A brie(f) history of cheese - Paul Kindstedt

17,423,221 views ใƒป 2018-12-13

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: Ido Dekkers ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Allon Sasson
00:07
Before empires and royalty,
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ืœืคื ื™ ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื•ืช ื•ืžืœื›ื•ืช,
00:09
before pottery and writing,
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ืœืคื ื™ ืงื“ืจื•ืช ื•ื›ืชื‘,
00:11
before metal tools and weapons โ€“
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ืœืคื ื™ ื›ืœื™ ืžืชื›ืช ื•ื ืฉืงื™ื --
00:14
there was cheese.
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ื”ื™ืชื” ื’ื‘ื™ื ื”.
00:16
As early as 8000 BCE,
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ื›ื‘ืจ ื‘ืฉื ืช 8000 ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืกืคื™ืจื”,
00:18
the earliest Neolithic farmers living in the Fertile Crescent
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ื”ื—ื•ื•ืื™ื ื”ื ื™ืื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ื ื”ืงื“ื•ืžื™ื ืฉื—ื™ื• ื‘ืกื”ืจ ื”ืคื•ืจื”
00:23
began a legacy of cheesemaking
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ื”ื—ืœื• ืžืกื•ืจืช ืฉืœ ื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื’ื‘ื™ื ื”
00:25
almost as old as civilization itself.
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ืขืชื™ืงื” ื›ืžืขื˜ ื›ืžื• ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื™ืœื™ื–ืฆื™ื” ืขืฆืžื”.
00:29
The rise of agriculture led to domesticated sheep and goats,
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ื”ืขืœื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ื—ืงืœืื•ืช ื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœื” ืœื‘ื™ื•ืช ื›ื‘ืฉื™ื ื•ืขื™ื–ื™ื,
00:33
which ancient farmers harvested for milk.
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ืฉื—ื•ื•ืื™ื ืงื“ื•ืžื™ื ื—ืœื‘ื•.
00:36
But when left in warm conditions for several hours,
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืฉื”ื•ื ื”ื•ืฉืืจ ื‘ืžื–ื’ ืื•ื™ืจ ื—ื ื‘ืžืฉืš ืžืกืคืจ ืฉืขื•ืช,
00:39
that fresh milk began to sour.
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ื”ื—ืœื‘ ื”ื˜ืจื™ ื”ื—ืœ ืœื”ื—ืžื™ืฅ.
00:42
Its lactic acids caused proteins to coagulate, binding into soft clumps.
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ื”ื—ื•ืžืฆื•ืช ื”ื—ืœื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ืจืžื• ืœื—ืœื‘ื•ื ื™ื ืœื”ืชืงืจืฉ, ื•ืงืฉืจื• ืื•ืชื• ืœื’ื•ืฉื™ื ืจื›ื™ื.
00:47
Upon discovering this strange transformation,
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ื›ืฉื’ื™ืœื• ืืช ื”ืžื”ืคืš ื”ืžื•ื–ืจ ื”ื–ื”,
00:50
the farmers drained the remaining liquid โ€“
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ื”ื—ื•ื•ืื™ื ื ื™ืงื–ื• ืืช ื”ื ื•ื–ืœ ืฉื ืฉืืจ --
00:53
later named whey โ€“
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ืฉืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ื ืงืจื ืžื™ ื’ื‘ื™ื ื” --
00:54
and found the yellowish globs could be eaten fresh as a soft, spreadable meal.
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ื•ืžืฆืื• ืฉื”ื’ื•ืฉื™ื ื”ืฆื”ื‘ื”ื‘ื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ืื›ืœ ื›ืืจื•ื—ื” ืจื›ื” ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืœืžืจื•ื—.
01:01
These clumps, or curds, became the building blocks of cheese,
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ื”ื’ื•ืฉื™ื ื”ืืœื”, ืื• ืงืจื™ืฉื™ื, ื”ืคื›ื• ืœืื‘ื ื™ ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ื’ื‘ื™ื ื”,
01:05
which would eventually be aged, pressed, ripened, and whizzed
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ืฉืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื™ื™ื•ืฉื ื•, ื™ื™ืœื—ืฆื•, ื™ื‘ืฉื™ืœื• ื•ื™ื’ื•ื‘ื ื•
01:10
into a diverse cornucopia of dairy delights.
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ืœืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ืขืฉื™ืจ ืฉืœ ืžืขื“ื ื™ ื—ืœื‘.
01:15
The discovery of cheese gave Neolithic people an enormous survival advantage.
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ื’ื™ืœื•ื™ ื”ื’ื‘ื™ื ื” ื ืชืŸ ืœืื ืฉื™ื ื”ื ื™ืื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ื ื™ืชืจื•ืŸ ื”ื™ืฉืจื“ื•ืชื™ ืขืฆื•ื.
01:19
Milk was rich with essential proteins, fats, and minerals.
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ื—ืœื‘ ื”ื™ื” ืขืฉื™ืจ ื‘ื—ืœื‘ื•ื ื™ื ื—ื™ื•ื ื™ื™ื, ืฉื•ืžื ื™ื ื•ืžื™ื ืจืœื™ื.
01:24
But it also contained high quantities of lactose โ€“
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื•ื ื’ื ื”ื›ื™ืœ ื›ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ืฉืœ ืœืงื˜ื•ื– --
01:28
a sugar which is difficult to process for many ancient and modern stomachs.
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ืกื•ื›ืจ ืฉืงืฉื” ืœืขื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืจื‘ื” ืงื™ื‘ื•ืช ืขืชื™ืงื•ืช ื•ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ื•ืช.
01:33
Cheese, however, could provide all of milkโ€™s advantages with much less lactose.
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ื’ื‘ื™ื ื”, ืขื ื–ืืช, ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœืกืคืง ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ื™ืชืจื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื—ืœื‘ ืขื ื”ืจื‘ื” ืคื—ื•ืช ืœืงื˜ื•ื–.
01:39
And since it could be preserved and stockpiled,
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ื•ืžืื—ืจ ื•ื”ื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ื™ืฉืžืจ ื•ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืื•ื—ืกื ืช,
01:42
these essential nutrients could be eaten
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ื”ื—ื•ืžืจื™ื ื”ืžื–ื™ื ื™ื ื”ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ืื›ืœ
01:44
throughout scarce famines and long winters.
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ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืชืงื•ืคื•ืช ืจืขื‘ ื•ื—ื•ืจืคื™ื ืืจื•ื›ื™ื.
01:48
Some 7th millennium BCE pottery fragments found in Turkey
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ื›ืžื” ืฉื‘ืจื™ ื—ืจืกื™ื ืžื”ืžืื” ื” 7 ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืกืคื™ืจื” ืฉื ืžืฆืื• ื‘ืชื•ืจื›ื™ื”
01:52
still contain telltale residues of the cheese and butter they held.
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ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืžื›ื™ืœื™ื ืฉืืจื™ื•ืช ืžื–ื”ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื’ื‘ื™ื ื” ื•ื”ื—ืžืื” ืฉื”ื ื”ื—ื–ื™ืงื•.
01:57
By the end of the Bronze Age,
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ืขื“ ืกื•ืฃ ืขื™ื“ืŸ ื”ื‘ืจื•ื ื–ื”,
01:58
cheese was a standard commodity in maritime trade
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ื’ื‘ื™ื ื” ื”ืคื›ื” ืœืžื•ืฆืจ ืฆืจื™ื›ื” ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ ื‘ืกื—ืจ ื”ื™ืžื™
02:02
throughout the eastern Mediterranean.
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ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ื™ื ื”ืชื™ื›ื•ืŸ ื”ืžื–ืจื—ื™.
02:04
In the densely populated city-states of Mesopotamia,
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ื‘ืขืจื™ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื”ืฆืคื•ืคื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžืกื•ืคื•ื˜ืžื™ื”,
02:07
cheese became a staple of culinary and religious life.
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ื’ื‘ื™ื ื” ื”ืคื›ื” ืœืžืื›ืœ ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ืงื•ืœื™ื ืจื™ื™ื ื•ื”ื“ืชื™ื™ื.
02:11
Some of the earliest known writing
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ื›ืžื” ืžื”ื›ืชื‘ื™ื ื”ืžื•ืงื“ืžื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื”ื™ื“ื•ืขื™ื
02:13
includes administrative records of cheese quotas,
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ื›ืœืœื• ืชื™ืขื•ื“ื™ื ืื“ืžื™ื ื™ืกื˜ืจื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื›ืกื•ืช ื’ื‘ื™ื ื”,
02:16
listing a variety of cheeses for different rituals and populations
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ื•ืชื™ืขื“ื• ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ื’ื‘ื™ื ื•ืช ืœื˜ืงืกื™ื ื•ืœืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช
02:20
across Mesopotamia.
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ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ืžืกื•ืคื•ื˜ืžื™ื”.
02:22
Records from nearby civilizations in Turkey also reference rennet.
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ืจื™ืฉื•ืžื™ื ืžืชืจื‘ื•ื™ื•ืช ืงืจื•ื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืชื•ืจื›ื™ื” ื”ืชื™ื™ื—ืกื• ื’ื ืœืจื ื˜.
02:27
This animal byproduct, produced in the stomachs of certain mammals,
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ืชื•ืฆืจ ื”ืœื•ื•ืื™ ืžืŸ ื”ื—ื™ ื”ื–ื”, ืฉื™ื•ืฆืจ ื‘ืงื™ื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื—ื™ื•ืช ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžื•ืช,
02:31
can accelerate and control coagulation.
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ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืื™ืฅ ื•ืœืฉืœื•ื˜ ื‘ื”ืชื’ื‘ืฉื•ืช.
02:35
Eventually this sophisticated cheesemaking tool spread around the globe,
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ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื›ืœื™ ื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื”ื’ื‘ื™ื ื” ื”ืžืชื•ื—ื›ื ื”ื–ื” ื”ืชืคืฉื˜ ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ื’ืœื•ื‘ื•ืก,
02:40
giving way to a wide variety of new, harder cheeses.
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ื•ืคืจืฅ ืืช ื”ื“ืจืš ืœืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ืจื—ื‘ ืฉืœ ื’ื‘ื™ื ื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ื•ืงืฉื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ.
02:44
And though some conservative food cultures rejected the dairy delicacy,
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ื•ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื›ืžื” ืชืจื‘ื•ื™ื•ืช ืžื–ื•ืŸ ืฉืžืจื ื™ื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ื“ื—ื• ืืช ื”ืžืขื“ื ื™ื ื”ื—ืœื‘ื™ื™ื,
02:48
many more embraced cheese, and quickly added their own local flavors.
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ืจื‘ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืื™ืžืฆื• ืืช ื”ื’ื‘ื™ื ื”, ื•ื‘ืžื”ืจื” ื”ื•ืกื™ืคื• ืืช ื”ื˜ืขืžื™ื ื”ืžืงื•ืžื™ื™ื ืฉืœื”ื.
02:54
Nomadic Mongolians used yaksโ€™ milk to create hard, sundried wedges of Byaslag.
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ืžื•ื ื’ื•ืœื™ื ื ื•ื•ื“ื™ื ื”ืฉืชืžืฉื• ื‘ื—ืœื‘ ื™ืืงื™ื ืœื™ืฆื™ืจืช ื—ืจื™ื˜ื™ื ืงืฉื™ื ื•ืžื™ื•ื‘ืฉื™ื ื‘ืฉืžืฉ ืฉืœ ื‘ื•ืืกืœืื’.
03:00
Egyptians enjoyed goatsโ€™ milk cottage cheese, straining the whey with reed mats.
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ื”ืžืฆืจื™ื ื ื”ื ื• ืžืงื•ื˜ื’' ื—ืœื‘ ืขื™ื–ื™ื, ื›ืฉืกื—ื˜ื• ืืช ืžื™ ื”ื’ื‘ื™ื ื” ืขื ืžืฉื˜ื—ื™ ืงื ื™ื.
03:07
In South Asia, milk was coagulated with a variety of food acids,
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ื‘ื“ืจื•ื ืืกื™ื”, ื—ืœื‘ ืžื•ืฆืง ืขื ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ื—ื•ืžืฆื•ืช ืžืื›ืœ,
03:11
such as lemon juice, vinegar, or yogurt
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ื›ืžื• ืžื™ืฅ ืœื™ืžื•ืŸ, ื—ื•ืžืฅ, ื•ื™ื•ื’ื•ืจื˜
03:14
and then hung to dry into loafs of paneer.
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ื•ื ืชืœื” ืœื™ื™ื‘ื•ืฉ ื‘ื›ื™ื›ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ืคื ื™ืจ.
03:18
This soft mild cheese could be added to curries and sauces,
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ื”ื’ื‘ื™ื ื” ื”ืจื›ื” ื•ื”ื‘ื™ื ื•ื ื™ืช ื”ื–ื• ื™ื›ืœื” ืœื”ืชื•ื•ืกืฃ ืœืงืืจื™ ื•ืจื˜ื‘ื™ื,
03:22
or simply fried as a quick vegetarian dish.
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ืื• ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืœื”ื™ืฆืœื•ืช ื›ืžืื›ืœ ืฆืžื—ื•ื ื™ ืžื”ื™ืจ.
03:25
The Greeks produced bricks of salty brined feta cheese,
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ื”ื™ื•ื•ื ื™ื ื™ืฆืจื• ืœื‘ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื’ื‘ื™ื ืช ืคื˜ื” ืžืœื•ื—ื”,
03:29
alongside a harder variety similar to todayโ€™s pecorino romano.
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ื™ื—ื“ ืขื ืกื•ื’ ืงืฉื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉื“ื•ืžื” ืœืคืงื•ืจื™ื ื• ืจื•ืžื ื• ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื•ื.
03:34
This grating cheese was produced in Sicily
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ื’ื‘ื™ื ืช ื”ื’ื™ืจื•ืจ ื ื•ืฆืจื” ื‘ืกื™ืฆื™ืœื™ื”
03:37
and used in dishes all across the Mediterranean.
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ื•ื”ื™ืชื” ื‘ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืžื ื•ืช ื›ืœ ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืžื–ืจื— ื”ืชื™ื›ื•ืŸ.
03:41
Under Roman rule, โ€œdry cheeseโ€ or โ€œcaseus aridus,โ€
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ืชื—ืช ืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ ืจื•ืžื™, "ื’ื‘ื™ื ื” ื™ื‘ืฉื”" ืื• "ืงืกืื•ืก ืืจื“ื•ืก",
03:45
became an essential ration
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ื”ืคื›ื” ืœืžื ื” ื”ื›ืจื—ื™ืช
03:46
for the nearly 500,000 soldiers guarding the vast borders of the Roman Empire.
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ืœื›ืžืขื˜ 500,000 ื”ื—ื™ื™ืœื™ื ืฉืฉืžืจื• ืขืœ ื”ื’ื‘ื•ืœื•ืช ื”ื ืจื—ื‘ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ืจื•ืžื™ืช.
03:53
And when the Western Roman Empire collapsed,
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ื•ื›ืฉื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ืจื•ืžืื™ืช ื”ืžืขืจื‘ื™ืช ืงืจืกื”,
03:56
cheesemaking continued to evolve
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ื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื’ื‘ื™ื ื” ื”ืžืฉื™ืš ืœื”ืชืคืชื—
03:58
in the manors that dotted the medieval European countryside.
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ื‘ืื—ื•ื–ื•ืช ืฉื ื™ืงื“ื• ืืช ืื–ื•ืจื™ ื”ื›ืคืจ ืฉืœ ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ื‘ื™ืžื™ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื.
04:02
In the hundreds of Benedictine monasteries scattered across Europe,
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ื‘ืžืื•ืช ื”ืžื ื–ืจื™ื ื”ื‘ื ื“ื™ืงื˜ื™ื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื• ืžืคื•ื–ืจื™ื ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ืื™ืจื•ืคื”,
04:06
medieval monks experimented endlessly with different types of milk,
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ื ื–ื™ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ื™ืžื™ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื™ื ื”ืชื ืกื• ืจื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืกื•ื’ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื—ืœื‘,
04:10
cheesemaking practices,
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ืžื ื”ื’ื™ ื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื’ื‘ื™ื ื”,
04:12
and aging processes that led to many of todayโ€™s popular cheeses.
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ื•ืชื”ืœื™ื›ื™ ื™ื™ืฉื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœื• ืœืจื‘ื•ืช ืžื”ื’ื‘ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ืคื•ืคื•ืœืจื™ื•ืช ื”ื™ื•ื.
04:17
Parmesan, Roquefort, Munster and several Swiss types
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ืคืจืžื–'ืŸ, ืจื•ืงืคื•ืจ, ืžื•ื ืกื˜ืจ ื•ืžืกืคืจ ืกื•ื’ื™ื ืฉื•ื•ื™ืฆืจื™ื™ื -
04:20
were all refined and perfected by these cheesemaking clergymen.
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ื›ื•ืœื ืขื•ื“ื ื• ื•ืฉื•ื›ืœืœื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืื ืฉื™ ื”ื›ืžื•ืจื” ื™ื•ืฆืจื™ ื”ื’ื‘ื™ื ื” ื”ืืœื”.
04:26
In the Alps, Swiss cheesemaking was particularly successful โ€“
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ื‘ืืœืคื™ื, ื™ื•ืฆืจื™ ื’ื‘ื™ื ื” ืฉื•ื•ื™ืฆืจื™ื™ื ื”ื™ื• ืžื•ืฆืœื—ื™ื ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ -
04:29
producing a myriad of cowโ€™s milk cheeses.
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ื•ื™ืฆืจื• ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ืจื—ื‘ ืฉืœ ื’ื‘ื™ื ื•ืช ื—ืœื‘ ืคืจื•ืช.
04:32
By the end of the 14th century,
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ืขื“ ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืžืื” ื” 14,
04:34
Alpine cheese from the Gruyere region of Switzerland had become so profitable
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ื’ื‘ื™ื ื•ืช ืืœืคื™ื ื™ื•ืช ืžืื™ื–ื•ืจ ื’ืจื•ื™ื™ืจ ืฉืœ ืฉื•ื•ื™ืฆืจื™ื” ื”ืคื›ื• ืœืจื•ื•ื—ื™ื•ืช ื›ืœ ื›ืš
04:39
that a neighboring state invaded the Gruyere highlands
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ืฉืžื“ื™ื ื” ืฉื›ื ื” ืคืœืฉื” ืœืจืžื•ืช ืฉืœ ื’ืจื•ื™ื™ืจ
04:43
to take control of the growing cheese trade.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืฉืชืœื˜ ืขืœ ืžืกื—ืจ ื”ื’ื‘ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ื’ื“ืœ.
04:46
Cheese remained popular through the Renaissance,
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ื’ื‘ื™ื ื” ื ืฉืืจื” ืคื•ืคื•ืœืจื™ืช ื‘ืชืงื•ืคืช ื”ืจื ืกืื ืก,
04:49
and the Industrial Revolution took production out of the monastery
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ื•ื”ืžื”ืคื›ื” ื”ืชืขืฉื™ื™ืชื™ืช ืœืงื—ื” ืืช ื”ื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ืžื”ืžื ื–ืจื™ื
04:52
and into machinery.
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ืœืžื›ื•ื ื•ืช.
04:54
Today, the world produces roughly 22 billion kilograms of cheese a year,
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ื”ื™ื•ื, ื”ืขื•ืœื ืžื™ื™ืฆืจ ื‘ืขืจืš 22 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ืงื™ืœื•ื’ืจื ืฉืœ ื’ื‘ื™ื ื” ื‘ืฉื ื”,
04:59
shipped and consumed around the globe.
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ืฉืžืกื•ืคืงื™ื ื•ื ืฆืจื›ื™ื ืžืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืœืขื•ืœื.
05:02
But 10,000 years after its invention,
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ืื‘ืœ 10,000 ืฉื ื” ืื—ืจื™ ื”ืžืฆืืชื”,
05:05
local farms are still following in the footsteps of their Neolithic ancestors,
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ื—ื•ื•ืื™ื ืžืงื•ืžื™ื™ื ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืขื•ืงื‘ื™ื ื‘ืฆืขื“ื™ื”ื ืฉืœ ืื‘ื•ืชื™ื”ื ื”ื ื™ืื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ื™ื,
05:10
hand crafting one of humanityโ€™s oldest and favorite foods.
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ืžื™ื™ืฆืจื™ื ื™ื“ื ื™ืช ืืช ืื—ื“ ื”ืžืื›ืœื™ื ื”ืื”ื•ื‘ื™ื ื”ืขืชื™ืงื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืœ ื”ืื ื•ืฉื•ืช.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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