Martin Hanczyc: The line between life and not-life

譯者: Kevin Hung 審譯者: Ana Choi

So historically there has

在過去，

been a huge divide between what people

有一個很大的鴻溝界於人,

consider to be non-living systems on one

認為非生命系統的這一邊

side, and living systems on the other side.

和生命系統的另外一邊。

So we go from, say, this beautiful and

我們從這個美麗

complex crystal as non-life, and this rather

且複雜的非生命晶體，然後到

beautiful and complex cat on the other side.

另一邊美麗且複雜的貓。

Over the last hundred and fifty years or so,

過去的一百五十年左右,

science has kind of blurred this distinction

科學家模糊了這樣

between non-living and living systems, and

在於非生命與生命系統之間的界限,

now we consider that there may be a kind

現在我們認為有一種

of continuum that exists between the two.

在於這二者之間的連續變化。

We'll just take one example here:

我們先來看看這個例子:

a virus is a natural system, right?

一個病毒是一個自然系統，對嗎？

But it's very simple. It's very simplistic.

但是它非常簡單，它太過簡單了。

It doesn't really satisfy all the requirements,

它無法完全滿足所有的需求。

it doesn't have all the characteristics

它沒有生命系統的

of living systems and is in fact a parasite

所有特質，而事實上它是寄生

on other living systems in order to, say,

在其他生命系統上來

reproduce and evolve.

繁殖和演化。

But what we're going to be talking about here

但是我們今晚將要在這裡

tonight are experiments done on this sort of

討論的是在非生命這部份

non-living end of this spectrum -- so actually

所作的實驗，實際上

doing chemical experiments in the laboratory,

在實驗室裡所做的化學實驗

mixing together nonliving ingredients

混合了非生命的成分

to make new structures, and that these

產生了新的結構，而且這些

new structures might have some of the

新的結構也許有些

characteristics of living systems.

生命系統的特性。

Really what I'm talking about here is

我在這裡所要說的是

trying to create a kind of artificial life.

試著創造一種新的人造生命。

So what are these characteristics that I'm

那麼在我剛剛所談到的

talking about? These are them.

有什麼特性呢？它們是如下：

We consider first that life has a body.

我們首先認為生命是有一個身體。

Now this is necessary to distinguish the self

現在有必要把個體從環境中

from the environment.

區分出來。

Life also has a metabolism. Now this is a

生命會新陳代謝，現在這是一個

process by which life can convert resources

生命轉換的過程，從環境中

from the environment into building blocks

的元素到構成要素,

so it can maintain and build itself.

它可以維護並建造本身。

Life also has a kind of inheritable information.

生命有繼承的資訊。

Now we, as humans, we store our information

我們人類現在，在基因裡的DNA

as DNA in our genomes and we pass this

儲存資訊，然後傳遞

information on to our offspring.

這些訊息給我們的子孫。

If we couple the first two -- the body and the metabolism --

假如我們連結這二個--身體及代謝--

we can come up with a system that could

我們可以得到一個可以移動

perhaps move and replicate, and if we

且複製的系統，假如我們

coupled these now to inheritable information,

連結這些來繼承資訊,

we can come up with a system that would be

我們可以得到一個系統，那是

more lifelike, and would perhaps evolve.

更像是生命的，也許可以進化。

And so these are the things we will try to do

這是我們將要試著

in the lab, make some experiments that have

在實驗室裡做的，做出一些實驗可

one or more of these characteristics of life.

有一個或多個特性的生命。

So how do we do this? Well, we use

我們如何辦到呢？我們使用

a model system that we term a protocell.

一個模型系統，我們稱之為原生細胞。

You might think of this as kind of like a

你可以想像這個東西像是一個

primitive cell. It is a simple chemical

原始的細胞，他是一個活細胞的

model of a living cell, and if you consider

簡單化學模型，你可以把他看成

for example a cell in your body may have

一個細胞，在你的身體裡也許有

on the order of millions of different types

不同類型的百萬個

of molecules that need to come together,

分子需要組成在一塊,

play together in a complex network

組成一個複雜的網絡

to produce something that we call alive.

來產生我們賴以維生的東西。

In the laboratory what we want to do

在實驗室裡，我們要做的

is much the same, but with on the order of

就是像這樣，但是十種

tens of different types of molecules --

不同分子的順序--

so a drastic reduction in complexity, but still

在複雜度上是大幅減少，但仍

trying to produce something that looks lifelike.

要產生像是真的生命型態。

And so what we do is, we start simple

所以我們這樣做，我們開始

and we work our way up to living systems.

用自己的方式產生生命系統。

Consider for a moment this quote by

考慮一下這句在

Leduc, a hundred years ago, considering a

一百多年前的話，勒度克認為

kind of synthetic biology:

合成生物學:

"The synthesis of life, should it ever occur,

「生命的組成，應該是不斷發生,

will not be the sensational discovery which we

不會有令人興奮的事情被發現,

usually associate with the idea."

因我們已認為是這樣 。」

That's his first statement. So if we actually

這是他第一個聲明，如果我們真的

create life in the laboratories, it's

在實驗室裡創造了生命,

probably not going to impact our lives at all.

也許也不會對我們的生命造成衝擊。

"If we accept the theory of evolution, then

「假如我們接受進化論，

the first dawn of synthesis of life must consist

合成生命的曙光一定

in the production of forms intermediate

在生產過程中,

between the inorganic and the organic

從無機到有機體

world, or between the non-living

的世界，或是從非生命

and living world, forms which possess

到生命世界，產生

only some of the rudimentary attributes of life"

只有生命的一些基本特性」

-- so, the ones I just discussed --

所以，這個是我剛提到的

"to which other attributes will be slowly added

「會慢慢的增加其他特性

in the course of development by the

在這個發展過程

evolutionary actions of the environment."

與環境互動的演化」。

So we start simple, we make some structures

所以我們開始製做一些簡單的結構,

that may have some of these characteristics

一些有生命的特性，

of life, and then we try to develop that

而且我們試著發展

to become more lifelike.

令到可以更像是生命。

This is how we can start to make a protocell.

這是我們開始製做一個原生細胞的方法。

We use this idea called self-assembly.

我們用一個叫做自我組合的觀點。

What that means is, I can mix some

意思是說，我可以在我的實驗室

chemicals together in a test tube in my lab,

結合一些化學物質,

and these chemicals will start to self-associate

這些化學物質會開始自我聯合

to form larger and larger structures.

變成大一點的結構。

So say on the order of tens of thousands,

依此順序，從幾萬到

hundreds of thousands of molecules will

幾十萬的分子會

come together to form a large structure

組合在一起形成一個從未

that didn't exist before.

存在過的大型結構。

And in this particular example,

在這個例子中,

what I took is some membrane molecules,

我將一些膜分子

mixed those together in the right environment,

混合在這個環境中,

and within seconds it forms these rather

在短時間內，它就形成了

complex and beautiful structures here.

複雜且漂亮的結構。

These membranes are also quite similar,

在形態和功能上

morphologically and functionally,

這些膜相當類似

to the membranes in your body,

你身體裡的膜,

and we can use these, as they say,

我們可以使用這些

to form the body of our protocell.

來形成原生細胞的主體。

Likewise,

就像

we can work with oil and water systems.

我們可以在油和水的系統中作業。

As you know, when you put oil and water together,

你知道，當你把油和水放在一起,

they don't mix, but through self-assembly

他們不會混合，但經過組裝

we can get a nice oil droplet to form,

我們可以得到一個油滴液,

and we can actually use this as a body for

我們可以用這個當一個主體

our artificial organism or for our protocell,

做為人工有機體或是原生細胞,

as you will see later.

你等一下會看到。

So that's just forming some body stuff, right?

這是剛成型的身體，對嗎？

Some architectures.

一些架構。

What about the other aspects of living systems?

在生命系統的其他方面會是如何？

So we came up with this protocell model here

所以我們想出了原生細胞的模型,

that I'm showing.

我現在顯示出來。

We started with a natural occurring clay

我們開始用天然的粘土

called montmorillonite.

叫做蒙脫石。

This is natural from the environment, this clay.

存在於天然的環境中，這種粘土

It forms a surface that is, say, chemically active.

會形成一個表面，這是化學活性。

It could run a metabolism on it.

它會執行代謝程序。

Certain kind of molecules like to associate

這個粘土喜歡與某種

with the clay. For example, in this case, RNA, shown in red

分子相連，舉例來說，像紅色的 RNA--

-- this is a relative of DNA,

這是相對的 DNA,

it's an informational molecule --

這是帶有訊息的分子--

it can come along and it starts to associate

它開始是單獨的，然後與其他

with the surface of this clay.

粘土表面相連。

This structure, then, can organize the

這個結構，可以組成

formation of a membrane boundary around

一個膜邊來圍繞著

itself, so it can make a body of

自身，可以變為液態

liquid molecules around itself, and that's

分子的主體圍繞自己，這個

shown in green here on this micrograph.

綠色的是顯微照片。

So just through self-assembly, mixing things

剛剛透過自行組裝，在實驗室裡

together in the lab, we can come up with, say,

混合在一起，我們可以說

a metabolic surface with some

一個代謝的表面與一些

informational molecules attached

訊息分子在這個

inside of this membrane body, right?

膜的主體裡面，對嗎？

So we're on a road towards living systems.

所以我們已走向生命系統的路上。

But if you saw this protocell, you would not

但假如你看到這個原生細胞，你不會

confuse this with something that was actually alive.

和其他的真實生命混淆。

It's actually quite lifeless. Once it forms,

它真的是沒有生命，它一旦成形,

it doesn't really do anything.

便沒有辦法做任何事。

So, something is missing.

所以，一定是有東西漏掉了。

Some things are missing.

有一些東西是漏掉了。

So some things that are missing is,

一些漏掉的東西是,

for example, if you had a flow of energy

舉例來說，如果你有一道能量

through a system, what we'd want

貫穿一個系統，我們想要

is a protocell that can harvest

一個原生細胞可以獲得

some of that energy in order to maintain itself,

一些能量來維持自身,

much like living systems do.

就像生命系統所做的一樣。

So we came up with a different protocell

我們想出了一個不一樣的原生細胞

model, and this is actually simpler than the previous one.

模型，這個比先前一個更簡單。

In this protocell model, it's just an oil droplet,

在這個原生細胞模型中，這只是一個油滴,

but a chemical metabolism inside

但有個化學代謝在裡頭,

that allows this protocell to use energy

可以讓原生細胞可以使用能源

to do something, to actually become dynamic,

來做一些事情，變成動態的,

as we'll see here.

像我們看到。

You add the droplet to the system.

你在這個系統加入這個油滴。

It's a pool of water, and the protocell

這是個水池，這個原生細胞

starts moving itself around in the system.

在這個系統開始自己移動起來。

Okay? Oil droplet forms

OK ? 油滴形成

through self-assembly, has a chemical

透過自我組合，有一個化學

metabolism inside so it can use energy,

代謝在這裡頭，它可以使用能量,

and it uses that energy to move itself

它用這些能量讓自己

around in its environment.

在這個環境裡移動。

As we heard earlier, movement is very

先前我們聽過，動作在這類

important in these kinds of living systems.

的生命系統中是非常重要的。

It is moving around, exploring its environment,

它到處移動，探索這個環境,

and remodeling its environment, as you see,

且重新塑造它的環境，如你所看到的,

by these chemical waves that are forming by the protocell.

原生細胞所產生的這些化學波。

So it's acting, in a sense, like a living system

它在動，某種意義，像是一個生命系統

trying to preserve itself.

試著維護本身。

We take this same moving protocell here,

我們帶了一樣會動的原生細胞,

and we put it in another experiment,

放在另一個實驗裡,

get it moving. Then I'm going

讓它動。然後我

to add some food to the system,

加入一些食物在系統裡面,

and you'll see that in blue here, right?

你看到這個藍色的，對不對？

So I add some food source to the system.

我加入一些食物在這個系統裡。

The protocell moves. It encounters the food.

原生細胞移動了，它遇到了食物。

It reconfigures itself and actually then

它重新調整了自己，然後

is able to climb to the highest concentration

爬上系統中濃度最高

of food in that system and stop there.

的食物，然後停留在那裡。

Alright? So not only do we have this system

對嗎？我們不只有一個系統

that has a body, it has a metabolism,

像一個身體，它還有代謝,

it can use energy, it moves around.

它可以使用能量來移動。

It can sense its local environment

它會感測到周圍的環境

and actually find resources

並在其中找到

in the environment to sustain itself.

資源來維生。

Now, this doesn't have a brain, it doesn't have

現在，它還沒有大腦，它沒有

a neural system. This is just a sack of

神經系統，這只是一群

chemicals that is able to have this interesting

化學品的集合，有這些有趣

and complex lifelike behavior.

且像生命的複雜行為。

If we count the number of chemicals

假如我們算一下這系統內

in that system, actually, including the water

的化學物，包含了在盤子裡

that's in the dish, we have five chemicals

的水，我們有5 個化學物質

that can do this.

可以完成這個。

So then we put these protocells together in a

接著, 我們將這些原生細胞放在

single experiment to see what they would do,

一個獨立的實驗中，觀察它們所做的,

and depending on the conditions, we have

依照這些條件，我們有

some protocells on the left that are

一些原生細胞在左邊

moving around and it likes to touch the other

往來移動著，像是要去碰這個

structures in its environment.

環境下的其他結構。

On the other hand we have two moving

另一邊我們有二個移動的,

protocells that like to circle each other,

各自成圈圈的原生細胞,

and they form a kind of a dance, a complex dance with each other.

它們開始一種舞蹈，互相做複雜的舞蹈。

Right? So not only do individual protocells

對嗎？不只是單獨的原生細胞

have behavior, what we've interpreted as

有行為，我們的解釋是

behavior in this system, but we also have

這個系統中的行為，我們有

basically population-level behavior

一個基本的人口水平行為,

similar to what organisms have.

類似生物所擁有的。

So now that you're all experts on protocells,

現在你們已是原生細胞的專家,

we're going to play a game with these protocells.

我們要和這些原生細胞玩個遊戲。

We're going to make two different kinds.

我們要做兩種不一樣的類型。

Protocell A has a certain kind of chemistry

原生細胞 A 有一種化學成分在

inside that, when activated, the protocell

裡面，當活躍時，這個原生細胞

starts to vibrate around, just dancing.

會開始在周圍動來動去，像在跳舞。

So remember, these are primitive things,

所以請記住，這些是原始的舉動,

so dancing protocells, that's very

這些跳舞的原生細胞，它們對

interesting to us. (Laughter)

我們是非常的有趣。 ( 笑聲 )

The second protocell has a different

第二個原生細胞有一個不一樣的

chemistry inside, and when activated,

化學成份在裡頭，當活躍時

the protocells all come together and they fuse

原生細胞會融合在一起

into one big one. Right?

變成一大個，對嗎？

And we just put these two together

我們把這兩個放在

in the same system.

同一個系統裡。

So there's population A,

這是人口A,

there's population B, and then

這是人口B,

we activate the system,

我們啟動這個系統,

and protocell Bs, they're the blue ones,

原生細胞Bs , 它們是藍色的,

they all come together. They fuse together

全部組合成一塊。融合在一起

to form one big blob, and the other protocell

形成一個大的滴夜，而其他的原生細胞

just dances around. And this just happens

在周圍跳舞。這發生在

until all of the energy in the system is

這個系統中，直到這些能源

basically used up, and then, game over.

被用完為止，然後，遊戲結束。

So then I repeated this experiment

當我重覆這個實驗

a bunch of times, and one time

很多次後，有一次

something very interesting happened.

有趣的事發生了。

So, I added these protocells together

我將這些原生細胞放在

to the system, and protocell A and protocell B

這個系統裡，原生細胞 A 和 原生細胞 B

fused together to form a hybrid protocell AB.

融合成一個混合的原生細胞 AB。

That didn't happen before. There it goes.

這在以前從未發生，現在發生了。

There's a protocell AB now in this system.

現在有了原生細胞 AB 在這個系統內。

Protocell AB likes to dance around for a bit,

當原生細胞B 要做融合時,

while protocell B does the fusing, okay?

原生細胞 AB 喜歡到處跳舞，OK?

But then something even more interesting happens.

但是更有趣的事情發生了。

Watch when these two large protocells,

看一下這兩個大的原生細胞,

the hybrid ones, fuse together.

這個混合的，融合在一起。

Now we have a dancing protocell

現在我們有一個跳舞的原生細胞

and a self-replication event. Right. (Laughter)

和一個自我分裂的事件，對嗎。 ( 笑聲 )

Just with blobs of chemicals, again.

就是和化學點滴

So the way this works is, you have

這個方法可行，你有

a simple system of five chemicals here,

一個簡單的系統，內有5個化學物質,

a simple system here. When they hybridize,

一個簡單的系統，當它們混合時,

you then form something that's different than

你就創造出與原先不一樣的東西,

before, it's more complex than before,

較之前的複雜得多,

and you get the emergence of another kind of

你也得到另一種類似生命

lifelike behavior which

行為的東西,

in this case is replication.

在這個情況下複製。

So since we can make some interesting

既然我們可以製作我們感到

protocells that we like, interesting colors and

有趣的原生細胞，那麼有趣的顏色和

interesting behaviors, and they're very easy

有趣的行為，它們都可以很容易

to make, and they have interesting lifelike

的製造出，而且它們擁有像生命行為

properties, perhaps these protocells have

的有趣特性，也許這些原生細胞可以

something to tell us about the origin of life

告訴我們在有關地球上生命

on the Earth. Perhaps these represent an

的起源，也許這展示一個

easily accessible step, one of the first steps

較容易的一個步驟，第一步邁向

by which life got started on the early Earth.

地球的生命是如何開始的。

Certainly, there were molecules present on

肯定的是，這些是早期在地球上

the early Earth, but they wouldn't have been

存在的分子，但是它們沒有像

these pure compounds that we worked with

這些純化合物，這些我們在實驗室

in the lab and I showed in these experiments.

所做出來的，剛給各位看的實驗。

Rather, they'd be a real complex mixture of

而它們是真正複雜的

all kinds of stuff, because

各類混合物，因為

uncontrolled chemical reactions produce

無法控制的化學反應產生

a diverse mixture of organic compounds.

不同的有機化合物的混合物。

Think of it like a primordial ooze, okay?

想像它是一個原始軟泥，好嗎？

And it's a pool that's too difficult to fully

這是一個池塘，太難以充分表現,

characterize, even by modern methods, and

即使用現代的方法,

the product looks brown, like this tar here

這個看起來棕色，像是焦油

on the left. A pure compound

在左邊。一個純化合物

is shown on the right, for contrast.

在右邊，做個對比。

So this is similar to what happens when you

這個情形就好像當你

take pure sugar crystals in your kitchen,

在廚房使用純糖晶體,

you put them in a pan, and you apply energy.

你放在鍋子裡，然後給他們能量。

You turn up the heat, you start making

你把他們加熱，你開始製造

or breaking chemical bonds in the sugar,

或斷掉糖裡的化學鍵,

forming a brownish caramel, right?

形成了褐色的焦糖，對嗎？

If you let that go unregulated, you'll

假如你管制的放任它們，你會

continue to make and break chemical bonds,

繼續製造和斷掉化學鍵,

forming an even more diverse mixture of

形成多樣化的混合物

molecules that then forms this kind of black

分子，最後形成這種黑色的

tarry stuff in your pan, right, that's

柏油樣的東西在鍋底，對嗎？這是

difficult to wash out. So that's what

非常難以清洗的，這也許是

the origin of life would have looked like.

生命開始時所呈現的樣子。

You needed to get life out of this junk that

4億，4億5千萬年前,

is present on the early Earth,

在早期的地球, 你需要從

four, 4.5 billion years ago.

這樣的垃圾中淬取出生命。

So the challenge then is,

所以，這個挑戰是,

throw away all your pure chemicals in the lab,

要把你在實驗室裡的純化合物丟開,

and try to make some protocells with lifelike

試著從這種原始軟泥，製造出

properties from this kind of primordial ooze.

類似生命特性的原生細胞。

So we're able to then see the self-assembly

我們可以看到這些油滴

of these oil droplet bodies again

再次的自我組合,

that we've seen previously,

像先前所看到的,

and the black spots inside of there

其中這個黑色的

represent this kind of black tar -- this diverse,

代表這種黑色焦油，這個多元

very complex, organic black tar.

複雜的有機黑色焦油。

And we put them into one of these

我們將它放入其中的一個

experiments, as you've seen earlier, and then

實驗中，像之前看到的，然後

we watch lively movement that comes out.

我們看到它活潑的移動它

They look really good, very nice movement,

它們看起來很好，非常好的運動,

and also they appear to have some kind of

它們也呈現出某種行為,

behavior where they kind of circle

他們互相繞圈圈,

around each other and follow each other,

而且跟著其他的繞

similar to what we've seen before -- but again,

和我們前面看到的很像，但是

working with just primordial conditions,

這是在原始的條件下,

no pure chemicals.

不是純化合物。

These are also, these tar-fueled protocells,

這是焦油原生細胞，也是

are also able to locate resources

可以在它們的環境

in their environment.

中找到資源。

I'm going to add some resource from the left,

我想從左邊加入一些資源

here, that defuses into the system,

擴散到這個系統裡,

and you can see, they really like that.

你可以看到，它們非常喜歡。

They become very energetic, and able

它們變得有活力，而且

to find the resource in the environment,

能夠在這個環境中找到資源,

similar to what we saw before.

像我們之前所看到的那樣。

But again, these are done in these primordial

但是，它們是在原始的條件下,

conditions, really messy conditions,

真正很差的環境下,

not sort of sterile laboratory conditions.

不是在那種無菌的實驗室裡。

These are very dirty little protocells,

它們是事實上是骯髒的

as a matter of fact. (Laughter)

小原生細胞。 (笑聲)

But they have lifelike properties, is the point.

但重點是，它們有生命類的特性。

So, doing these artificial life experiments

所以，做這些人工生命的實驗

helps us define a potential path between

幫助我們定義介於生命與

non-living and living systems.

非生命的一條路,

And not only that, but it helps us

不只是這樣，它還幫助我們

broaden our view of what life is

開拓我們對生命的視野,

and what possible life there could be

還有外太空生命

out there -- life that could be very different

的可能性 -- 生命也許和我們在

from life that we find here on Earth.

地球上發現的生命很不一樣。

And that leads me to the next

這引發了我下一期

term, which is "weird life."

「奇特的生命」。

This is a term by Steve Benner.

這一期由史帝夫班納主導。

This is used in reference to a report

這是在 2007 年的報告,

in 2007 by the National Research Council

美國國家研究

in the United States, wherein

理事會被引用，

they tried to understand how we can

他們試著了解，為什麼我們

look for life elsewhere in the universe, okay,

可以在太空中尋找生命,

especially if that life is very different from life

尤其是對地球而言是非常不同的

on Earth. If we went to another planet and

生命型態。假如我們去我們認為在那裡

we thought there might be life there,

或許有生命的不同星球,

how could we even recognize it as life?

我們是如何判定它是有生命的呢?

Well, they came up with three very general

他們想出三種判定的標準,

criteria. First is -- and they're listed here.

這是他們列出來的。

The first is, the system has to be in

第一，這個系統必須是

non-equilibrium. That means the system

非平衡的。 意思是

cannot be dead, in a matter of fact.

事實上，不是已死掉。

Basically what that means is, you have

基本上，意思是它是有

an input of energy into the system that life

一個能量，輸入到這個系統,

can use and exploit to maintain itself.

這個生命可以使用且被利用來維持自身。

This is similar to having the Sun shining

這就好像是有個太陽在地球

on the Earth, driving photosynthesis,

上照亮，來行使光合作用

driving the ecosystem.

驅動生態系統。

Without the Sun, there's likely to be

沒有太陽，就沒有

no life on this planet.

生命在這個星球上。

Secondly, life needs to be in liquid form,

第二，生命需是液態狀的,

so that means even if we had some

這個表示假如我們有

interesting structures, interesting molecules

一些有趣的結構，有趣的分子

together but they were frozen solid,

結合在一起，但它們是凍成固態的,

then this is not a good place for life.

這不是一個適合生命的地方。

And thirdly, we need to be able to make

第三，我們需要可以製造

and break chemical bonds. And again

和切斷化學鍵。而且

this is important because life transforms

這是非常重要的，因為生命

resources from the environment into

從環境中的資源轉換到

building blocks so it can maintain itself.

建構的機體，以至它可以維持下去。

Now today, I told you about very strange

現在，我所說的這個非常奇特

and weird protocells -- some that contain clay,

且怪異的原生細胞，有一些包含了粘土,

some that have primordial ooze in them,

有一些當中有原始的軟泥,

some that have basically oil

在它們裡面有一些有基本的油,

instead of water inside of them.

而不是水。

Most of these don't contain DNA,

它們大部分都沒有 DNA,

but yet they have lifelike properties.

但是它們有類似生命的特性。

But these protocells satisfy

這些原生細胞符合

these general requirements of living systems.

這些生命系統的一般要素。

So by making these chemical, artificial

藉著製造這些化學，人工的

life experiments, we hope not only

生命經驗，我們希望不只是

to understand something fundamental

了解關於生命起源的

about the origin of life and the existence

基本原理和這個星球

of life on this planet, but also

上的生命，同時

what possible life there could be

生命也可能離開這裡

out there in the universe. Thank you.

去到宇宙，謝謝。

(Applause)

(掌聲)