32
He'll build a model, and then we're going to be scooped.
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ื”ื•ื ื™ื‘ื ื” ืžื•ื“ืœ ื•ื™ืคืจืกื ืืช ื–ื” ืœืคื ื™ื ื•.
07:34
And, in fact, he'd written the people in London:
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ื•ื‘ืืžืช ื”ื•ื ื›ืชื‘ ืœืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ:
07:36
Could he see their x-ray photograph?
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ืืคืฉืจ ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ืฆื™ืœื•ื ื”ืจื ื˜ื’ืŸ ืฉืœื›ื?
07:39
And they had the wisdom to say "no." So he didn't have it.
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ื•ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ื—ื›ืžื™ื ืžืกืคื™ืง ืœื•ืžืจ "ืœื". ืื– ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืœื• ืืช ื”ืฆื™ืœื•ื.
07:42
But there was ones in the literature.
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ืืš ื”ื™ื• ืื—ืจื™ื ื‘ืกืคืจื•ืช.
07:44
Actually, Linus didn't look at them that carefully.
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ืœื™ื™ื ื•ืก ืœื ื‘ื—ืŸ ืื•ืชื ื‘ืงืคื™ื“ื”.
07:46
But about, oh, 15 months after I got to Cambridge,
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15 ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื”ื’ืขืชื™ ืœืงืžื‘ืจื™ื“ื’',
07:52
a rumor began to appear from Linus Pauling's son,
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ื”ื’ื™ืขื” ืฉืžื•ืขื” ืžื‘ื ื• ืฉืœ ืœื™ื™ื ื•ืก ืคืื•ืœื™ื ื’,
07:55
who was in Cambridge, that his father was now working on DNA.
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ืฉื”ื™ื” ื‘ืงืžื‘ืจื™ื“ื’', ืฉืื‘ื™ื• ืขื•ื‘ื“ ืขืœ ื”ื“ื "ื.
07:59
And so, one day Peter came in and he said he was Peter Pauling,
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ื•ื™ื•ื ืื—ื“ ืคื™ื˜ืจ ืคืื•ืœื™ื ื’ ื”ื’ื™ืข
08:03
and he gave me a copy of his father's manuscripts.
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ื•ื ืชืŸ ืœื™ ื”ืขืชืง ืžืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื• ืฉืœ ืื‘ื™ื•.
08:05
And boy, I was scared because I thought, you know, we may be scooped.
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ืžืžืฉ ืคื—ื“ืชื™ ื›ื™ ื—ืฉื‘ืชื™ ืฉืื•ืœื™ ื’ื ื‘ื• ืžืื™ืชื ื•.
08:11
I have nothing to do, no qualifications for anything.
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ืื™ืŸ ืœื™ ืžื” ืœืขืฉื•ืช, ืœืœื ื›ื™ืฉืจื•ืŸ ืœืฉื•ื ื“ื‘ืจ.
08:14
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
08:16
And so there was the paper, and he proposed a three-stranded structure.
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ื‘ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื”ื™ื” ืžื•ื“ืœ ืฉืœ ืžื‘ื ื” ื‘ืขืœ ืฉืœื•ืฉ ืฉืจืฉืจืื•ืช.
08:22
And I read it, and it was just -- it was crap.
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ืงืจืืชื™ ืืช ื–ื” ื•ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืฉื˜ื•ืช.
08:24
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
08:29
So this was, you know, unexpected from the world's --
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ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืžืžืฉ ื‘ืœืชื™ ืฆืคื•ื™ ืžืื“ื ื‘ืขืœ ืฉื™ืขื•ืจ...
08:32
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
08:34
-- and so, it was held together by hydrogen bonds
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ื”ืจืฆื•ืขื•ืช ื”ื•ื—ื–ืงื• ื™ื—ื“ื™ื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืงืฉืจื™ ืžื™ืžืŸ
08:37
between phosphate groups.
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ื‘ื™ืŸ ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ื–ืจื—ืŸ.
08:39
Well, if the peak pH that cells have is around seven,
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ื•ื”-PH ืฉืœ ืชืื™ื ื”ื•ื ืกื‘ื™ื‘ 7,
08:43
those hydrogen bonds couldn't exist.
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ื›ืš ืฉืงืฉืจื™ื ื›ืืœื• ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืชืงื™ื™ื.
08:46
We rushed over to the chemistry department and said,
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ืจืฆื ื• ืœืžื—ืœืงืช ื›ื™ืžื™ื” ื•ืฉืืœื ื•
08:48
"Could Pauling be right?" And Alex Hust said, "No." So we were happy.
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"ื”ื™ื™ืชื›ืŸ ืฉืคืื•ืœื™ื ื’ ืฆื•ื“ืง?" ื•ืืœื›ืก ื”ืืกื˜ ืืžืจ "ืœื", ืื– ืฉืžื—ื ื•.
08:54
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
08:56
And, you know, we were still in the game, but we were frightened
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ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืžื™ืจื•ืฅ ืืš ืคื—ื“ื ื•
08:59
that somebody at Caltech would tell Linus that he was wrong.
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ืฉืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืžืงืœื˜ืง ื™ืืžืจ ืœืœื™ื™ื ื•ืก ืฉื”ื•ื ื˜ื•ืขื”.
09:03
And so Bragg said, "Build models."
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ืื– ื‘ืจืื’ ื”ื•ืจื” ืœื ื•, "ื‘ื ื• ืžื•ื“ืœื™ื".
09:05
And a month after we got the Pauling manuscript --
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ื›ื—ื•ื“ืฉ ืœืื—ืจ ืฉืงื™ื‘ืœื ื• ืืช ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื• ืฉืœ ืคืื•ืœื™ื ื’...
09:09
I should say I took the manuscript to London, and showed the people.
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ืจืง ืืฆื™ื™ืŸ ืฉืœืงื—ืชื™ ืืช ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืœื”ืจืื•ืชื” ื‘ืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ.
09:14
Well, I said, Linus was wrong and that we're still in the game
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ื•ืืžืจืชื™ ืฉืœื™ื™ื ื•ืก ื˜ื•ืขื” ื•ืื ื• ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืžืฉื—ืง.
09:17
and that they should immediately start building models.
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ื•ืฉื”ื ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืžื™ื“ ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืžื•ื“ืœื™ื.
09:19
But Wilkins said "no." Rosalind Franklin was leaving in about two months,
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ืืš ื•ื•ื™ืœืงื™ื ืก ืืžืจ ืœื, ื•ืฉืจื•ื–ืืœื™ื ื“ ืคืจื ืงืœื™ืŸ ืขื•ื–ื‘ืช ื‘ืขื•ื“ ื›ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื™ื,
09:24
and after she left he would start building models.
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ื•ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ ื ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืžื•ื“ืœื™ื.
09:27
And so I came back with that news to Cambridge,
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ื—ื–ืจืชื™ ืขื ื”ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ืœืงื™ื™ืžื‘ืจื™ื“ื’',
09:31
and Bragg said, "Build models."
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ื•ื‘ืจืื’ ืืžืจ, "ื‘ื ื• ืžื•ื“ืœื™ื".
09:32
Well, of course, I wanted to build models.
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ืื ื™ ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ืจืฆื™ืชื™ ื‘ื›ืš.
09:33
And there's a picture of Rosalind. She really, you know,
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ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื” ื–ื• ืžื•ืคื™ืขื” ืจื•ื–ืืœื™ื ื“.
09:39
in one sense she was a chemist,
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ืžืฆื“ ืื—ื“ ื”ื™ื ื”ื™ืชื” ื›ื™ืžืื™ืช,
09:41
but really she would have been trained --
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ืืš ื”ื™ื ื”ื•ื›ืฉืจื”...
09:43
she didn't know any organic chemistry or quantum chemistry.
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ื”ื™ื ืœื ืžืžืฉ ื™ื“ืขื” ื›ื™ืžื™ื” ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ืช ืื• ืงื•ื•ื ื˜ื™ืช.
09:46
She was a crystallographer.
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ื”ื™ื ืขืกืงื” ื‘ืงืจื™ืกื˜ืœื•ื’ืจืคื™ื”.
09:47
And I think part of the reason she didn't want to build models
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ื•ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉืื—ืช ื”ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ืฉื”ื™ื ืœื ืจืฆืชื” ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืžื•ื“ืœื™ื
09:52
was, she wasn't a chemist, whereas Pauling was a chemist.
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ืฉื”ื™ื ืœื ื”ื™ืชื” ื›ื™ืžืื™ืช, ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืฉืคืื•ืœื™ื ื’ ื”ื™ื” ื›ื™ืžืื™.
09:55
And so Crick and I, you know, started building models,
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ืื ื™ ื•ืงืจื™ืง ื”ืชื—ืœื ื• ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืžื•ื“ืœื™ื,
10:00
and I'd learned a little chemistry, but not enough.
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ืœืžื“ืชื™ ืงืฆืช ื›ื™ืžื™ื” ืืš ืœื ืžืกืคื™ืง.
10:03
Well, we got the answer on the 28th February '53.
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ืžืฆืื ื• ืืช ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื‘-28 ืœืคื‘ืจื•ืืจ 1953.
10:07
And it was because of a rule, which, to me, is a very good rule:
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ื•ื–ืืช ื‘ื–ื›ื•ืช ื›ืœืœ, ืฉื‘ืขื™ื ื™ื™ ื”ื•ื ื›ืœืœ ื˜ื•ื‘ ืžืื•ื“:
10:11
Never be the brightest person in a room, and we weren't.
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ืืœ ืชื”ื™ื” ื”ืื“ื ื”ืžื‘ืจื™ืง ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”, ื•ืื ื• ืœื ื”ื™ื™ื ื•.
10:17
We weren't the best chemists in the room.
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ืœื ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื”ื›ื™ืžืื™ื ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ.
10:19
I went in and showed them a pairing I'd done,
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ื‘ืืชื™ ื•ื”ืจืืชื™ ืืช ื”ืฆืžื“ื™ื ืฉืขืฉื™ืชื™
10:21
and Jerry Donohue -- he was a chemist -- he said, it's wrong.
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ืœื’'ืจื™ ื“ื•ื ื”ื™ื• ืฉื”ื™ื” ื›ื™ืžืื™, ื•ื”ื•ื ืืžืจ ืฉื–ื• ื˜ืขื•ืช.
10:25
You've got -- the hydrogen atoms are in the wrong place.
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ืื˜ื•ืžื™ ื”ืžื™ืžืŸ ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื”ืœื ื ื›ื•ืŸ.
10:28
I just put them down like they were in the books.
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ืื ื™ ืจืง ื”ืขืชืงืชื™ ืืช ืžื™ืงื•ืžื ืžื”ืกืคืจื•ืช.
10:31
He said they were wrong.
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืืžืจ ืฉื–ื• ื˜ืขื•ืช.
10:32
So the next day, you know, after I thought, "Well, he might be right."
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ืœืžื—ืจืช ื—ืฉื‘ืชื™, "ื™ืชื›ืŸ ืฉื”ื•ื ืฆื•ื“ืง"
10:36
So I changed the locations, and then we found the base pairing,
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ืื– ืฉื™ื ื™ืชื™ ืืช ืžื™ืงื•ืžื ื•ืื– ืžืฆืื ื• ืืช ืฆืžื“ื™ ื”ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ื.
10:40
and Francis immediately said the chains run in absolute directions.
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ื•ืžื™ื“ ืคืจื ืกื™ืก ืืžืจ ืฉื”ืฉืจืฉืจืื•ืช ื‘ื›ื™ื•ื•ื ื™ื ื”ืคื•ื›ื™ื ืœื’ืžืจื™.
10:43
And we knew we were right.
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ื•ื™ื“ืขื ื• ืฉืฆื“ืงื ื•.
10:45
So it was a pretty, you know, it all happened in about two hours.
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ื•ื›ืœ ื–ื” ืงืจื” ื‘ืžืฉื”ื• ื›ืžื• ืฉืขืชื™ื™ื.
10:52
From nothing to thing.
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ืžืฉื•ื ื“ื‘ืจ ืœืžืฉื”ื•.
10:56
And we knew it was big because, you know, if you just put A next to T
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ื™ื“ืขื ื• ืฉื–ื” ืขื ืง ื›ื™ ืื ืฉืžื™ื A ืžื•ืœ T
11:01
and G next to C, you have a copying mechanism.
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ื•-G ืžื•ืœ C, ื™ืฉ ืžื ื’ื ื•ืŸ ื”ืขืชืงื”.
11:04
So we saw how genetic information is carried.
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ืจืื™ื ื• ืื™ืš ื ื™ืฉื ื”ืžื™ื“ืข ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™.
11:08
It's the order of the four bases.
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืืจื‘ืขื” ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ื.
11:09
So in a sense, it is a sort of digital-type information.
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ื‘ืžื™ื“ื” ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžืช ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืœื™ืช.
11:13
And you copy it by going from strand-separating.
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ื•ื”ื”ืขืชืงื” ื”ื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืคืจื“ืช ื”ืฉืจืฉืจืื•ืช.
11:18
So, you know, if it didn't work this way, you might as well believe it,
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ืื ื–ื” ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื›ืš, ืื– ื”ืืžื ื• ื‘ื–ื”
11:26
because you didn't have any other scheme.
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ื›ื™ ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืœื ื• ืฉื•ื ื“ื‘ืจ ืื—ืจ.
11:27
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
11:30
But that's not the way most scientists think.
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ืืš ื–ื• ืœื ื”ื“ืจืš ื‘ื” ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืžื“ืขื ื™ื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื.
11:33
Most scientists are really rather dull.
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ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืžื“ืขื ื™ื ื™ืืžืจื•
11:36
They said, we won't think about it until we know it's right.
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ืœื ื ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ื–ื” ืืœื ืื ื ื“ืข ืฉื–ื” ื ื›ื•ืŸ.
11:38
But, you know, we thought, well, it's at least 95 percent right or 99 percent right.
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ืืš ื–ื” ืœืคื—ื•ืช 95 ืื• 99 ืื—ื•ื– ื ื›ื•ืŸ.
11:44
So think about it. The next five years,
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ืื– ืชื—ืฉื‘ื• ืขืœ ื–ื”. ื‘ื—ืžืฉ ืฉื ื™ื ื”ื‘ืื•ืช,
11:48
there were essentially something like five references
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ื”ื™ื• ื—ืžื™ืฉื” ืฆื™ื˜ื•ื˜ื™ื
11:50
to our work in "Nature" -- none.
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ืžื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืฉืœื ื• ื‘ื ื™ื™ืฆ'ืจ- ื›ืœื•ื.
11:53
And so we were left by ourselves,
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ืื– ื ืฉืืจื ื• ืœื‘ื“ื ื•,
11:55
and trying to do the last part of the trio: how do you --
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ื•ื”ืžืฉื›ื ื• ืืช ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื”-
12:00
what does this genetic information do?
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ืžื” ื”ื’ื ื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ืขื•ืฉื™ื?
12:04
It was pretty obvious that it provided the information
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ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืจื•ืจ ืฉื”ื ืžืกืคืงื™ื ืืช ื”ืžื™ื“ืข ืœืจื "ื,
12:08
to an RNA molecule, and then how do you go from RNA to protein?
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ืื‘ืœ ืื™ืš ืขื•ื‘ืจื™ื ืžืจื "ื ืœื—ืœื‘ื•ื ื™ื?
12:11
For about three years we just -- I tried to solve the structure of RNA.
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ื›ืฉืœื•ืฉ ืฉื ื™ื ื ื™ืกื™ืชื™ ืœืคืชื•ืจ ืืช ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ืจื "ื.
12:16
It didn't yield. It didn't give good x-ray photographs.
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ืืš ืœื ื”ืฆืœื—ืชื™. ืœื ื”ื™ื• ืฆื™ืœื•ืžื™ ืจื ื˜ื’ืŸ ื˜ื•ื‘ื™ื
12:19
I was decidedly unhappy; a girl didn't marry me.
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ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืžืฆื•ื‘ืจื—, ื‘ื—ื•ืจื” ืœื ื”ืชื—ืชื ื” ืื™ืชื™.
12:22
It was really, you know, sort of a shitty time.
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ื–ื• ื”ื™ืชื” ืชืงื•ืคื” ืจืขื”.
12:25
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
12:28
So there's a picture of Francis and I before I met the girl,
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ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื” ื–ื•: ืื ื™ ื•ืคืจื ืกื™ืก ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื”ื›ืจืชื™ ืืช ื”ื‘ื—ื•ืจื”,
12:32
so I'm still looking happy.
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ืื– ืื ื™ ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืฉืžื—.
12:33
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
12:36
But there is what we did when we didn't know
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ืžื” ืฉืขืฉื™ื ื• ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉืœื ื™ื“ืขื ื• ื›ื™ืฆื“ ืœื”ืžืฉื™ืš
12:39
where to go forward: we formed a club and called it the RNA Tie Club.
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ื–ื” ืœื”ืงื™ื ืืช "ืžื•ืขื“ื•ืŸ ืขื ื™ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืจื "ื ".
12:45
George Gamow, also a great physicist, he designed the tie.
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ื’ื•ืจื’' ื’ืžื•ื‘, ื”ืคื™ืกื™ืงืื™ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ, ืขื™ืฆื‘ ืืช ื”ืขื ื™ื‘ื”
12:49
He was one of the members. The question was:
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ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ื—ื‘ืจ ื‘ืžื•ืขื“ื•ืŸ. ื”ืฉืืœื” ื”ื™ืชื”:
12:52
How do you go from a four-letter code
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ืื™ืš ืขื•ื‘ืจื™ื ืžืงื•ื“ ื‘ืขืœ ืืจื‘ืข ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช
12:54
to the 20-letter code of proteins?
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ืœืงื•ื“ ื‘ืขืœ 20 ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื—ืœื‘ื•ื ื™ื?
12:56
Feynman was a member, and Teller, and friends of Gamow.
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ืคื™ื™ื ืžืŸ, ื˜ืœืจ ื•ืื—ืจื™ื ื”ื™ื• ื’ื ื—ื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ืžื•ืขื“ื•ืŸ.
13:01
But that's the only -- no, we were only photographed twice.
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ื”ืฆื˜ืœืžื ื• ืจืง ืคืขืžื™ื™ื.
13:07
And on both occasions, you know, one of us was missing the tie.
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ื•ื‘ืฉื ื™ ื”ืžืงืจื™ื ืœืื—ื“ ืžืื™ืชื ื• ื—ืกืจื” ืขื ื™ื‘ื”.
13:10
There's Francis up on the upper right,
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ืคืจื ืกื™ืก ื‘ืงืฆื” ื”ื™ืžื ื™ ื”ืขืœื™ื•ืŸ,
13:13
and Alex Rich -- the M.D.-turned-crystallographer -- is next to me.
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ื•ืืœื›ืก ืจื™ืฅ' ืœื™ื“ื™.
13:18
This was taken in Cambridge in September of 1955.
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ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืงื™ื™ืžื‘ืจื™ื“ื’' ื‘ืกืคื˜ืžื‘ืจ 1955.
13:22
And I'm smiling, sort of forced, I think,
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ืื ื™ ืขื ื—ื™ื•ืš ืžืื•ืœืฅ-
13:28
because the girl I had, boy, she was gone.
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ืžืคื ื™ ืฉื”ื‘ื—ื•ืจื” ื›ื‘ืจ ืขื–ื‘ื”.
13:31
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
13:35
And so I didn't really get happy until 1960,
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ืœื ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืžืื•ืฉืจ ืขื“ 1960,
13:40
because then we found out, basically, you know,
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ื›ื™ ืื– ื’ื™ืœื™ื ื•
13:44
that there are three forms of RNA.
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ืฉื™ืฉ ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืกื•ื’ื™ื ืฉืœ ืจื "ื.
13:46
And we knew, basically, DNA provides the information for RNA.
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ื•ื”ื“ื "ื ืžืกืคืง ืžื™ื“ืข ืœืจื "ื,
13:49
RNA provides the information for protein.
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ื•ื”ืจื "ื ืžืกืคืง ืžื™ื“ืข ืœื—ืœื‘ื•ื ื™ื.
13:51
And that let Marshall Nirenberg, you know, take RNA -- synthetic RNA --
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ืื– ืžืจืฉืœ ื ื•ืจื ื‘ืจื’ ื™ืฆืจ ืจื "ื ืกื™ื ื˜ืชื™,
13:56
put it in a system making protein. He made polyphenylalanine,
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ืฉื ืื•ืชื• ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื•ื™ืฆืจ ื—ืœื‘ื•ืŸ. ืคื•ืœื™ืคื ื™ืœืืœื ื™ืŸ.
14:02
polyphenylalanine. So that's the first cracking of the genetic code,
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ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื”ืคื™ืฆื•ื— ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืงื•ื“ ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™,
14:10
and it was all over by 1966.
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ืฉื”ืกืชื™ื™ื ืขื“ 1966.
14:12
So there, that's what Chris wanted me to do, it was --
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ืื– ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉื”ืชื‘ืงืฉืชื™ ืœื•ืžืจ ื”ื™ื•ื.
14:15
so what happened since then?
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ืžื” ืงืจื” ืžืื–?
14:19
Well, at that time -- I should go back.
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ืืœืš ืื—ื•ืจื” ืžืขื˜.
14:22
When we found the structure of DNA, I gave my first talk
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ื›ืฉืžืฆืื ื• ืืช ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ื“ื "ื, ื”ืจืฆืืชื™ ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื”
14:27
at Cold Spring Harbor. The physicist, Leo Szilard,
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ื‘ืงื•ืœื“ ืกืคืจื™ื ื’. ื”ืคื™ืกื™ืงืื™ ืœื™ืื• ืกื™ืœืืจื“,
14:30
he looked at me and said, "Are you going to patent this?"
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ืฉืืœ ืื•ืชื™, "ืืชื ืžื•ืฆื™ืื™ื ืคื˜ื ื˜ ืขืœ ื”ื’ื™ืœื•ื™?"
14:33
And -- but he knew patent law, and that we couldn't patent it,
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ืืš ื”ื•ื ื”ื›ื™ืจ ืืช ื—ื•ืง ื”ืคื˜ื ื˜ื™ื ื•ืฉื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื”ื™ื ืœื,
14:38
because you couldn't. No use for it.
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ื›ื™ ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื–ื” ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ.
14:40
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
14:42
And so DNA didn't become a useful molecule,
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ื”ื“ื "ื ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื™ืขื™ืœ,
14:46
and the lawyers didn't enter into the equation until 1973,
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ื•ืขื•ืจื›ื™ ื”ื“ื™ืŸ ืœื ื ื›ื ืกื• ืœืžืฉื•ื•ืื” ืขื“ 1973,
14:51
20 years later, when Boyer and Cohen in San Francisco
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ืขืฉืจื™ื ืฉื ื” ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ, ื›ื‘ื•ื™ืืจ ื•ื›ื”ืŸ ืžืกืŸ ืคืจื ืกื™ืกืงื• ื•ืกื˜ื ืคื•ืจื“
14:56
and Stanford came up with their method of recombinant DNA,
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ื”ื’ื™ืขื• ืขื ืฉื™ื˜ืช ืฉื™ื—ืœื•ืฃ ื”ื“ื "ื,
14:58
and Stanford patented it and made a lot of money.
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ื”ื•ืฆื™ืื• ืคื˜ื ื˜ ื•ืขืฉื• ื”ืจื‘ื” ื›ืกืฃ.
15:01
At least they patented something
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ืœืคื—ื•ืช ื”ื ื”ื•ืฆื™ืื• ืคื˜ื ื˜ ืœืžืฉื”ื•
15:02
which, you know, could do useful things.
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ืฉื™ื”ื™ื” ืžื•ืขื™ืœ.
15:05
And then, they learned how to read the letters for the code.
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ื•ืื– ื”ื ืœืžื“ื• ืื™ืš ืœืงืจื•ื ืืช ื”ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืงื•ื“,
15:08
And, boom, we've, you know, had a biotech industry. And,
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ื•ื‘ื‘ืช ืื—ืช ืงื™ื‘ืœื ื• ืืช ืชืขืฉื™ื™ืช ื”ื‘ื™ื•-ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”.
15:13
but we were still a long ways from, you know,
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ืืš ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืขื•ื“ ื“ืจืš ืืจื•ื›ื”
15:20
answering a question which sort of dominated my childhood,
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ืžืœืขื ื•ืช ืขืœ ืฉืืœืช ื™ืœื“ื•ืช ืฉืœื™-
15:22
which is: How do you nature-nurture?
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ืฉืืœืช ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™ืงื” ืžื•ืœ ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”.
15:27
And so I'll go on. I'm already out of time,
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ื›ื‘ืจ ืื•ื–ืœ ืœื ื• ื”ื–ืžืŸ.
15:31
but this is Michael Wigler, a very, very clever mathematician
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ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื”: ืžื™ื™ืงืœ ื•ื•ื™ื’ืœืจ, ืžืชืžื˜ื™ืงืื™ ืžื•ื›ืฉืจ ืžืื•ื“
15:34
turned physicist. And he developed a technique
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ืฉื”ืคืš ืœืคื™ืกื™ืงืื™, ื•ืคื™ืชื— ื˜ื›ื ื™ืงื”
15:37
which essentially will let us look at sample DNA
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ืฉืืคืฉืจื” ืœื ื• ืœืจืื•ืช ื“ื•ื’ืžื ืฉืœ ื“ื "ื
15:41
and, eventually, a million spots along it.
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ื•ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ ืžื™ืœื™ื•ื ื™ ื“ื•ื’ืžืื•ืช.
15:43
There's a chip there, a conventional one. Then there's one
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ื”ื ื” ืฉื‘ื‘ ืกื˜ื ื“ืจื˜ื™. ื•ื›ืืŸ ืื—ื“
15:46
made by a photolithography by a company in Madison
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ืฉืคื•ืชื— ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื—ื‘ืจืช ืžื“ื™ืกื•ืŸ
15:49
called NimbleGen, which is way ahead of Affymetrix.
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ืฉื ืงืจื ื ื™ืžื‘ืœื’ื™ืŸ.
15:54
And we use their technique.
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ื•ืื ื• ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ื˜ื›ื ื™ืงื” ืฉืœื”ื
15:56
And what you can do is sort of compare DNA of normal segs versus cancer.
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ื•ืžืฉื•ื•ื™ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ื“ื "ื ื ื•ืจืžืœื™ ืœื–ื” ืฉืœ ืชืื™ ืกืจื˜ืŸ.
16:01
And you can see on the top
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ื•ืืคืฉืจ ืœืจืื•ืช
16:05
that cancers which are bad show insertions or deletions.
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ืฉื‘ืกืจื˜ื ื™ื ืื’ืจืกื™ื‘ื™ื ื™ืฉ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื.
16:10
So the DNA is really badly mucked up,
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ื•ื”ื“ื "ื ื‘ื”ื ืคื’ื•ื ืžืื•ื“.
16:13
whereas if you have a chance of surviving,
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ืืฆืœ ื—ื•ืœื™ื ืฉืฉื•ืจื“ื™ื ืกืจื˜ืŸ,
16:15
the DNA isn't so mucked up.
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ื”ื“ื "ื ืคื’ื•ื ืคื—ื•ืช.
16:17
So we think that this will eventually lead to what we call
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ื•ืื ื• ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉื–ื” ื™ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ
16:20
"DNA biopsies." Before you get treated for cancer,
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ืœ"ื‘ื™ื•ืคืกื™ืช ื“ื "ื". ืœืคื ื™ ืฉืชื—ื™ืœื™ื ืืช ื”ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ื‘ืกืจื˜ืŸ,
16:24
you should really look at this technique,
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ื ืกืชื›ืœ ืขืœ ื”ื“ื "ื ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ื”ื˜ื›ื ื™ืงื” ื”ื–ื•,
16:26
and get a feeling of the face of the enemy.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ืคื ื™ ื”ืื•ื™ื‘.
16:29
It's not a -- it's only a partial look, but it's a --
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ืืžื ื ืชืชืงื‘ืœ ืชืžื•ื ื” ื—ืœืงื™ืช ื‘ืœื‘ื“,
16:32
I think it's going to be very, very useful.
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ืืš ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื–ื” ื™ื”ื™ื” ืžืื•ื“ ืžื•ืขื™ืœ.
16:35
So, we started with breast cancer
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ื”ืชื—ืœื ื• ืขื ืกืจื˜ืŸ ื”ืฉื“
16:37
because there's lots of money for it, no government money.
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ื›ื™ ื™ืฉ ืœื›ืš ืžื™ืžื•ืŸ ื—ื•ืฅ ืžืžืฉืœืชื™ ืจื‘
16:40
And now I have a sort of vested interest:
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ื•ื™ืฉ ืœื™ ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืžื™ื•ื—ื“
16:44
I want to do it for prostate cancer. So, you know,
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ื‘ืกืจื˜ืŸ ื”ืขืจืžื•ื ื™ืช.
16:46
you aren't treated if it's not dangerous.
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ืืชื” ืœื ืชื˜ื•ืคืœ ืื ื–ื” ืœื ืžืกื•ื›ืŸ.
16:49
But Wigler, besides looking at cancer cells, looked at normal cells,
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ื•ื•ื™ื’ืœืจ ื”ื‘ื™ื˜ ืขืœ ืชืื™ื ืจื’ื™ืœื™ื, ืœื ืจืง ืชืื™ ืกืจื˜ืŸ,
16:55
and made a really sort of surprising observation.
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ื•ื’ื™ืœื” ื“ื‘ืจ ืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ.
16:58
Which is, all of us have about 10 places in our genome
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ืœื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ืžืื™ืชื ื• ื™ืฉ ืœืคื—ื•ืช 10 ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื‘ื’ื ื•ื
17:02
where we've lost a gene or gained another one.
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ืฉื‘ื”ื ืื™ื‘ื“ื ื• ืื• ืจื›ืฉื ื• ื’ืŸ.
17:05
So we're sort of all imperfect. And the question is well,
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ืื– ืืฃ ืื—ื“ ืœื ืžื•ืฉืœื. ื•ื›ื ืจืื”
17:11
if we're around here, you know,
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ืื ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื›ืืŸ,
17:13
these little losses or gains might not be too bad.
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ืื– ื”ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ืœื ื ื•ืจืื™ื™ื ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“.
17:16
But if these deletions or amplifications occurred in the wrong gene,
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ืืš ืื ื”ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื™ื”ื™ื• ื‘ื’ื ื™ื ื”ืœื ื ื›ื•ื ื™ื
17:21
maybe we'll feel sick.
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ืื•ืœื™ ื ื—ืœื”.
17:22
So the first disease he looked at is autism.
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ื•ื”ืžื—ืœื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืฉื”ื‘ื˜ื ื• ืขืœื™ื” ื”ื™ืชื” ืื•ื˜ื™ื–ื.
17:26
And the reason we looked at autism is we had the money to do it.
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ื›ื™ ื”ื™ื” ืœื ื• ืชืงืฆื™ื‘ ืœื›ืš.
17:31
Looking at an individual is about 3,000 dollars. And the parent of a child
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ืœื”ื‘ื™ื˜ ืขืœ ืื“ื ืื—ื“ ืขื•ืœื” ื›-3000 ื“ื•ืœืจ.
17:36
with Asperger's disease, the high-intelligence autism,
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ื”ื•ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ืœื™ืœื“ ื”ืœื•ืงื” ื‘ืชืกืžื•ื ืช ืืกืคืจื’ืจ, ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ืื•ื˜ื™ื–ื,
17:38
had sent his thing to a conventional company; they didn't do it.
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ืฉืœื—ื• ื“ื’ื™ืžื” ืœืžืขื‘ื“ื” ืงื•ื ื‘ื ืฆื™ื•ื ืืœื™ืช ืฉืœื ื”ืฆืœื™ื—ื”
17:43
Couldn't do it by conventional genetics, but just scanning it
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื’ื ื˜ื™ืงื” ืจื’ื™ืœื”, ื•ื›ืฉืกืจืงื ื• ืื•ืชื”
17:46
we began to find genes for autism.
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ืžืฆืื ื• ื’ื ื™ื ืœืื•ื˜ื™ื–ื.
17:49
And you can see here, there are a lot of them.
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ื™ืฉ ืจื‘ื™ื.
17:53
So a lot of autistic kids are autistic
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ืื– ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ืœื“ื™ื ืื•ื˜ื™ืกื˜ื™ื
17:57
because they just lost a big piece of DNA.
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ื—ื•ืœื™ื ื‘ืžื—ืœื” ื›ื™ ื—ืกืจ ืœื”ื ื—ืœืง ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืžื”ื“ื "ื.
17:59
I mean, big piece at the molecular level.
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ื‘ืจืžื” ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœืจื™ืช.
18:01
We saw one autistic kid,
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ืจืื™ื ื• ืื•ื˜ื™ืกื˜ ืื—ื“
18:03
about five million bases just missing from one of his chromosomes.
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ืฉื—ืกืจื• ืœื• ื—ืžื™ืฉื” ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ื ืžืื—ื“ ืžื”ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ืžื™ื.
18:06
We haven't yet looked at the parents, but the parents probably
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ืœื ื‘ื“ืงื ื• ืืช ื”ื”ื•ืจื™ื, ืืš ื›ื ืจืื”
18:09
don't have that loss, or they wouldn't be parents.
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ืฉืœื”ื•ืจื™ื ืœื ื—ืกืจ, ืื—ืจืช ื”ื ืœื ื”ื™ื• ื”ื•ืจื™ื.
18:12
Now, so, our autism study is just beginning. We got three million dollars.
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ืื ื• ืจืง ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื”ืžื—ืงืจ ื•ืงื™ื‘ืœื ื• 3 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื“ื•ืœืจ.
18:19
I think it will cost at least 10 to 20 before you'd be in a position
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ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื–ื” ื™ืขืœื” 10-20 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ื˜ืจื
18:23
to help parents who've had an autistic child,
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ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืขื–ื•ืจ ืœื”ื•ืจื™ื ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื”ื ื™ืœื“ ืื•ื˜ื™ืกื˜,
18:26
or think they may have an autistic child,
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ืื• ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉืื•ืœื™ ื™ื”ื™ื” ืœื”ื ื™ืœื“ ืื•ื˜ื™ืกื˜,
18:28
and can we spot the difference?
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ื•ื”ืื ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ื‘ื—ื™ืŸ ื‘ื”ื‘ื“ืœ?
18:30
So this same technique should probably look at all.
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ื”ื˜ื›ื ื™ืงื” ื”ื–ื• ืชืืคืฉืจ ืœื ื• ืœื”ื‘ื™ื˜ ืขืœ ื›ื•ืœื.
18:33
It's a wonderful way to find genes.
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ื“ืจืš ื ืคืœืื” ืœืžืฆื•ื ื’ื ื™ื.
18:37
And so, I'll conclude by saying
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ื•ืœืกื™ื•ื
18:39
we've looked at 20 people with schizophrenia.
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ื”ื‘ื˜ื ื• ื‘ืขืฉืจื™ื ื—ื•ืœื™ ืกื›ื™ื–ื•ืคืจื ื™ื”.
18:41
And we thought we'd probably have to look at several hundred
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ื•ื—ืฉื‘ื ื• ืฉื ืฆื˜ืจืš ืœื”ื‘ื™ื˜ ื‘ืžืื•ืช
18:45
before we got the picture. But as you can see,
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ืœืคื ื™ ืฉืจืื” ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืชืžื•ื ื”. ืืš ื›ืžื• ืฉืืชื ืจื•ืื™ื,
18:47
there's seven out of 20 had a change which was very high.
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ืœืฉื‘ืขื” ืžืชื•ืš ื”ืขืฉืจื™ื ื”ื™ื” ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ืžืื•ื“ ื’ื“ื•ืœ.
18:51
And yet, in the controls there were three.
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ื•ื‘ืงื‘ื•ืฆืช ื”ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจืช ืจืง ืœืฉืœื•ืฉื”.
18:54
So what's the meaning of the controls?
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ืžื” ื”ืžืฉืžืขื•ืช ืฉืœ ืงื‘ื•ืฆืช ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจืช?
18:56
Were they crazy also, and we didn't know it?
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ื”ืื ื’ื ื”ื "ืžืฉื•ื’ืขื™ื" ื•ืœื ื™ื“ืขื ื• ื–ืืช?
18:58
Or, you know, were they normal? I would guess they're normal.
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ืื• ืฉื”ื ื”ื™ื• "ื ื•ืจืžืœื™ื"? ืœื”ืขืจื›ืชื™ ื”ื "ื ื•ืจืžืœื™ื".
19:02
And what we think in schizophrenia is there are genes of predisposure,
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ืื ื• ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉื‘ืกื›ื™ื–ื•ืคืจื ื™ื” ื™ืฉื ื ื’ื ื™ื ืœื ื˜ื™ื™ื”,
19:09
and whether this is one that predisposes --
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ื•ืื ื–ื”ื• ื”ื’ืŸ ืฉืžืขื ื™ืง ืืช ื”ื ื˜ื™ื™ื”
19:15
and then there's only a sub-segment of the population
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ืื– ืจืง ืœื—ืœืง ืžื”ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื”
19:19
that's capable of being schizophrenic.
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ื™ืฉ ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืœืคืชื— ืกื›ื™ื–ื•ืคืจื ื™ื”.
19:21
Now, we don't have really any evidence of it,
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ืื™ืŸ ืœื ื• ืขื“ื•ืช ืœื›ืš,
19:25
but I think, to give you a hypothesis, the best guess
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ืืฉืขืจ ืื–
19:30
is that if you're left-handed, you're prone to schizophrenia.
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ืœืฉืžืืœื™ื™ื ื™ืฉ ื ื˜ื™ื™ื” ืœืกื›ื™ื–ื•ืคืจื ื™ื”.
19:36
30 percent of schizophrenic people are left-handed,
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ืฉืœื•ืฉื™ื ืื—ื•ื– ืžื”ืกื›ื™ื–ื•ืคืจื ื™ื™ื ื”ื ืฉืžืืœื™ื™ื.
19:39
and schizophrenia has a very funny genetics,
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ื™ืฉ ืœืžื—ืœื” ื’ื ื˜ื™ืงื” ืžืฆื—ื™ืงื”.
19:42
which means 60 percent of the people are genetically left-handed,
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ืฉื™ืฉื™ื ืื—ื•ื– ืžื”ื—ื•ืœื™ื ื”ื ืฉืžืืœื™ื™ื ื’ื ื˜ื™ืช,
19:46
but only half of it showed. I don't have the time to say.
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ืืš ืจืง ื—ืฆื™ ืžื”ื ื™ืจืื• ื–ืืช. ืื™ืŸ ืœื™ ื–ืžืŸ...
19:49
Now, some people who think they're right-handed
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ื—ืœืง ืžืžื™ ืฉื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื”ื•ื ื™ืžื ื™
19:52
are genetically left-handed. OK. I'm just saying that, if you think,
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ื”ื•ื ืฉืžืืœื™ ื’ื ื˜ื™ืช. ืื– ืžื™ ืฉื—ื•ืฉื‘
19:58
oh, I don't carry a left-handed gene so therefore my, you know,
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ืื ื™ ืœื ื ื•ืฉื ืืช ื”ื’ื ื™ื ืœืกื›ื™ื–ื•ืคืจื ื™ื” ื›ื™ ืื ื™ ืœื ืฉืžืืœื™,
20:02
children won't be at risk of schizophrenia. You might. OK?
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ืื– ื™ืœื“ื™ื™ ืœื ื‘ืกื™ื›ื•ืŸ. ืื– ื™ืชื›ืŸ ืฉื›ืŸ. ื”ื‘ื ืชื?
20:05
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
20:08
So it's, to me, an extraordinarily exciting time.
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ืื– ื–ื•ื”ื™ ืชืงื•ืคื” ืžืขื ื™ื™ื ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœื™.
20:11
We ought to be able to find the gene for bipolar;
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ื”ืชื—ื™ื™ื‘ื ื• ืœืžืฆื•ื ืืช ื”ื’ื ื™ื ืœื”ืคืจืขื” ื“ื•-ืงื•ื˜ื‘ื™ืช,
20:13
there's a relationship.
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ื•ื™ืฉ ืงืฉืจ.
20:14
And if I had enough money, we'd find them all this year.
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ื•ืื ื™ื”ื™ื” ืœื ื• ืžืกืคื™ืง ื›ืกืฃ, ื ืขืฉื” ื–ืืช ืขื•ื“ ื”ืฉื ื”.
20:18
I thank you.
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ืชื•ื“ื”.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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