The strangest summer in recorded history - David Biello

554,355 views ใƒป 2023-05-16

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: Ido Dekkers ืขืจื™ื›ื”: zeeva livshitz
00:06
Itโ€™s April 10th, 1815, and in just a few moments,
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ื–ื” 10 ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ, 1815, ื•ืชื•ืš ื›ืžื” ืจื’ืขื™ื ื‘ืœื‘ื“,
00:11
the sun is going to disappear.
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ื”ืฉืžืฉ ืขื•ืžื“ืช ืœื”ืขืœื.
00:14
On an island in present-day Indonesia,
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ื‘ืื™ ื‘ืื™ื ื“ื•ื ื–ื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื•ื,
00:16
Mount Tambora erupts with a boom that can be heard over 2,000 kilometers away.
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ื”ืจ ื˜ืžื‘ื•ืจื” ื”ืชืคืจืฅ ืขื ื‘ื•ื ืฉื™ื›ืœ ืœื”ื™ืฉืžืข ื‘ืžืจื—ืง 2000 ืงื™ืœื•ืžื˜ืจ.
00:23
Sulfurous plumes of steam and ash billow thousands of meters into the sky,
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ืขื ื ื•ืช ื’ื•ืคืจื™ืช ืฉืœ ืงื™ื˜ื•ืจ ื•ืืคืจ ื”ืชืคืจืฆื• ืืœืคื™ ืžื˜ืจื™ื ืœืฉืžื™ื,
00:29
forming dark storm clouds of soot and lightning.
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ื•ื™ืฆืจื• ืขื ื ื™ ืกื•ืคื” ื—ืฉื•ื›ื™ื ืฉืœ ื–ืคืช ื•ื‘ืจืงื™ื.
00:33
This eruption will go down as the largest in recorded history,
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ื”ื”ืชืคืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื–ื• ืชื™ื–ื›ืจ ื›ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ื”ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ื”ืžืชื•ืขื“ืช,
00:37
but, at this point, its impact is only just beginning.
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ืื‘ืœ, ื‘ื ืงื•ื“ื” ื–ื•, ื”ื”ืฉืคืขื” ืฉืœื” ืจืง ืžืชื—ื™ืœื”.
00:42
Ascending high into the atmosphere,
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ืขื•ืœื•ืช ื’ื‘ื•ื” ืœืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื”,
00:44
Tamboraโ€™s emissions spread across the globe,
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ื”ืคืœื™ื˜ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื˜ืžื‘ื•ืจื” ื”ืชืคืฉื˜ื• ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ื’ืœื•ื‘ื•ืก,
00:47
blotting out the sun for almost an entire year.
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ื—ืกืžื• ืืช ื”ืฉืžืฉ ื‘ืžืฉืš ื›ืžืขื˜ ืฉื ื”.
00:52
The hazy skies and cold weather of 1816 wreak havoc on agriculture,
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ื”ืฉืžื™ื ื”ืืคื•ืจื™ื ื•ืžื–ื’ ื”ืื•ื™ืจ ื”ืงืจ ืฉืœ 1816 ื”ื—ืจื™ื‘ื• ืืช ื”ื—ืงืœืื•ืช,
00:58
leading to famines all across the Northern Hemisphere.
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ื•ื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœื• ืœืจืขื‘ ื‘ื›ืœ ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ื”ืžื™ืกืคื™ืจื” ื”ืฆืคื•ื ื™ืช.
01:02
Nations struggle with epidemics,
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ืื•ืžื•ืช ื ืื‘ืงื• ื‘ืžื’ืคื•ืช,
01:04
and artists craft bleak tributes to these seemingly apocalyptic times.
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ื•ืืžื ื™ื ื™ืฆืจื• ืชื–ื›ื•ืจื•ืช ืขื’ื•ืžื•ืช ืœื–ืžื ื™ื ื”ืืœื• ืฉื ืจืื• ืืคื•ืงืœื™ืคื˜ื™ื™ื.
01:10
This was the year without summerโ€”
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ื–ื• ื”ื™ืชื” ื”ืฉื ื” ื‘ืœื™ ืงื™ืฅ --
01:13
literally one of the darkest periods in human history.
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ืžื™ืœื•ืœื™ืช ืื—ืช ื”ืชืงื•ืคื•ืช ื”ื›ื™ ื—ืฉื•ื›ื•ืช ื‘ื”ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช.
01:17
So why are some modern researchers looking for ways to repeat it?
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ืื– ืœืžื” ื›ืžื” ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ื™ื ืžื—ืคืฉื™ื ื“ืจืš ืœื—ื–ื•ืจ ืขืœื™ื”?
01:23
Obviously, no one wants to replicate this periodโ€™s famine and despair.
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ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ, ืืฃ ืื—ื“ ืœื ืจื•ืฆื” ืœืฉื—ื–ืจ ืืช ื”ืชืงื•ืคื” ื”ื–ื• ืฉืœ ืจืขื‘ ื•ื™ืื•ืฉ.
01:27
But some scientists are interested in using sulfurous haze to block out the sun,
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืžื” ืžื“ืขื ื™ื ืžืขื•ื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืื•ื‘ืš ื’ื•ืคืจื™ืช ื›ื“ื™ ืœื—ืกื•ื ืืช ื”ืฉืžืฉ,
01:33
and hopefully, slow the effects of global warming.
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ื•ื‘ืชืงื•ื•ื”, ืœื”ืื˜ ืืช ื”ืฉืคืขื•ืช ื”ื”ืชื—ืžืžื•ืช ื”ื’ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ืช.
01:38
This is one of many proposals in the realm of geoengineeringโ€”
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ื–ื• ืื—ืช ืžื”ืจื‘ื” ื”ืฆืขื•ืช ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ื”ื’ืื• ื”ื ื“ืกื” --
01:42
a class of deliberate, large-scale interventions in Earthโ€™s natural systems
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ืงื‘ื•ืฆื” ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืคืขื•ืช ืžื›ื•ื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ืงื ื” ืžื™ื“ื” ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ื”ื˜ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ
01:48
intended to help restrain climate change.
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ืฉืžื™ื•ืขื“ื•ืช ืœืขื–ื•ืจ ืœืจืกืŸ ืืช ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื”ืืงืœื™ื.
01:51
Different geoengineering schemes intervene in different systems.
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ืฉื™ื˜ื•ืช ื’ืื• ื”ื ื“ืกื” ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ืžืฉืคื™ืขื•ืช ืขืœ ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช.
01:55
Any plans to cool the planet by blocking the amount of sunlight reaching the earth
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ื›ืœ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืœืงืจืจ ืืช ื”ืคืœื ื˜ื” ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื—ืกื™ืžืช ื›ืžื•ืช ื”ืฉืžืฉ ืฉืžื’ื™ืขื” ืœื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ
02:00
would fall in the category of solar radiation management.
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ืชื™ืคื•ืœ ื‘ืงื˜ื’ื•ืจื™ื” ืฉืœ ื ื™ื”ื•ืœ ืงืจื™ื ื” ืกื•ืœืจื™ืช.
02:04
Some of these proposals are massive in scale,
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ื›ืžื” ืžื”ื”ืฆืขื•ืช ื”ืืœื• ื”ืŸ ื‘ืงื ื” ืžื™ื“ื” ืžืกื™ื‘ื™,
02:07
such as suggestions to create a helpful version of volcanic plumes
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ื›ืžื• ื”ื”ืฆืขื•ืช ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ื’ื™ืจืกื” ืžื•ืขื™ืœื” ืฉืœ ืคืœื•ืžื•ืช ื•ื•ืœืงื ื™ื•ืช
02:12
or build a giant sunshade in Earthโ€™s orbit.
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ืื• ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืžืฆืœ ืขื ืง ื‘ืžืกืœื•ืœ ืžืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืœื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
02:17
Others are more limited, focusing on enhancing natural cooling systems.
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ืื—ืจื•ืช ืžื•ื’ื‘ืœื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ, ื•ืžืชืžืงื“ื•ืช ื‘ื”ื’ื‘ืจื•ืช ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ืงื™ืจื•ืจ ื˜ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช.
02:21
For example, researchers might enlarge marine clouds
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ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”, ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื’ื“ื™ืœ ืขื ื ื™ื ืžืขืœ ื”ืžื™ื
02:25
or make Earth reflect more sunlight by building huge swaths of white surfaces.
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ืื• ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ืœื”ื—ื–ื™ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืื•ืจ ืฉืžืฉ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื‘ื ื™ื™ืช ืžืฉื˜ื—ื™ื ืœื‘ื ื™ื ืขืฆื•ืžื™ื.
02:33
Many of these plans sound more than a little strange.
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžื”ืชื•ื›ื ื™ื•ืช ื”ืืœื• ื ืฉืžืขื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืงืฆืช ืžื•ื–ืจื•ืช.
02:36
But thereโ€™s reason to believe they might work,
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ืื‘ืœ ื™ืฉ ืกื™ื‘ื” ืœื”ืืžื™ืŸ ืฉื”ืŸ ืื•ืœื™ ื™ืขื‘ื“ื•,
02:38
not least because of natural events like the eruption of Tambora.
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ื•ืœื• ืจืง ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืืจื•ืขื™ื ื˜ื‘ืขื™ื™ื ื›ืžื• ื”ื”ืชืคืจืฆื•ืช ืฉืœ ื˜ืžื‘ื•ืจื”.
02:43
Scientists know that volcanic eruptions have periodically cooled the climate.
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ืžื“ืขื ื™ื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืฉื”ืชืคืจืฆื•ื™ื•ืช ื•ื•ืœืงื ื™ื•ืช ืงืจืจื• ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื–ืžื ื™ ืืช ื”ืืงืœื™ื.
02:48
Both the Pinatubo eruption in 1991
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ื’ื ื”ื”ืชืคืจืฆื•ืช ืฉืœ ืคื™ื ื˜ื•ื‘ื• ื‘ 1991
02:51
and 1883โ€ฒs blast of Krakatoa reduced global average temperatures
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ื•ื”ืคื™ืฆื•ืฅ ืฉืœ ืงืจืงืื˜ื•ืื” ื‘ 1883 ื”ืคื—ื™ืชื• ืืช ื”ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื•ืช ื”ืžืžื•ืฆืขื•ืช
02:57
by at least half-a-degree Celsius for up to a year.
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ื‘ืœืคื—ื•ืช ื—ืฆื™ ืžืขืœื” ืœืžืฉืš ืฉื ื”.
03:01
These cooling effects are global and fast actingโ€”
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ื”ืฉืคืขื•ืช ื”ืงืจื•ืจ ื”ืืœื• ื”ืŸ ื’ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ื•ืช ื•ืคื•ืขืœื•ืช ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช --
03:04
but they're also incredibly risky.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืŸ ื’ื ืžืื•ื“ ืžืกื•ื›ื ื•ืช.
03:07
The Earth is a chaotic system where even the smallest changes
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ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ื”ื•ื ืžืขืจื›ืช ื›ืื•ื˜ื™ืช ื‘ื” ืืคื™ืœื• ื”ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื”ืงื˜ื ื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ
03:11
can create countless unpredictable ripple effects.
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืŸ ืกืคื•ืจ ื”ืฉืคืขื•ืช ื’ืœื™ื•ืช ืœื ืฆืคื•ื™ื•ืช.
03:14
We know that cooling temperatures impacts precipitation,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืฉืงืจื•ืจ ื”ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื•ืช ืžืฉืคื™ืข ืขืœ ื”ืžืฉืงืขื™ื,
03:17
extreme weather, and other climate phenomena,
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ืžื–ื’ ืื•ื™ืจ ืงื™ืฆื•ื ื™, ื•ืชื•ืคืขื•ืช ืืงืœื™ื ืื—ืจื•ืช,
03:21
but itโ€™s difficult for even the most advanced computer models
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ืงืฉื” ืืคื™ืœื• ืœืžื•ื“ืœื™ื ื”ืžืžื•ื—ืฉื‘ื™ื ื”ื›ื™ ืžืชืงื“ืžื™ื
03:24
to predict how or where these consequences will occur.
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ืœื—ื–ื•ืช ืื™ืš ืื• ืื™ืคื” ื”ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช ื”ืืœื• ื™ืชืจื—ืฉื•.
03:28
One countryโ€™s solar radiation management
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ื ื™ื”ื•ืœ ืงืจื™ื ื” ืฉืœ ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืื—ืช
03:31
might be another countryโ€™s unnatural disaster,
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ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืืกื•ืŸ ืœื ื˜ื‘ืขื™ ืฉืœ ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืื—ืจืช,
03:34
causing extreme weather or crop failures like those following Tamboraโ€™s eruption.
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ืžื” ืฉื’ื•ืจื ืœืžื–ื’ ืื•ื™ืจ ืงื™ืฆื•ื ื™ ืื• ืžื•ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื™ื‘ื•ืœื™ื ื›ืžื• ืื—ืจื™ ื”ืชืคืจืฆื•ืช ื˜ืžื‘ื•ืจื”.
03:41
And even if these schemes did safely cool the planet,
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ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ืื ื”ืฉื™ื˜ื•ืช ื”ืืœื• ื”ื™ื• ืžืงืจืจื•ืช ืืช ื”ืคืœื ื˜ื” ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื‘ื˜ื•ื—,
03:44
solar radiation management doesnโ€™t address the greenhouse gases
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ื ื™ื”ื•ืœ ื”ืงืจื™ื ื” ื”ืกื•ืœืจื™ืช ืœื ืžื˜ืคืœ ื‘ื’ื–ื™ ื”ื—ืžืžื”
03:48
that are causing global warming.
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ืฉื’ื•ืจืžื™ื ืœื”ืชื—ืžืžื•ืช ื”ื’ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ืช.
03:50
These solutions are just highly experimental band-aids
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ื”ืคืชืจื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืืœื• ื”ื ืจืง ืคืœืกื˜ืจื™ื ืžืื•ื“ ื ืกื™ื•ื ื™ื™ื
03:54
that the world would have to endure for at least a few decades
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ืฉื”ืขื•ืœื ื™ืฆื˜ืจืš ืœืกื‘ื•ืœ ืœืคื—ื•ืช ืœื›ืžื” ืขืฉื•ืจื™ื
03:57
while we work on actually removing CO2 from the air.
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ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ืขืœ ืœืžืขืฉื” ืœื”ืกื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืคื“โ€œื— ืžื”ืื•ื™ืจ.
04:01
And if we pulled that band-aid off prematurely,
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ื•ืื ื ืกื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืคืœืกื˜ืจ ื”ื–ื” ืžื•ืงื“ื ืžื“ื™,
04:04
global temperatures could rapidly rebound,
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ื”ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื•ืช ื”ื’ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ื•ืช ื™ื—ื–ืจื• ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช,
04:07
causing a period of intense super warming.
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ืžื” ืฉื™ื’ืจื•ื ืœืชืงื•ืคื” ื—ื–ืงื” ืฉืœ ืกื•ืคืจ ื”ืชื—ืžืžื•ืช.
04:12
For these reasons and more solar radiation management is risky.
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ืžื”ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืืœื• ื•ืขื•ื“ ื ื™ื”ื•ืœ ืงืจื™ื ื” ืกื•ืœืจื™ืช ื”ื™ื ืžืกื•ื›ื ืช.
04:17
Today, researchers are running small-scale experiments,
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ื”ื™ื•ื, ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ืžืจื™ืฆื™ื ื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ืงื ื” ืžื™ื“ื” ืงื˜ืŸ,
04:20
such as enhancing marine clouds to protect the Great Barrier Reef
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ื›ืžื• ื”ื’ื‘ืจืช ืขื ื ื™ื ืžืขืœ ื”ื™ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื’ืŸ ืขืœ ื”ืฉื•ื ื™ืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื‘ืื•ืกื˜ืจืœื™ื”
04:25
from further heating and bleaching.
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ืžื”ืชื—ืžืžื•ืช ื ื•ืกืคืช ื•ื”ืœื‘ื ื”.
04:27
And most scientists agree that we should pursue ways to cut emissions
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ื•ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืžื“ืขื ื™ื ืžืกื›ื™ืžื™ื ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœืจื“ื•ืฃ ืื—ืจื™ ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืœืฆืžืฆื ืคืœื™ื˜ื•ืช
04:31
and remove atmospheric CO2 first and foremost.
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ื•ืœื”ืกื™ืจ ืคื“โ€œื— ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคืจื™ ืจืืฉื™ืช ื›ืœ.
04:35
However, there are reasons to keep studying these more aggressive approaches.
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ืขื ื–ืืช, ื™ืฉ ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ืœื”ืžืฉื™ืš ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ื’ื™ืฉื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ืื’ืจืกื™ื‘ื™ื•ืช.
04:39
Desperate times call for desperate measures, and in the future,
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ื–ืžื ื™ื ืงืฉื™ื ื“ื•ืจืฉื™ื ืคืชืจื•ื ื•ืช ืงื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื, ื•ื‘ืขืชื™ื“,
04:43
geoengineering might be civilizationโ€™s last resort.
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ื’ืื• ื”ื ื“ืกื” ืื•ืœื™ ืชื”ื™ื” ื”ืืคืฉืจื•ืช ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืื ื•ืฉื•ืช.
04:47
Furthermore, some of these plans would be shockingly easy to execute
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ื•ืขื•ื“, ื›ืžื” ืžื”ืชื•ื›ื ื™ื•ืช ื”ืืœื• ื™ื”ื™ื• ืงืœื•ืช ืœื‘ื™ืฆื•ืข ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžืคืชื™ืข
04:51
by some rogue actor with enough cash.
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืฉื—ืงืŸ ืขืฆืžืื™ ืขื ืžืกืคื™ืง ื›ืกืฃ.
04:54
So weโ€™ll want to be prepared if someone starts geoengineering
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ืื– ื ืจืฆื” ืœื”ืชื›ื•ื ืŸ ืœืžืงืจื” ืฉืžื™ืฉื”ื• ื™ืชื—ื™ืœ ื’ืื• ื”ื ื“ืกื”
04:58
without governmental approval.
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ื‘ืœื™ ืื™ืฉื•ืจ ืžืžืฉืœืชื™.
05:00
But perhaps the most important reason to investigate the impacts of geoengineering
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ืื‘ืœ ืื•ืœื™ ื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ื”ื›ื™ ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื” ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ืืช ื”ื”ืฉืคืขื•ืช ืฉืœ ื’ืื• ื”ื ื“ืกื”
05:05
is that people are already making large scale interventions in the atmosphere.
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ื”ื™ื ืฉืื ืฉื™ื ื›ื‘ืจ ืขื•ืฉื™ื ื”ืชืขืจื‘ื•ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืงื ื” ืžื™ื“ื” ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื”.
05:10
In many ways, climate change is an unintended geoengineering project
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ื‘ื”ืจื‘ื” ื“ืจื›ื™ื, ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื”ืืงืœื™ื ื”ื•ื ืคืจื•ื™ื™ืงื˜ ื’ืื• ื”ื ื“ืกื” ืœื ืžื›ื•ื•ืŸ
05:15
fueled by the emissions
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ืฉืžืชื•ื“ืœืง ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืคืœื™ื˜ื•ืช
05:17
generated from centuries of burning fossil fuels.
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ืฉืžื™ื•ืฆืจื•ืช ืžืžืื•ืช ืฉืœ ืฉืจื™ืคืช ื“ืœืงื™ื ืžืื•ื‘ื ื™ื.
05:21
And unless we take action to curb emissions
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ื•ืืœื ืื ื ืคืขืœ ืœื”ืคื—ื™ืช ืืช ื”ืคืœื™ื˜ื•ืช
05:23
and draw CO2 out of the atmosphere soon,
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ื•ืœื”ืกื™ืจ ืคื“โ€œื— ืžื”ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื” ื‘ืงืจื•ื‘,
05:27
summer may never be the same again.
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ื”ืงื™ืฅ ืื•ืœื™ ืœืขื•ืœื ืœื ื™ื”ื™ื” ืื•ืชื• ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉื•ื‘.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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