How a long-forgotten virus could help us solve the antibiotics crisis | Alexander Belcredi
328,276 views ・ 2018-12-07
请双击下面的英文字幕来播放视频。
翻译人员: Xiaobao Gan
校对人员: Carol Wang
00:12
Take a moment
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大家花一点时间,
00:14
and think about a virus.
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想一想病毒(是什么)。
00:16
What comes to your mind?
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你脑海里浮现的是什么呢?
00:18
An illness?
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是疾病?
00:20
A fear?
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还是恐惧?
00:21
Probably something really unpleasant.
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多半是非常不愉快的感觉吧。
00:23
And yet, viruses are not all the same.
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然而,病毒的影响并非都是负面的。
00:25
It's true, some of them cause
devastating disease.
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的确,有些病毒能引发致命疾病;
00:29
But others can do the exact opposite --
they can cure disease.
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但另一些病毒则截然
相反——它们能治愈疾病,
00:33
These viruses are called "phages."
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这类病毒被称为“噬菌体”。
00:36
Now, the first time I heard
about phages was back in 2013.
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我第一次听说噬菌体
病毒要追溯到2013年,
00:39
My father-in-law, who's a surgeon,
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我身为外科医生的岳父
00:41
was telling me about a woman
he was treating.
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向我介绍了他当时的一名
女性患者的治疗情况。
00:44
The woman had a knee injury,
required multiple surgeries,
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该女性患者膝盖受伤,
需要进行多次手术,
00:47
and over the course of these,
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在进行这些手术的过程中,
00:48
developed a chronic
bacterial infection in her leg.
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她的腿部出现了慢性
细菌感染的症状。
00:51
Unfortunately for her,
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不幸的是,
00:52
the bacteria causing the infection
also did not respond
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所有当时的抗生素
对引发她感染的细菌都不起作用。
00:55
to any antibiotic that was available.
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00:58
So at this point, typically, the only
option left is to amputate the leg
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一般来说,在这种情况下,
唯一的选择就是截肢,
01:02
to stop the infection
from spreading further.
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以阻止感染进一步扩大。
01:05
Now, my father-in-law was desperate
for a different kind of solution,
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我的岳父急需一种不同的治疗方案,
01:08
and he applied for an experimental,
last-resort treatment using phages.
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他请求实施尚处于实验阶段的
唯一可能有效的噬菌体方案,
01:13
And guess what? It worked.
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你猜怎么着?那个治疗方案生效了。
01:15
Within three weeks of applying the phages,
the chronic infection had healed up,
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使用噬菌体之后不到三周,
慢性感染就得到了治愈,
01:19
where before, no antibiotic was working.
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而在此之前,所有抗生素无一有效。
01:22
I was fascinated by this weird conception:
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我被这个奇特的概念深深迷住了:
病毒竟然能够治愈细菌感染。
01:27
viruses curing an infection.
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01:30
To this day, I am fascinated
by the medical potential of phages.
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直至今日,我依然为
噬菌体的医疗潜能所着迷。
01:34
And I actually quit my job last year
to build a company in this space.
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于是,我去年辞掉工作,
在这个领域创立了一家公司。
01:38
Now, what is a phage?
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那么,究竟什么是噬菌体呢?
01:41
The image that you see here was taken
by an electron microscope.
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你们看到的这个影像
是用电子显微镜拍的,
01:45
And that means what we see on the screen
is in reality extremely tiny.
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也就是说,实际上我们在
屏幕上看到的东西极其微小。
01:49
The grainy thing in the middle
with the head, the long body
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中间粒状的东西有头、长长的身体、
还有很多脚——
01:53
and a number of feet --
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01:54
this is the image of a prototypical phage.
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这就是一个典型噬菌体的形貌,
01:57
It's kind of cute.
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看上去还有点可爱呢。
01:58
(Laughter)
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(笑声)
02:00
Now, take a look at your hand.
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现在,看看你的手,
02:03
In our team, we've estimated
that you have more than 10 billion phages
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据我们团队的估计,人的每只手上
有100多亿个噬菌体。
02:08
on each of your hands.
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02:09
What are they doing there?
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它们在你手上干什么呢?
02:11
(Laughter)
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(笑声)
02:12
Well, viruses are good at infecting cells.
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事实上,病毒擅长感染细胞;
02:15
And phages are great
at infecting bacteria.
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而噬菌体则擅长感染细菌。
和我们的身体一样,
02:18
And your hand, just like
so much of our body,
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02:20
is a hotbed of bacterial activity,
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你的手就是细菌活动的温床,
02:22
making it an ideal
hunting ground for phages.
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是噬菌体的理想狩猎场,
02:26
Because after all, phages hunt bacteria.
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因为终究噬菌体会猎杀细菌。
02:29
It's also important to know that phages
are extremely selective hunters.
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还有重要的一点需要了解,
即噬菌体都是挑剔的猎手;
02:34
Typically, a phage will only infect
a single bacterial species.
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通常,一个噬菌体
只会感染一种细菌。
02:38
So in this rendering here,
the phage that you see
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所以,在这张渲染图中的噬菌体,
02:41
hunts for a bacterium
called Staphylococcus aureus,
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只会猎杀一种叫做
金黄色葡萄球菌的细菌,
02:44
which is known as MRSA
in its drug-resistant form.
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在耐药状态下它被称为MRSA,
02:48
It causes skin or wound infections.
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它会导致皮肤和伤口感染。
02:51
The way the phage hunts is with its feet.
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噬菌体猎杀所用的工具是它的脚,
02:54
The feet are actually extremely
sensitive receptors,
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这些脚其实是超级
灵敏的感受器官,
02:56
on the lookout for the right surface
on a bacterial cell.
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用于准确探测细菌细胞的表面。
03:00
Once it finds it,
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噬菌体一旦探测到细菌表面,
03:01
the phage will latch on
to the bacterial cell wall
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就会锁定住细菌的细胞壁,
03:04
and then inject its DNA.
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接着将自己的DNA
注射进入细菌体内。
03:06
DNA sits in the head of the phage
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位于噬菌体头部的DNA,
03:08
and travels into the bacteria
through the long body.
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通过它那长长的身躯进入细菌体内。
03:11
At this point, the phage
reprograms the bacteria
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这时,噬菌体会对细菌重新编码,
以生产出大量新的噬菌体。
03:14
into producing lots of new phages.
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03:16
The bacteria, in effect,
becomes a phage factory.
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事实上,细菌已变成了噬菌体工厂。
03:19
Once around 50-100 phages have accumulated
within the bacteria cell,
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一旦细菌体内积累了
约50-100个噬菌体后,
03:23
the phages are then able
to release a protein
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这些噬菌体就会释放
03:26
that disrupts the bacteria cell wall.
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一种破坏细菌细胞壁的蛋白质。
03:28
As the bacteria bursts,
the phages move out
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当细菌破裂时,噬菌体就跑出来,
03:31
and go on the hunt again
for a new bacteria to infect.
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继续搜寻新的细菌进行感染。
03:35
Now, I'm sorry, this probably
sounded like a scary virus again.
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很抱歉,这可能听起来
又像一种可怕的病毒了。
03:39
But it's exactly this ability of phages --
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但这正是噬菌体所拥有的能力——
03:41
to multiply within the bacteria
and then kill them --
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在细菌内部繁殖,然后杀死细菌——
03:44
that make them so interesting
from a medical point of view.
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从医学的角度来看,
这让噬菌体显得很有趣。
03:47
The other part that I find
extremely interesting
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另外一个让我十分感兴趣的方面,
是这件事的发展规模。
03:50
is the scale at which this is going on.
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03:52
Now, just five years ago,
I really had no clue about phages.
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就在五年前,我对噬菌体还一窍不通;
03:55
And yet, today I would tell you
they are part of a natural principle.
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然而,今天我会告诉你们,
它们是自然法则的一部分。
03:59
Phages and bacteria go back
to the earliest days of evolution.
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噬菌体和细菌又回到了进化早期,
04:03
They have always existed in tandem,
keeping each other in check.
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它们总是成双存在,
并且彼此相互制约;
04:07
So this is really the story of yin
and yang, of the hunter and the prey,
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这跟阴和阳,或是
猎人与猎物的关系别无二致,
04:11
at a microscopic level.
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只不过它们的关系存在于微观世界。
04:14
Some scientists have even estimated
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有些科学家甚至估计,
04:16
that phages are the most
abundant organism on our planet.
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噬菌体可能是地球上
数量最多的生命体。
04:20
So even before we continue
talking about their medical potential,
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所以,在我们继续讨论
它们的医疗潜能之前,
04:23
I think everybody should know
about phages and their role on earth:
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我想每人都该了解噬菌体,
和它们在地球上扮演的角色:
04:27
they hunt, infect and kill bacteria.
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它们搜寻、感染,进而杀死细菌。
04:30
Now, how come we have something
that works so well in nature,
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那么,大自然中怎么会有
如此运作完美的生物,
04:33
every day, everywhere around us,
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无处不在,时时刻刻伴随着我们;
04:35
and yet, in most parts of the world,
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然而在世界上大多数地方,
04:37
we do not have a single drug on the market
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在我们的医药市场上,
04:39
that uses this principle
to combat bacterial infections?
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却没有一种能利用这种机制
去对抗细菌感染的药物呢?
04:43
The simple answer is: no one
has developed this kind of a drug yet,
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答案其实很简单:
还没人发明这种药,
04:47
at least not one that conforms
to the Western regulatory standards
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至少还没有这样一种药品能够符合
04:50
that set the norm
for so much of the world.
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为世界多数东西制定
标准的西方监管准则,
04:53
To understand why,
we need to move back in time.
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想知道其中的原因,
就要往前追溯一下。
04:57
This is a picture of Félix d'Herelle.
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照片中的这位是菲利克斯 · 德雷尔,
04:59
He is one of the two scientists
credited with discovering phages.
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他是发现噬菌体的两位科学家之一。
05:02
Except, when he discovered them
back in 1917, he had no clue
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只不过当1917年他发现噬菌体时,
05:06
what he had discovered.
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他对于自己的发现还一无所知。
05:08
He was interested in a disease
called bacillary dysentery,
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当时,他对一种叫做
菌痢的疾病很感兴趣,
05:12
which is a bacterial infection
that causes severe diarrhea,
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这是一种由细菌感染
引发的严重腹泻疾病,
05:14
and back then, was actually
killing a lot of people,
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那个年代,这种疾病的致死率很高,
毕竟那会儿治疗细菌感染的
药物还没有问世。
05:17
because after all, no cure for bacterial
infections had been invented.
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05:21
He was looking at samples from patients
who had survived this illness.
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当时他正在观察从疾病
幸存者身上提取的样本,
05:25
And he found that something
weird was going on.
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他发现了一些奇怪的事情,
05:27
Something in the sample
was killing the bacteria
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样本中的某种东西
正在杀死那些致病的细菌。
05:29
that were supposed to cause the disease.
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05:31
To find out what was going on,
he did an ingenious experiment.
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为了查明原因,他做了
一个非常巧妙的实验。
05:35
He took the sample, filtered it
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他取出样本,进行过滤,
05:37
until he was sure that only something
very small could have remained,
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直到确定样本中
只保留了极微小的生物,
05:40
and then took a tiny drop and added it
to freshly cultivated bacteria.
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接着,他从中取出一小滴,
滴入刚培养好的细菌中。
05:45
And he observed
that within a number of hours,
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他观察到,在接下来的
几个小时之内,
05:47
the bacteria had been killed.
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细菌统统被杀死了。
05:49
He then repeated this,
again filtering, taking a tiny drop,
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于是他重复进行这个实验,
再次过滤、从中取一小滴,
05:53
adding it to the next batch
of fresh bacteria.
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滴入下一批最新培养出的细菌中;
05:55
He did this in sequence 50 times,
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他接连将这组实验做了50次,
05:58
always observing the same effect.
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每次都观察到了相同的效果。
06:00
And at this point,
he made two conclusions.
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于是,他得出了两个结论。
06:02
First of all, the obvious one:
yes, something was killing the bacteria,
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首先,最明显的一个结论就是:
没错,有样东西正在杀死细菌,
06:06
and it was in that liquid.
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它就存在于那些液体中。
06:07
The other one: it had to be
biologic in nature,
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另外一个结论是:
它本质上一定是生物,
06:10
because a tiny drop was sufficient
to have a huge impact.
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因为一小滴竟足以
产生如此大的影响。
06:14
He called the agent he had found
an "invisible microbe"
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他把刚发现的这种试剂
叫做“看不见的微生物”,
06:18
and gave it the name "bacteriophage,"
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并将其命名为“噬菌体”,
06:19
which, literally translated,
means "bacteria eater."
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其字面意思就是“细菌吞噬者”。
06:22
And by the way, this is one
of the most fundamental discoveries
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顺便提一句,
这是现代微生物学上
最基础性的发现之一,
06:25
of modern microbiology.
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06:27
So many modern techniques go back
to our understanding of how phages work --
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许多现代科技又回到我们
对噬菌体运作机制的理解——
06:31
in genomic editing,
but also in other fields.
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不仅是基因编辑技术,
在其他领域也是如此。
06:33
And just today, the Nobel Prize
in chemistry was announced
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而就在今天,两名研究噬菌体、
并开发基于噬菌体药物的科学家
06:36
for two scientists who work with phages
and develop drugs based on that.
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获得了诺贝尔化学奖。
06:41
Now, back in the 1920s and 1930s,
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追溯到二十世纪
二十年代和三十年代,
06:43
people also immediately saw
the medical potential of phages.
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人们也立刻看到了
噬菌体的医学潜能。
06:46
After all, albeit invisible,
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即使看不见噬菌体,
06:48
you had something
that reliably was killing bacteria.
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我们毕竟拥有了能
杀死细菌的可靠物质。
06:51
Companies that still exist today,
such as Abbott, Squibb or Lilly,
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像雅培、百时美施贵宝或礼来
这些今天依然存在的公司,
06:54
sold phage preparations.
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开始销售噬菌体制剂。
06:57
But the reality is, if you're starting
with an invisible microbe,
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但问题在于,如果用一种
不可见的微生物做基础,
07:00
it's very difficult to get
to a reliable drug.
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是很难生产出可靠药物的。
07:03
Just imagine going to the FDA today
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试想一下,你今天就去FDA,
07:05
and telling them all about
that invisible virus
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向他们介绍你要给病人用的
这种不可见的病毒,
07:07
you want to give to patients.
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他们会作何反应。
07:09
So when chemical antibiotics
emerged in the 1940s,
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所以当上世纪四十年代
化学抗生素问世的时候,
07:12
they completely changed the game.
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它们彻底改变了游戏规则。
07:14
And this guy played a major role.
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这主要得归功于图上的这个人。
07:16
This is Alexander Fleming.
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他是亚历山大 · 弗莱明,
07:18
He won the Nobel Prize in medicine
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因为他对世界上第一种抗生素
07:19
for his work contributing
to the development
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青霉素的开发做出了巨大贡献,
而获得了诺贝尔医学奖。
07:22
of the first antibiotic, penicillin.
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07:24
And antibiotics really work
very differently than phages.
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抗生素与噬菌体的
作用原理截然不同。
07:29
For the most part, they inhibit
the growth of the bacteria,
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最大的不同就是,
抗生素会抑制细菌生长,
07:31
and they don't care so much
which kind of bacteria are present.
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不管是哪种细菌。
07:35
The ones that we call broad-spectrum
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我们称之为广谱抗菌的抗生素,
07:37
will even work against
a whole bunch of bacteria out there.
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它们甚至会抑制人体内所有细菌。
07:40
Compare that to phages,
which work extremely narrowly
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与之相比,噬菌体的
作用面则很有限,
07:43
against one bacterial species,
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只对一类细菌有效,
07:44
and you can see the obvious advantage.
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因此,抗生素的优势显而易见。
07:47
Now, back then, this must have felt
like a dream come true.
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那时,抗生素的出现
让人们觉得梦想成真。
07:50
You had a patient
with a suspected bacterial infection,
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你有一名患者疑似患上了细菌感染,
07:53
you gave him the antibiotic,
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你给他开了抗生素,
07:55
and without really needing to know
anything else about the bacteria
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而你不需要真正对
引发疾病的细菌有更多了解,
07:58
causing the disease,
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07:59
many of the patients recovered.
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很多患者的病就治好了。
08:01
And so as we developed
more and more antibiotics,
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因此,随着我们开发出
越来越多的抗生素,
08:03
they, rightly so, became the first-line
therapy for bacterial infections.
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新抗生素立刻就会成为
治疗细菌感染的首选。
08:07
And by the way, they have contributed
tremendously to our life expectancy.
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顺便一提,抗生素为我们
寿命的延长做出了巨大贡献。
08:12
We are only able to do
complex medical interventions
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今天,我们能够进行
复杂的医疗干预
08:14
and medical surgeries today
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和外科手术,
08:16
because we have antibiotics,
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是因为我们有抗生素,
08:17
and we don't risk the patient
dying the very next day
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所以,我们不再冒着患者
可能因为手术中细菌感染
而在术后第二天死去的危险。
08:20
from the bacterial infection that he might
contract during the operation.
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08:24
So we started to forget about phages,
especially in Western medicine.
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因此,我们开始忘记噬菌体的
存在,尤其是在西药中。
08:28
And to a certain extent, even when
I was growing up, the notion was:
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更确切的说,甚至在我
成长过程中,大家的观念都是:
08:32
we have solved bacterial infections;
we have antibiotics.
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我们已解决了细菌感染问题;
因为我们有了抗生素。
08:37
Of course, today,
we know that this is wrong.
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当然,今天我们都知道,
这种观念是大错特错的。
08:40
Today, most of you
will have heard about superbugs.
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现在,多数人都听说过超级细菌吧。
08:42
Those are bacteria
that have become resistant
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那是一种即便不是对所有抗生素,
08:45
to many, if not all, of the antibiotics
that we have developed
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也是对很多我们开发的、
治疗细菌感染的抗生素
08:49
to treat this infection.
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有抗药性的细菌。
08:51
How did we get here?
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这一切是如何发生的呢?
08:53
Well, we weren't as smart
as we thought we were.
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事实上,我们并非
像我们想的那样聪明。
08:56
As we started using
antibiotics everywhere --
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从我们开始在所有地方
都使用抗生素——
08:59
in hospitals, to treat and prevent;
at home, for simple colds;
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在医院用于治疗和预防;
在家里对付小感冒;
09:02
on farms, to keep animals healthy --
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在农场用,为使动物保持健康——
09:05
the bacteria evolved.
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细菌进化了。
在抗生素的围攻之下,
09:07
In the onslaught of antibiotics
that were all around them,
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09:11
those bacteria survived
that were best able to adapt.
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活下来的细菌都是适应力最强的。
09:15
Today, we call these
"multidrug-resistant bacteria."
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今天,我们称之为“多药耐药性细菌”。
09:18
And let me put a scary number out there.
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我要向大家展示一组可怕的数据,
09:20
In a recent study commissioned
by the UK government,
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在最近一项由英国
政府委托的研究中,
09:22
it was estimated that by 2050,
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预计直至2050年,
09:25
ten million people could die every year
from multidrug-resistant infections.
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每年大约会有一千万人
死于多药耐药性细菌感染。
09:29
Compare that to eight million deaths
from cancer per year today,
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和目前每年死于癌症的八百万人相比,
09:33
and you can see
that this is a scary number.
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这个数字显然非常可怕。
09:35
But the good news is,
phages have stuck around.
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但好消息是,噬菌体的
应用离我们不远了。
09:39
And let me tell you, they are not
impressed by multidrug resistance.
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而且,我得告诉你们,
它们可不在乎多药耐药性。
09:42
(Laughter)
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(笑声)
09:43
They are just as happily killing
and hunting bacteria all around us.
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它们只是喜欢猎杀我们周围的细菌。
而且,它们仍然保持着选择性,
在今天看来依然是一件好事。
09:50
And they've also stayed selective,
which today is really a good thing.
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09:53
Today, we are able to reliably identify
a bacterial pathogen
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今天,我们能可靠地识别
在多种情况下造成
感染的细菌病原体,
09:56
that's causing an infection
in many settings.
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09:59
And their selectivity will help us
avoid some of the side effects
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而噬菌体的选择性会帮助我们避免
通常由广谱抗生素所造成的副作用。
10:02
that are commonly associated
with broad-spectrum antibiotics.
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10:06
But maybe the best news of all is:
they are no longer an invisible microbe.
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也许这才是最好的消息:
噬菌体不再是不可见微生物。
10:10
We can look at them.
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我们可以看到它们,
10:11
And we did so together before.
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之前我们已经看过了。
10:13
We can sequence their DNA.
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我们能对它们的基因进行测序,
10:15
We understand how they replicate.
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了解它们的复制机制。
10:16
And we understand the limitations.
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我们也明白它们的局限性。
10:18
We are in a great place
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我们正处在一个
10:20
to now develop strong and reliable
phage-based pharmaceuticals.
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能够开发强力而可靠的
基于噬菌体的药物新时代,
10:24
And that's what's happening
around the globe.
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世界各地都已经开始行动了。
10:26
More than 10 biotech companies,
including our own company,
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包括我们公司在内,
超过10家生物科技公司
正开发人类噬菌体应用
以治疗细菌性感染,
10:29
are developing human-phage applications
to treat bacterial infections.
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3585
10:32
A number of clinical trials
are getting underway in Europe and the US.
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数个临床试验
正在欧洲和美国进行。
10:37
So I'm convinced
that we're standing on the verge
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所以,我确信我们正站在
10:40
of a renaissance of phage therapy.
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噬菌体疗法复兴的边缘。
10:42
And to me, the correct way to depict
the phage is something like this.
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依我看,描画噬菌体的
正确方式应该像这样。
10:46
(Laughter)
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(笑声)
10:49
To me, phages are the superheroes
that we have been waiting for
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在我看来,在与多药耐药性
细菌感染的战斗中,
10:52
in our fight against
multidrug-resistant infections.
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噬菌体就是我们一直
期待的超级英雄。
10:56
So the next time you think about a virus,
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所以,下次你想到病毒的时候,
10:59
keep this image in mind.
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请记住这个噬菌体超人形象!
11:01
After all, a phage might
one day save your life.
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毕竟,噬菌体也许
会在某一天挽救你的生命。
11:04
Thank you.
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谢谢大家。
11:06
(Applause)
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(掌声)
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