Your kids might live on Mars. Here's how they'll survive | Stephen Petranek

5,617,933 views ใƒป 2016-05-05

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืžืชืจื’ื: Roni Ravia ืžื‘ืงืจ: Ido Dekkers
00:13
Strap yourselves in,
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ืฉื‘ื• ื•ื”ื“ืงื• ื—ื’ื•ืจื•ืช,
00:15
we're going to Mars.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื ื•ืกืขื™ื ืœืžืื“ื™ื.
00:17
Not just a few astronauts --
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ืœื ืจืง ืืกื˜ืจื•ื ืื•ื˜ื™ื ื‘ื•ื“ื“ื™ื
00:19
thousands of people are going to colonize Mars.
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ืืœืคื™ ืื ืฉื™ื ืขืชื™ื“ื™ื ืœื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ ื‘ืžืื“ื™ื
00:22
And I am telling you that they're going to do this soon.
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ื•ืื ื™ ืื•ืžืจ ืœื›ื ืฉื–ื” ื”ื•ืœืš ืœืงืจื•ืช ื‘ืงืจื•ื‘.
00:26
Some of you will end up working on projects on Mars,
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ื—ืœืงื›ื ืขืชื™ื“ื™ื ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ ืขืœ ืคืจื•ื™ื™ืงื˜ื™ื ื”ืงืฉื•ืจื™ื ืœืžืื“ื™ื,
00:29
and I guarantee that some of your children will end up living there.
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ื•ืื ื™ ืžื‘ื˜ื™ื— ืœื›ื ืฉื—ืœืง ืžื™ืœื“ื™ื›ื ื™ืขื‘ืจื• ืœื’ื•ืจ ืฉื.
00:33
That probably sounds preposterous,
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ื–ื” ื•ื“ืื™ ื ืฉืžืข ืžื’ื•ื—ืš,
00:36
so I'm going to share with you how and when that will happen.
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ืื– ืื ื™ ืืกืคืจ ืœื›ื ืื™ืš ื•ืžืชื™ ื–ื” ื”ื•ืœืš ืœืงืจื•ืช.
00:39
But first I want to discuss the obvious question:
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ืื‘ืœ ืจืืฉื™ืช, ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื“ื•ืŸ ื‘ืฉืืœื” ื”ืžืชื‘ืงืฉืช:
00:43
Why the heck should we do this?
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ืœืžื” ืœืขื–ืื–ืœ ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื•ืฉื™ื ืืช ื–ื”?
00:45
12 years ago,
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ืœืคื ื™ 12 ืฉื ื”,
00:46
I gave a TED talk on 10 ways the world could end suddenly.
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ื ืชืชื™ ื”ืจืฆืืช TED ื‘ื ื•ืฉื 10 ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืœืชืจื—ื™ืฉ ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืขื•ืœื.
00:50
We are incredibly vulnerable to the whims of our own galaxy.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื ืชื•ื ื™ื ืชื—ืช ื’ื—ืžื•ืชื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื” ืฉืœื ื•.
00:55
A single, large asteroid could take us out forever.
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ืืกื˜ืจื•ืื™ื“ ืื—ื“ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืฉืžื™ื“ ืื•ืชื ื• ื˜ื•ื˜ืืœื™ืช.
00:59
To survive we have to reach beyond the home planet.
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ื‘ื›ื“ื™ ืœืฉืจื•ื“ ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื‘ื—ื•ืŸ ืืคืฉืจื•ืช ื—ื™ื™ื ืขืœ ืคืœื ื˜ื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช.
01:02
Think what a tragedy it would be
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ื—ื™ืฉื‘ื• ื›ืžื” ื ื•ืจื ื–ื” ื™ื”ื™ื”
01:04
if all that humans have accomplished were suddenly obliterated.
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ืื ื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉื”ืื ื•ืฉื•ืช ื”ืฆืœื™ื—ื” ืœื”ืฉื™ื’ ื™ืžื—ืง ื›ืœื ื”ื™ื”.
01:08
And there's another reason we should go:
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ื•ื™ืฉ ืขื•ื“ ืกื™ื‘ื” ืœื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ ื‘ืžืื“ื™ื:
01:10
exploration is in our DNA.
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ื—ืงืจ ืขื•ืœืžื•ืช ื ืžืฆื ืืฆืœื ื• ื‘ื“ื ืดื.
01:13
Two million years ago humans evolved in Africa
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ืœืคื ื™ 2 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืื“ื ื”ืงื“ืžื•ืŸ ื”ืชืคืชื— ื‘ืืคืจื™ืงื”
01:17
and then slowly but surely spread out across the entire planet
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ื•ืื– ืื˜ ืื˜ ื”ืชืคืจืฉ ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ื›ื•ืœื•
01:22
by reaching into the wilderness that was beyond their horizons.
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื—ืงื™ืจืช ืขื•ืœืžื•ืช ืจื—ื•ืงื™ื ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœืื•ืคืง.
01:25
This stuff is inside us.
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ื–ื” ื˜ื‘ื•ืข ื‘ื ื•.
01:27
And they prospered doing that.
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ื•ื”ืื ื•ืฉื•ืช ืฉื’ืฉื’ื” ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื›ืš.
01:30
Some of the greatest advances in civilization and technology
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ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืงื™ื“ื•ืžื™ื ื”ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืฆื™ื•ื•ื™ืœื™ื–ืฆื™ื” ื•ื‘ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”
01:34
came because we explored.
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ื”ื’ื™ืขื• ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื—ืงืจ ื”ืขื•ืœืžื•ืช ื”ื–ื”.
01:37
Yes, we could do a lot of good
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ื›ืŸ, ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื”ืจื‘ื” ื˜ื•ื‘ ื‘ืขื•ืœื
01:38
with the money it will take to establish a thriving colony on Mars.
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ืขื ื”ื›ืกืฃ ืฉื“ืจื•ืฉ ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœื”ืงื™ื ืžื•ืฉื‘ื” ืžืฉื’ืฉื’ืช ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื.
01:42
And yes we should all be taking far better care of our own home planet.
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ื•ื ื›ื•ืŸ, ื›ื•ืœื ื• ื—ื™ื™ื‘ื™ื ืœื”ืจืชื ืœืžืืžืฅ ืœืฉื™ืžื•ืจ ืคืœื ื˜ืช ื”ื‘ื™ืช ืฉืœื ื•.
01:48
And yes, I worry we could screw up Mars the way we've screwed up Earth.
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ื•ื›ืŸ, ื’ื ืื ื™ ืžื•ื“ืื’ ืžื”ืžื—ืฉื‘ื” ืฉื ื”ืจื•ืก ืืช ืžืื“ื™ื ื›ืคื™ ืฉื”ืจืกื ื• ืืช ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
01:54
But think for a moment,
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ืื‘ืœ ื—ื™ืฉื‘ื• ืœืจื’ืข,
01:55
what we had when John F. Kennedy told us we would put a human on the moon.
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ืžื” ืงืจื” ื›ืฉื’ืณื•ืŸ ืค. ืงื ื“ื™ ืืžืจ ืœื ื• ืฉื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ื ื—ื™ืช ืื“ื ืขืœ ื”ื™ืจื—.
02:00
He excited an entire generation to dream.
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ื”ื•ื ืจื™ื’ืฉ ื“ื•ืจ ืฉืœื ื•ื’ืจื ืœื• ืœื—ืœื•ื.
02:05
Think how inspired we will be to see a landing on Mars.
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ื—ื™ืฉื‘ื• ื›ืžื” ืžืจื’ืฉ ื–ื” ื™ื”ื™ื” ืœืจืื•ืช ืื“ื ื”ื ื•ื—ืช ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื.
02:08
Perhaps then we will look back at Earth
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ืื•ืœื™ ืื– ื ืชื‘ื•ื ืŸ ืขืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ
02:11
and see that that is one people instead of many
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ื•ื ืจืื” ืจืง ืื ื•ืฉื•ืช ืื—ืช ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื”ืจื‘ื” ืขืžื™ื
02:14
and perhaps then we will look back at Earth,
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ื•ืื•ืœื™ ืื– ื ืชื™ื™ื—ืก ืœื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ
02:17
as we struggle to survive on Mars,
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ื›ืืœ ืคืชืจื•ืŸ ืœืžืฆื•ืงืช ืงื™ื•ืžื™ื ื• ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื.
02:19
and realize how precious the home planet is.
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ื•ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ืขื“ ื›ืžื” ื™ืงืจืช ืขืจืš ื”ื™ื ืคืœื ื˜ืช ื”ื‘ื™ืช ืฉืœื ื•.
02:23
So let me tell you about the extraordinary adventure we're about to undertake.
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ืื– ื”ืจืฉื• ืœื™ ืœืกืคืจ ืœื›ื ืขืœ ื”ืžืกืข ื”ืžื•ืคืœื ืฉืืœื™ื• ืื ื• ืขืชื™ื“ื™ื ืœืฆืืช.
02:29
But first,
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ืื‘ืœ ืงื•ื“ื ื›ืœ,
02:30
a few fascinating facts about where we're going.
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ื›ืžื” ืขื•ื‘ื“ื•ืช ืžืจืชืงื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ืžืงื•ื ืืœื™ื• ืื ื• ื”ื•ืœื›ื™ื.
02:34
This picture actually represents the true size of Mars compared to Earth.
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ืชืžื•ื ื” ื–ื• ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ืช ืœืžืขืฉื” ืืช ื’ื•ื“ืœื• ื”ืืžื™ืชื™ ืฉืœ ืžืื“ื™ื ื‘ื™ื—ืก ืœื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
02:38
Mars is not our sister planet.
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ืžืื“ื™ื ืื™ื ื• ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื”ืชืื•ื ืฉืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
02:40
It's far less than half the size of the Earth,
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ื”ื•ื ื”ืจื‘ื” ืคื—ื•ืช ืžื—ืฆื™ ื’ื•ื“ืœื•,
02:43
and yet despite the fact that it's smaller,
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ืืš ืœืžืจื•ืช ื”ื™ื•ืชื• ืงื˜ืŸ ื™ื•ืชืจ,
02:45
the surface area of Mars that you can stand on
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ืฉื˜ื— ื”ืคื ื™ื ืฉืœ ืžืื“ื™ื, ืขืœื™ื• ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืขืžื•ื“
02:47
is equivalent to the surface area of the Earth that you can stand on,
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ืฉื•ื•ื” ื‘ื’ื•ื“ืœื• ืœื–ื” ืฉืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ,
02:51
because the Earth is mostly covered by water.
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ื›ื™ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ืžื›ื•ืกื” ื‘ืจื•ื‘ื• ื‘ืžื™ื.
02:55
The atmosphere on Mars is really thin --
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ื”ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื” ืฉืœ ืžืื“ื™ื ื“ืงื” ืžืื•ื“ --
02:57
100 times thinner than on Earth --
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ืคื™ ืžืื” ื“ืงื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื–ื• ืฉืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ --
02:59
and it's not breathable, it's 96 percent carbon dioxide.
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ื•ืœื ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื ืฉื•ื ื‘ื”, ื”ื™ื ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ืช ืž-96% ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื• ื—ืžืฆื ื™.
03:04
It's really cold there.
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ืžืื•ื“ ืงืจ ืฉื.
03:06
The average temperature is minus 81 degrees,
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ื”ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื” ื”ืžืžื•ืฆืขืช ื”ื™ื ืžื™ื ื•ืก 63 ืžืขืœื•ืช ืฆืœื–ื™ื•ืก,
03:09
although there is quite a range of temperature.
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื™ืฉ ืžืฉืจืข ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื” ื“ื™ ื’ื“ื•ืœ.
03:13
A day on Mars is about as long as a day on Earth,
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ืื•ืจื›ื• ืฉืœ ื™ื•ื ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื ืืจื•ืš ืžื™ื•ื ืขืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ
03:15
plus about 39 minutes.
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ื‘ื›-39 ื“ืงื•ืช.
03:18
Seasons and years on Mars are twice as long as they are on Earth.
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ืขื•ื ื•ืช ื•ืฉื ื™ื ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื ืืจื•ื›ื•ืช ืคื™ ืฉืชื™ื™ื ืžืืœื” ืขืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
03:24
And for anybody who wants to strap on some wings and go flying one day,
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ื•ืœืžื™ ืฉืžืขื•ื ื™ื™ืŸ ื™ื•ื ืื—ื“ ืœืœื‘ื•ืฉ ื›ื ืคื™ื™ื ื•ืœืขื•ืฃ,
03:28
Mars has a lot less gravity than on Earth,
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ืœืžืื“ื™ื ื™ืฉ ื”ืจื‘ื” ืคื—ื•ืช ื’ืจื‘ื™ื˜ืฆื™ื” ืžืืฉืจ ืขืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ,
03:31
and it's the kind of place
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืžืกื•ื’ ื”ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช
03:32
where you can jump over your car instead of walk around it.
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ืฉื‘ื”ื ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืงืคื•ืฅ ืžืขืœ ืžื›ื•ื ื™ืชื›ื ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืœืœื›ืช ืžื”ืฆื“.
03:36
Now, as you can see, Mars isn't exactly Earth-like,
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ืื– ื›ืคื™ ืฉืืชื ืจื•ืื™ื ืžืื“ื™ื ืœื ื›ืœ ื›ืš ื“ื•ืžื” ืœื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ,
03:39
but it's by far the most livable other place in our entire solar system.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื•ื ื”ื›ื™ ืงืจื•ื‘ ืœืžืงื•ื ื‘ืจ ื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื•ืช ืžื›ืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ืื—ืจ ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืฉืžืฉ.
03:45
Here's the problem.
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ื”ื™ื ื” ื”ื‘ืขื™ื”.
03:46
Mars is a long way away,
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ืžืื“ื™ื ืจื—ื•ืง ืžืื•ื“ ืžืื™ืชื ื•,
03:49
a thousand times farther away from us than our own moon.
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ืคื™ 1000 ื™ื•ืชืจ ืจื—ื•ืง ืžื”ื™ืจื— ืฉืœื ื•.
03:54
The Moon is 250,000 miles away
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ื”ื™ืจื— ื”ื•ื 400,000 ืงืดืž ืžืื™ืชื ื•
03:58
and it took Apollo astronauts three days to get there.
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ื•ืœืืกื˜ืจื•ื ืื•ื˜ื™ื ืฉืœ ืืคื•ืœื• ืœืงื— ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ื™ืžื™ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืืœื™ื•.
04:02
Mars is 250 million miles away
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ืžืื“ื™ื ื”ื•ื 400,000,000 ืงืดืž ืžื›ืืŸ
04:05
and it will take us eight months to get there --
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ื•ื™ืงื— ืœื ื• ืฉืžื•ื ื” ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœืฉื --
04:08
240 days.
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240 ื™ืžื™ื.
04:10
And that's only if we launch on a very specific day,
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ื•ื–ื” ื‘ืชื ืื™ ืฉื ืฉื•ื’ืจ ื‘ื™ื•ื ืžืกื•ื™ื™ื,
04:12
at a very specific time,
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ื•ื‘ืฉืขื” ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžืช,
04:14
once every two years,
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ืฉืžืชืืคืฉืจื™ื ืื—ืช ืœืฉื ืชื™ื™ื,
04:16
when Mars and the Earth are aligned just so,
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ื›ืฉืžืื“ื™ื ื•ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ื ืขืจื›ื™ื ื›ืš,
04:19
so the distance that the rocket would have to travel will be the shortest.
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ืฉื”ืžืจื—ืง ืฉืžืขื‘ื•ืจืช ื”ื—ืœืœ ืชืืœืฅ ืœื›ืกื•ืช ื”ื•ื ื”ืงืฆืจ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช.
04:24
240 days is a long time to spend trapped with your colleagues in a tin can.
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240 ื™ืžื™ื ื–ื” ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžืื•ื“ ื–ืžืŸ ืœื‘ืœื•ืช ื›ืœื•ื ืขื ืขืžื™ืชื›ื ื‘ืชื•ืš ืงื•ืคืกืช ืคื—.
04:30
And meanwhile, our track record of getting to Mars is lousy.
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ื•ื‘ื™ื ืชื™ื™ื, ื”ืจืงื•ืจื“ ืฉืœื ื• ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ื’ืขื” ืœืžืื“ื™ื ื”ื•ื ืขืœื•ื‘.
04:34
We and the Russians, the Europeans, the Japanese,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื—ื“ ืขื ื”ืจื•ืกื™ื, ื”ืื™ืจื•ืคืื™ื, ื”ื™ืคื ื™ื,
04:37
the Chinese and the Indians,
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ื”ืกื™ื ื™ื ื•ื”ื”ื•ื“ื™ื,
04:39
have actually sent 44 rockets there,
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ืฉื™ื’ืจื ื• ืœืžืขืฉื” 44 ื—ืœืœื™ื•ืช ืœืฉื,
04:41
and the vast majority of them have either missed or crashed.
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ื•ืจื•ื‘ืŸ ืื• ืฉืคืกืคืกื• ืืช ื”ื™ืขื“, ืื• ืฉื”ืชืจืกืงื•.
04:45
Only about a third of the missions to Mars have been successful.
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ืจืง ื›ืฉืœื™ืฉ ืžื”ืžืฉื™ืžื•ืช ืœืžืื“ื™ื ื”ื™ื• ืžื•ืฆืœื—ื•ืช.
04:49
And we don't at the moment have a rocket big enough to get there anyway.
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ื•ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ ืื™ืŸ ื‘ืจืฉื•ืชื ื• ื›ืจื’ืข ืžืฉื’ืจ ื—ืœืœื™ื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืžืกืคื™ืง ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœืฉื.
04:55
We once had that rocket, the Saturn V.
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ืคืขื ื”ื™ื” ืœื ื•, ืกืื˜ื•ืจืŸ 5.
04:57
A couple of Saturn Vs would have gotten us there.
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ืฉื ื™ ืกืื˜ื•ืจืŸ 5 ื”ื™ื• ืžืกืคื™ืงื™ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืื•ืชื ื• ืœืฉื.
04:59
It was the most magnificent machine ever built by humans,
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ื–ื• ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื” ื”ืžืจื”ื™ื‘ื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉื ื‘ื ืชื” ืื™ ืคืขื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืื ื•ืฉื•ืช,
05:03
and it was the rocket that took us to the Moon.
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ื–ื” ื”ืžืฉื’ืจ ืฉืœืงื— ืื•ืชื ื• ืœื™ืจื—.
05:06
But the last Saturn V was used in 1973 to launch the Skylab space station,
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืกืื˜ื•ืจืŸ 5 ื”ืื—ืจื•ืŸ ืฉื™ืžืฉ ืื•ืชื ื• ื‘-1973 ืœืฉื™ื’ื•ืจ ืชื—ื ืช ื”ื—ืœืœ ืกืงื™ื™ืœืื‘,
05:11
and we decided to do something called the shuttle
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ื•ืื– ื”ื—ืœื˜ื ื• ืœื”ื—ืœื™ืคื• ื‘ืžืขื‘ื•ืจืช ื”ื—ืœืœ
05:14
instead of continuing on to Mars after we landed on the Moon.
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ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืœื”ืžืฉื™ืš ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื• ืœืžืื“ื™ื ืœืื—ืจ ื”ื ื—ื™ืชื” ืขืœ ื”ื™ืจื—.
05:18
The biggest rocket we have now
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ื”ืžืฉื’ืจ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉื™ืฉ ื›ืจื’ืข ื‘ืจืฉื•ืชื ื•
05:20
is only half big enough to get us anything to Mars.
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ื”ื•ื ื—ืฆื™ ืžื”ื’ื•ื“ืœ ื”ื“ืจื•ืฉ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœืžืื“ื™ื.
05:24
So getting to Mars is not going to be easy
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ืื– ืœื ื™ื”ื™ื” ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœืžืื“ื™ื
05:27
and that brings up a really interesting question ...
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ืžื” ืฉืžื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืื•ืชื ื• ืœืฉืืœื” ืžืื•ื“ ืžืขื ื™ื™ื ืช....
05:31
how soon will the first humans actually land here?
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ืžืชื™ ื™ื•ื›ืœ ื”ืื“ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืœื ื—ื•ืช ืฉื?
05:37
Now, some pundits think if we got there by 2050,
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ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืžื•ืžื—ื™ื ืกื‘ื•ืจื™ื ืฉืื ื ืฆืœื™ื— ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื–ืืช ืขื“ 2050,
05:41
that'd be a pretty good achievement.
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ื–ื” ื™ื”ื™ื” ื”ื™ืฉื’ ื“ื™ ืžื›ื•ื‘ื“.
05:43
These days, NASA seems to be saying that it can get humans to Mars by 2040.
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ื›ื™ื•ื, ื ืืกืดื ื˜ื•ืขื ื™ื ืฉืขื“ 2040 ื”ื ื™ื•ื›ืœื• ืœื”ื ื—ื™ืช ืื ืฉื™ื ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื.
05:50
Maybe they can.
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ืื•ืœื™ ื”ื ืฆื•ื“ืงื™ื.
05:52
I believe that they can get human beings into Mars orbit by 2035.
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ืื ื™ ืžืืžื™ืŸ ืฉื”ื ื™ื•ื›ืœื• ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื–ืืช ืขื•ื“ ืœืคื ื™ ื›ืŸ ื‘-2035.
05:57
But frankly,
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ืื‘ืœ ืœืžืขืŸ ื”ืืžืช,
05:59
I don't think they're going to bother in 2035 to send a rocket to Mars,
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ืื ื™ ืœื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื”ื ื™ื˜ืจื—ื• ืœืฉืœื•ื— ื—ืœืœื™ืช ืœืžืื“ื™ื ื‘-2035,
06:03
because we will already be there.
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ื›ื™ ืื ื—ื ื• ื›ื‘ืจ ื ื”ื™ื” ืฉื.
06:05
We're going to land on Mars in 2027.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื”ื•ืœื›ื™ื ืœื ื—ื•ืช ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื ื‘-2027.
06:10
And the reason is
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ื•ื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ืœื›ืš ื”ื™ื
06:11
this man is determined to make that happen.
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ืฉื”ืื™ืฉ ื”ื–ื” ื ื—ื•ืฉ ื‘ื“ืขืชื• ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื–ืืช.
06:13
His name is Elon Musk, he's the CEO of Tesla Motors and SpaceX.
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ืฉืžื• ื”ื•ื ืื™ืœื•ืŸ ืžืืกืง, ื”ื•ื ืžื ื›ืดืœ ื˜ืกืœื” ืžื•ื˜ื•ืจืก ื•ืกืคื™ื™ืก ืื™ืงืก.
06:19
Now, he actually told me that we would land on Mars by 2025,
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ื”ื•ื ืืžืจ ืœื™ ืœืžืขืฉื” ืฉื ื ื—ืช ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื ืขื“ 2025,
06:25
but Elon Musk is more optimistic than I am --
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ืื‘ืœ ืื™ืœื•ืŸ ืžืืกืง ื”ื•ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืื•ืคื˜ื™ืžื™ ืžืžื ื™ --
06:27
and that's going a ways --
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ื•ื–ื” ืื•ืžืจ ื”ืจื‘ื” --
06:29
so I'm giving him a couple of years of slack.
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ืื– ืื ื™ ื ื•ืชืŸ ืœื• ืฉื ืชื™ื™ื ืขื•ื“ืฃ.
06:32
Still ...
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ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ...
06:34
you've got to ask yourself,
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ืฉืืœื• ืืช ืขืฆืžื›ื,
06:35
can this guy really do this by 2025 or 2027?
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ื”ืื ื”ืื™ืฉ ื”ื–ื” ืžืกื•ื’ืœ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื–ืืช ืขื“ ืœืฉื ืช 2025 ืื• 2027?
06:40
Well, let's put a decade with Elon Musk into a little perspective.
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ืื– ื‘ื•ืื• ื ืจืื” ืžื” ื”ืฉื™ื’ ืื™ืœื•ืŸ ืžืืกืง ื‘ืขืฉื•ืจ ืื—ื“.
06:45
Where was this 10 years ago?
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ืื™ืคื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื™ืช ื”ื–ื• ืœืคื ื™ 10 ืฉื ื™ื?
06:47
That's the Tesla electric automobile.
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ื–ื•ื”ื™ ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื™ืช ื”ื—ืฉืžืœื™ืช ืฉืœ ื˜ืกืœื”.
06:49
In 2005, a lot of people in the automobile industry were saying,
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ื‘-2005, ื”ืจื‘ื” ืื ืฉื™ื ื‘ืชืขืฉื™ื™ืช ื›ืœื™ ื”ืจื›ื‘ ืืžืจื•
06:53
we would not have a decent electric car for 50 years.
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ืฉืœื ืชื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืœื ื• ืžื›ื•ื ื™ืช ื—ืฉืžืœื™ืช ืฉื•ื•ืช ืขืจืš ื‘ื—ืžื™ืฉื™ื ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ื‘ืื•ืช.
07:00
And where was that?
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ื•ืื™ืคื” ื–ื” ื”ื™ื”?
07:02
That is SpaceX's Falcon 9 rocket,
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ื–ื”ื• ืžืฉื’ืจ ื”ื—ืœืœื™ื•ืช ืคืœืงื•ืŸ 9 ืฉืœ ืกืคื™ื™ืก ืื™ืงืก,
07:05
lifting six tons of supplies to the International Space Station.
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ืžืจื™ื 6 ื˜ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืืกืคืงื” ืœืชื—ื ืช ื”ื—ืœืœ ื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ืช.
07:09
10 years ago,
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ืœืคื ื™ 10 ืฉื ื™ื,
07:10
SpaceX had not launched anything, or fired a rocket to anywhere.
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ืกืคื™ื™ืก ืื™ืงืก ืœื ืฉื™ื’ืจื” ืฉื•ื ื“ื‘ืจ ืœื—ืœืœ.
07:16
So I think it's a pretty good bet
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ืื– ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื–ื” ื”ื™ืžื•ืจ ื“ื™ ื‘ื˜ื•ื—
07:19
that the person who is revolutionizing the automobile industry
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ืฉื”ืื“ื ืฉื’ืจื ืœืžื”ืคื›ื” ื‘ืชืขืฉื™ื™ืช ื›ืœื™ ื”ืจื›ื‘
07:22
in less than 10 years
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ื‘ืคื—ื•ืช ืžืขืฉืจ ืฉื ื™ื
07:23
and the person who created an entire rocket company in less than 10 years
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ื•ืฉื”ืื“ื ืฉื”ืงื™ื ืžืืคืก ื—ื‘ืจืช ืฉื™ื’ื•ืจ ืœื—ืœืœ ืชื•ืš ืคื—ื•ืช ืžืขืฉืจ ืฉื ื™ื
07:29
will get us to Mars by 2027.
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ื™ื‘ื™ื ืื•ืชื ื• ืœืžืื“ื™ื ืขื“ ืฉื ืช 2027.
07:32
Now, you need to know this:
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ื“ืขื• ืœื›ื:
07:35
governments and robots no longer control this game.
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ืžืžืฉืœื•ืช ื•ืจื•ื‘ื•ื˜ื™ื ื›ื‘ืจ ืœื ืงื•ื‘ืขื™ื ืืช ื›ืœืœื™ ื”ืžืฉื—ืง.
07:40
Private companies are leaping into space
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ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ืคืจื˜ื™ื•ืช ืžื–ื ืงื•ืช ืœื—ืœืœ
07:42
and they will be happy to take you to Mars.
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ื•ื”ืŸ ื™ืฉืžื—ื• ืœืงื—ืช ืืชื›ื ืื™ืชืŸ ืœืžืื“ื™ื.
07:45
And that raises a really big question.
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ื•ื–ื” ืžืขืœื” ืฉืืœื” ื’ื“ื•ืœื”:
07:49
Can we actually live there?
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ื”ืื ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืกื•ื’ืœื™ื ื‘ื›ืœืœ ืœื”ืชืงื™ื™ื ืฉื?
07:52
Now, NASA may not be able to get us there until 2040,
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ืื– ื ืืกืดื ืื•ืœื™ ืœื ืชื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืื•ืชื ื• ืœืฉื ืขื“ ืฉื ืช 2040,
07:56
or we may get there a long time before NASA,
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ื•ืื•ืœื™ ื ื’ื™ืข ืœืฉื ื”ืจื‘ื” ืœืคื ื™ื”ื,
07:59
but NASA has taken a huge responsibility in figuring out how we can live on Mars.
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ืื‘ืœ ื ืืกืดื ืขื•ืฉื” ืžืืžืฆื™ื ืื“ื™ืจื™ื ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื”ืชืงื™ื™ื ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื.
08:04
Let's look at the problem this way.
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ื‘ื•ืื• ื ื‘ื—ืŸ ืืช ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื”ื‘ื.
08:06
Here's what you need to live on Earth:
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ื”ื ื” ืžื” ืฉื“ืจื•ืฉ ื‘ื›ื“ื™ ืœื—ื™ื•ืช ืขืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ:
08:08
food, water, shelter and clothing.
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ืื•ื›ืœ, ืžื™ื, ืงื•ืจืช ื’ื’ ื•ื‘ื™ื’ื•ื“.
08:12
And here's what you need to live on Mars:
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ื•ื”ื ื” ืžื” ืฉื“ืจื•ืฉ ื‘ื›ื“ื™ ืœื—ื™ื•ืช ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื:
08:14
all of the above, plus oxygen.
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ื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉื”ื–ื›ืจืชื™ ืงื•ื“ื ืคืœื•ืก ื—ืžืฆืŸ.
08:18
So let's look at the most important thing on this list first.
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ืื– ื ืชื—ื™ืœ ืขื ื”ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืจืฉื™ืžื”.
08:22
Water is the basis of all life as we know it,
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ืžื™ื ื”ื ื”ื‘ืกื™ืก ืœื›ืœ ืžืงื•ืจ ื—ื™ื™ื,
08:25
and it's far too heavy for us to carry water from the Earth to Mars to live,
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ื•ื–ื” ื›ื‘ื“ ืžื™ื“ื™ ืขื‘ื•ืจื ื• ืœื™ื™ื‘ื ืžื™ื ืžื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ืœืžืื“ื™ื,
08:29
so we have to find water if our life is going to succeed on Mars.
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ืื– ืื ื• ื—ื™ื™ื‘ื™ื ืœืžืฆื•ื ืžืงื•ืจ ืžื™ื ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื ืื ื‘ืจืฆื•ื ื ื• ืœื—ื™ื•ืช ืฉื.
08:35
And if you look at Mars, it looks really dry,
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ื•ืื ื ืชื‘ื•ื ืŸ ื‘ืžืื“ื™ื, ื”ื•ื ื ืจืื” ื“ื™ ื™ื‘ืฉ.
08:38
it looks like the entire planet is a desert.
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ื ืจืื” ื›ืื™ืœื• ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื”ืœื›ืช ื›ื•ืœื• ื”ื•ื ืžื“ื‘ืจ.
08:41
But it turns out that it's not.
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ืื‘ืœ ืžืกืชื‘ืจ ืฉื–ื” ืœื ื ื›ื•ืŸ.
08:43
The soil alone on Mars contains up to 60 percent water.
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ื”ืื“ืžื” ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื ืžื›ื™ืœื” ืขื“ 60% ืžื™ื.
08:48
And a number of orbiters that we still have flying around Mars have shown us --
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ื•ืžืกืคืจ ืœื•ื•ื™ื ื™ื ืฉื‘ืจืฉื•ืชื ื• ื•ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืกื•ื‘ื‘ื™ื ืืช ืžืื“ื™ื ื”ืจืื• ืœื ื• --
08:53
and by the way, that's a real photograph --
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ื•ื“ืจืš ืื’ื‘ ื–ื•ื”ื™ ืชืžื•ื ื” ืืžื™ืชื™ืช --
08:56
that lots of craters on Mars have a sheet of water ice in them.
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ืฉื‘ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžื›ืชืฉื™ื ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื ืงื™ื™ืžืช ืฉื›ื‘ื” ืฉืœ ืžื™ื ืงืคื•ืื™ื.
09:00
It's not a bad place to start a colony.
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ื–ื” ืžืงื•ื ืœื ืจืข ืœื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื•ืช.
09:03
Now, here's a view of a little dig the Phoenix Lander did in 2008,
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ื”ื ื” ืชืžื•ื ื” ืฉื”ืชืงื‘ืœื” ืžื—ืคื™ืจื” ืงื˜ื ื” ืฉืœ ื’ืฉืฉื™ืช ื”ื—ืœืœ ืคื™ื ื™ืงืก ื‘-2008,
09:08
showing that just below the surface of the soil is ice --
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ื‘ื” ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉืžืชื—ืช ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื— ืงื™ื™ื ืงืจื—.
09:11
that white stuff is ice.
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ื”ืื–ื•ืจ ื”ืœื‘ืŸ ื›ืืŸ ื”ื•ื ืงืจื—.
09:13
In the second picture,
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ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื” ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื”,
09:15
which is four days later than the first picture,
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ืฉื ืœืงื—ื” 4 ื™ืžื™ื ืœืื—ืจ ื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื”,
09:17
you can see that some of it is evaporating.
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ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื—ืœืง ืžื”ืงืจื— ื”ืชืื“ื”.
09:20
Orbiters also tell us
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืžื”ืœื•ื•ื™ื ื™ื
09:21
that there are huge amounts of underground water on Mars
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ืฉื™ืฉ ื›ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ืžื™ื ืื“ื™ืจื•ืช ืžืชื—ืช ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื— ืขืœ ื”ืžืื“ื™ื,
09:24
as well as glaciers.
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ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ ื’ื ืงืจื—ื•ื ื™ื.
09:26
In fact, if only the water ice at the poles on Mars melted,
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ืื ื”ืงืจื—ื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืงื˜ื‘ื™ื ืฉืœ ืžืื“ื™ื ื™ืžืกื•,
09:31
most of the planet would be under 30 feet of water.
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ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืคืœื ื˜ื” ืชื”ื™ื” ืชื—ืช ืžืขื˜ื” ืžื™ื ื‘ื’ื•ื‘ื” ืฉืœ 9 ืžื˜ืจื™ื.
09:34
So there's plenty of water there,
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ืื– ื™ืฉื ื ืžืกืคื™ืง ืžื™ื ืฉื,
09:37
but most of it's ice, most of it's underground,
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ืื‘ืœ ืจื•ื‘ื ื‘ืžืฆื‘ ืงืจื— ื•ืจื•ื‘ื ืงื‘ื•ืจื™ื ืžืชื—ืช ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื—,
09:39
it takes a lot of energy to get it and a lot of human labor.
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ื“ืจื•ืฉื” ื”ืจื‘ื” ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ื•ื”ืจื‘ื” ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืื ืœืžืฆื‘ ืฉืœ ืžื™ ืฉืชื™ื™ื”.
09:44
This is a device cooked up at the University of Washington
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ืžื›ืฉื™ืจ ื–ื” ื”ื•ืžืฆื ื‘ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืช ื•ื•ืฉื™ื ื’ื˜ื•ืŸ
09:46
back in 1998.
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ืขื•ื“ ื‘-1998.
09:48
It's basically a low-tech dehumidifier.
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ื–ื”ื• ืœืžืขืฉื” ืžื›ืฉื™ืจ ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืœื™ื™ื‘ื•ืฉ ืื“ื™ ืžื™ื.
09:51
And it turns out the Mars atmosphere is often 100 percent humid.
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ื•ืžืกืชื‘ืจ ืฉื”ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื” ืฉืœ ืžืื“ื™ื ื”ื™ื ืœืขื™ืชื™ื ืงืจื•ื‘ื•ืช 100% ืจื•ื•ื™ื” ื‘ืžื™ื.
09:56
So this device can extract all the water that humans will need
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ืื– ืžื›ืฉื™ืจ ื–ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืคื™ืง ืืช ื›ืœ ื›ืžื•ืช ื”ืžื™ื ื”ื“ืจื•ืฉื” ืœืื ืฉื™ื
10:00
simply from the atmosphere on Mars.
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ืžืŸ ื”ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื” ืฉืœ ืžืื“ื™ื ืœื‘ื“ื”.
10:04
Next we have to worry about what we will breathe.
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ื‘ืฉืœื‘ ื”ื‘ื ืื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื“ืื•ื’ ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื ื ืฉื•ื ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื.
10:07
Frankly, I was really shocked
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ืœืžืขืŸ ื”ืืžืช ื”ื•ืคืชืขืชื™ ืœื’ืœื•ืช
10:09
to find out that NASA has this problem worked out.
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ืฉืœื ืืก"ื ื›ื‘ืจ ื™ืฉ ืคืชืจื•ืŸ ืœื›ืš.
10:12
This is a scientist at MIT named Michael Hecht.
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ื–ื”ื• ืžื“ืขืŸ ืžื”ืžื›ื•ืŸ ื”ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ ืฉืœ ืžืกืฆืณื•ืกื˜ืก ื•ืฉืžื• ืžื™ื›ืืœ ื”ื›ื˜.
10:16
And he's developed this machine, Moxie.
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ื”ื•ื ืคื™ืชื— ืžื›ื•ื ื” ื‘ืฉื ืžื•ืงืกื™.
10:18
I love this thing.
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ืื ื™ ืžืช ืขืœ ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื–ื”.
10:19
It's a reverse fuel cell, essentially,
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ื–ื”ื• ืœืžืขืฉื” ืชื ื“ืœืง ืฉืคื•ืขืœ ืœืื—ื•ืจ,
10:22
that sucks in the Martian atmosphere and pumps out oxygen.
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ื”ื•ื ืฉื•ืื‘ ืคื ื™ืžื” ืืช ื”ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื” ืฉืœ ืžืื“ื™ื ื•ืคื•ืœื˜ ื”ื—ื•ืฆื” ื—ืžืฆืŸ.
10:26
And you have to remember that CO2 --
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ื•ืขืœื™ื›ื ืœื–ื›ื•ืจ ืฉืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื• ื—ืžืฆื ื™,
10:28
carbon dioxide, which is 96 percent of Mars' atmosphere --
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ื”ืžื”ื•ื•ื” 96% ืžื”ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื” ืฉืœ ืžืื“ื™ื -
10:32
CO2 is basically 78 percent oxygen.
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ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ ื‘ืขืฆื ืž-78% ื—ืžืฆืŸ.
10:35
Now, the next big rover that NASA sends to Mars in 2020
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ืื– ืœื’ืฉืฉื™ืช ื”ื‘ืื” ืฉื ืืกืดื ืขืชื™ื“ื” ืœืฉืœื•ื— ืœืžืื“ื™ื ื‘-2020
10:40
is going to have one of these devices aboard,
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ื”ื•ืœื›ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื›ื–ื• ืžื›ื•ื ื”,
10:42
and it will be able to produce enough oxygen
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ื•ื”ื™ื ืชื•ื›ืœ ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ืžืกืคื™ืง ื—ืžืฆืŸ ืœื ืฉื™ืžื”
10:45
to keep one person alive indefinitely.
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ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืื“ื ืื—ื“ ืœืžืฉืš ื—ื™ื™ื ืฉืœืžื™ื.
10:47
But the secret to this --
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืกื•ื“ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ --
10:50
and that's just for testing --
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ื•ื–ื” ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืฉืœื‘ ื ืกื™ื•ื ื™ --
10:51
the secret to this is that this thing was designed from the get-go
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ื”ื•ื ืฉื”ืžื›ื•ื ื” ื”ื–ื• ืขื•ืฆื‘ื” ืžืœื›ืชื—ื™ืœื”
10:55
to be scalable by a factor of 100.
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ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืคื™ 100.
10:58
Next, what will we eat?
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ื”ืœืื”. ืžื” ื ืื›ืœ?
11:01
Well, we'll use hydroponics to grow food,
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ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื”ื™ื“ืจื•ืคื•ื ื™ืงื” ืœื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ืื•ื›ืœ,
11:04
but we're not going to be able to grow
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ืื‘ืœ ืœื ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื’ื“ืœ
11:05
more than 15 to 20 percent of our food there,
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ื™ื•ืชืจ ืž- 15-20% ืžื›ืžื•ืช ื”ืžื–ื•ืŸ ืฉืœื ื• ืฉื,
11:08
at least not until water is running on the surface of Mars
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ืœืคื—ื•ืช ืขื“ ืฉื™ื–ืจืžื• ืžื™ื ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื— ืฉืœ ืžืื“ื™ื
11:11
and we actually have the probability and the capability of planting crops.
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ื•ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืกื™ื›ื•ื™ ื•ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืœืฉืชื•ืœ ื™ื‘ื•ืœื™ื.
11:16
In the meantime,
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ืขื“ ืื–,
11:17
most of our food will arrive from Earth,
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ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืžื–ื•ืŸ ื™ื’ื™ืข ืžื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
11:20
and it will be dried.
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ื•ื–ื” ื™ื”ื™ื” ืžื–ื•ืŸ ืžื™ื•ื‘ืฉ.
11:22
And then we need some shelter.
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ื•ืžื” ืœื’ื‘ื™ ืงื•ืจืช ื’ื’ ืžืขืœ ืจืืฉื™ื ื•.
11:25
At first we can use inflatable, pressurized buildings
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ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœื” ื ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืžื‘ื ื™ื ืžืชื ืคื—ื™ื ืขื ืœื—ืฅ ืื•ื™ืจ ืžื•ื•ืกืช
11:28
as well as the landers themselves.
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ื•ื’ื ื‘ืจื›ื‘ื™ ื”ื ื—ื™ืชื” ืขืฆืžื.
11:31
But this really only works during the daytime.
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ืขื•ื‘ื“ ืจืง ื‘ืžืฉืš ื”ื™ื•ื.
11:34
There is too much solar radiation and too much radiation from cosmic rays.
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ื™ืฉื ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื™ื“ื™ ืงืจื™ื ื” ืกื•ืœืจื™ืช ื•ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื™ื“ื™ ืงืจื™ื ื” ืงื•ืกืžื™ืช.
11:39
So we really have to go underground.
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ืื– ืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœืชืคื•ืฉ ืžื—ืกื” ืžืชื—ืช ืœืื“ืžื”.
11:41
Now, it turns out that the soil on Mars,
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ืื– ืžืกืชื‘ืจ ืฉื”ืื“ืžื” ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื,
11:44
by and large, is perfect for making bricks.
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ื”ื™ื ืžืฆื•ื™ื™ื ืช ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืœื‘ื ื™ื.
11:47
And NASA has figured this one out, too.
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ื•ื ืืกืดื ืขืœื• ืขืœ ื›ืš ื’ื ื›ืŸ.
11:49
They're going to throw some polymer plastic into the bricks,
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ื”ื ื”ื•ืœื›ื™ื ืœื”ื›ื ื™ืก ืคืœืกื˜ื™ืง ืคื•ืœื™ืžืจื™ ืœืชื•ืš ื”ืœื‘ื ื™ื,
11:52
shove them in a microwave oven,
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ืœื”ื›ื ื™ืก ืื•ืชืŸ ืœืžื™ืงืจื•ื’ืœ,
11:54
and then you will be able to build buildings with really thick walls.
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ื•ืื– ื ื™ืชืŸ ื™ื”ื™ื” ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืžื‘ื ื™ื ืขื ืงื™ืจื•ืช ืžืžืฉ ืขื‘ื™ื.
11:57
Or we may choose to live underground in caves or in lava tubes,
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ืื• ืฉืื•ืœื™ ืคืฉื•ื˜ ื ื‘ื—ืจ ืœื’ื•ืจ ืžืชื—ืช ืœืื“ืžื” ื‘ืžืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืžื—ื™ืœื•ืช ืœื‘ื”,
12:03
of which there are plenty.
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ื•ื›ืืœื• ื™ืฉ ื‘ืœื™ ืกื•ืฃ.
12:06
And finally there's clothing.
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ื•ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื™ืฉ ืืช ื‘ืขื™ื™ืช ื”ื‘ื™ื’ื•ื“.
12:08
On Earth we have miles of atmosphere piled up on us,
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ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ, ื™ืฉ ืžืขืœื™ื ื• ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื” ืขื‘ื”,
12:11
which creates 15 pounds of pressure on our bodies at all times,
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ืฉื™ื•ืฆืจืช 7 ืงืดื’ ืฉืœ ืœื—ืฅ ืขืœ ื’ื•ืคื ื• ื‘ื›ืœ ื–ืžืŸ ื ืชื•ืŸ,
12:14
and we're constantly pushing out against that.
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ื›ืœ ื”ื–ืžืŸ ืžืชื ื’ื“ื™ื ืœืœื—ืฅ ื–ื”.
12:16
On Mars there's hardly any atmospheric pressure.
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ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื, ืื™ืŸ ื‘ืงื•ืฉื™ ืœื—ืฅ ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคืจื™.
12:20
So Dava Newman,
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ืื– ื“ืื‘ื” ื ื™ื•ืžืŸ,
12:22
a scientist at MIT,
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ืžื“ืขื ื™ืช ืžื”ืžื›ื•ืŸ ื”ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ ืฉืœ ืžืกืฆืณื•ืกื˜ืก,
12:24
has created this sleek space suit.
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ื™ืฆืจื” ื—ืœื™ืคืช ื—ืœืœ ืžืœื•ื˜ืฉืช.
12:27
It will keep us together,
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ื”ื™ื ืชื’ืŸ ืขืœื™ื ื•,
12:28
block radiation and keep us warm.
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ืชื—ืกื•ื ืžืขื‘ืจ ืงืจื™ื ื” ื•ืชืฉืžื•ืจ ืขืœ ื—ื•ื ื’ื•ืคื™ื ื•.
12:32
So let's think about this for a minute.
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ืื– ื‘ื•ืื• ื ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ื–ื” ืœื“ืงื”.
12:34
Food, shelter, clothing, water, oxygen ...
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ืื•ื›ืœ, ืžืงืœื˜, ื‘ื™ื’ื•ื“, ืžื™ื, ื—ืžืฆืŸ...
12:37
we can do this.
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ื–ื” ืืคืฉืจื™,
12:39
We really can.
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ื‘ืืžืช.
12:41
But it's still a little complicated and a little difficult.
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืงืฆืช ืžืกื•ื‘ืš ื•ืงืฆืช ืงืฉื”.
12:45
So that leads to the next big --
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ืื– ื–ื” ืžื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืื•ืชื ื• ืœืฆืขื“ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื”ื‘ื --
12:48
really big step --
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ื”ืฆืขื“ ื”ืžืื•ื“ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื”ื‘ื --
12:50
in living the good life on Mars.
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ื‘ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœื—ื™ื™ื ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื.
12:52
And that's terraforming the planet:
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ื•ื–ื” ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ืคื ื™ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื”ืœื›ืช:
12:54
making it more like Earth,
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ื”ืคื™ื›ืชื• ืœื›ืžื” ืฉื™ื•ืชืจ ื“ื•ืžื” ืœื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ,
12:56
reengineering an entire planet.
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ืžืชื™ื—ืช ืคื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืคืœื ื˜ื” ื›ื•ืœื”.
13:00
That sounds like a lot of hubris,
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ื–ื” ื ืฉืžืข ื›ืžื• ื‘ื˜ื—ื•ืŸ ืขืฆืžื™ ืžื•ืคืจื–,
13:02
but the truth is
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืืžืช ื”ื™ื
13:03
that the technology to do everything I'm about to tell you already exists.
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ืฉื”ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืืช ื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉืื ื™ ืขื•ืžื“ ืœืกืคืจ ืœื›ื ื›ื‘ืจ ืงื™ื™ืžืช.
13:08
First we've got to warm it up.
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ืจืืฉื™ืช, ืขืœื™ื ื• ืœื—ืžื ืืช ื”ืคืœื ื˜ื”.
13:10
Mars is incredibly cold because it has a very thin atmosphere.
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ืžืื•ื“ ืงืจ ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื”ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื” ืฉืœื• ื›ืœ ื›ืš ื“ืงื”.
13:15
The answer lies here, at the south pole and at the north pole of Mars,
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ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื ืžืฆืืช ื›ืืŸ, ื‘ืงื•ื˜ื‘ ื”ื“ืจื•ืžื™ ื•ื‘ืงื•ื˜ื‘ ื”ืฆืคื•ื ื™ ืฉืœ ืžืื“ื™ื.
13:19
both of which are covered
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ืฉื ื™ื”ื ืžื›ื•ืกื™ื
13:20
with an incredible amount of frozen carbon dioxide --
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ื‘ื›ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ืื“ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื• ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ืงืคื•ื --
13:23
dry ice.
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ืงืจื— ื™ื‘ืฉ.
13:25
If we heat it up,
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ืื ื ื—ืžื ืื•ืชื•,
13:26
it sublimes directly into the atmosphere
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ื”ื•ื ื™ืชื ื“ืฃ ื™ืฉื™ืจื•ืช ืœืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื”
13:29
and thickens the atmosphere the same way it does on Earth.
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ื•ื™ืขื‘ื” ืื•ืชื” ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื–ื”ื” ืœืชื”ืœื™ืš ืฉืงื•ืจื” ืขืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
13:32
And as we know,
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ื•ื›ืžื• ืฉืื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื,
13:33
CO2 is an incredibly potent greenhouse gas.
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ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื• ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ื”ื™ื ื• ื’ื– ื—ืžืžื” ืžืื•ื“ ืขื•ืฆืžืชื™.
13:37
Now, my favorite way of doing this is to erect a very, very large solar sail
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ื”ื“ืจืš ื”ืžื•ืขื“ืคืช ืขืœื™ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื–ืืช ื”ื™ื ืœื”ืงื™ื ื™ืจื™ืขื” ืกื•ืœืจื™ืช ืขื ืงื™ืช
13:43
and focus it --
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ื•ืœืžืงื“ ืื•ืชื” --
13:45
it essentially serves as a mirror --
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ื”ื™ื ืœืžืขืฉื” ืชืฉืžืฉ ื›ืžืจืื” --
13:46
and focus it on the south pole of Mars at first.
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ื•ืœืžืงื“ ืื•ืชื” ืชื—ื™ืœื” ืขืœ ื”ืงื•ื˜ื‘ ื”ื“ืจื•ืžื™ ืฉืœ ืžืื“ื™ื.
13:49
As the planet spins, it will heat up all that dry ice, sublime it,
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ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉื”ืคืœื ื˜ื” ืžืกืชื•ื‘ื‘ืช, ื”ื™ืจื™ืขื” ืชื—ืžื ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืงืจื— ื”ื™ื‘ืฉ, ืชืจื™ื ืื•ืชื•
13:53
and it will go into the atmosphere.
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ื•ืื– ื”ื•ื ื™ืชื ื“ืฃ ืœืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื”.
13:55
It actually won't take long
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ืœืžืขืฉื” ืœื ื™ืงื— ื”ืจื‘ื” ื–ืžืŸ
13:57
for the temperature on Mars to start rising,
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ืขื“ ืฉื”ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื” ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื ืชืชื—ื™ืœ ืœืขืœื•ืช,
13:59
probably less than 20 years.
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ืงืจื•ื‘ ืœื•ื“ืื™ ืคื—ื•ืช ืž-20 ืฉื ื”.
14:02
Right now,
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ื›ืจื’ืข,
14:03
on a perfect day at the equator,
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ื‘ื™ื•ื ื˜ื•ื‘, ืขืœ ืงื• ื”ืžืฉื•ื•ื”
14:05
in the middle of summer on Mars,
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ื‘ืืžืฆืข ืขื•ื ืช ื”ืงื™ืฅ ืฉืœ ืžืื“ื™ื,
14:07
temperatures can actually reach 70 degrees,
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ื”ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื•ืช ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœ-20 ืžืขืœื•ืช,
14:10
but then they go down to minus 100 at night.
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ืื‘ืœ ืื– ื”ืŸ ืฆื•ื ื—ื•ืช ืœืžื™ื ื•ืก 70 ื‘ืœื™ืœื”.
14:12
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
14:14
What we're shooting for is a runaway greenhouse effect:
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืฉื•ืืคื™ื ืœืืคืงื˜ ื—ืžืžื” ื—ื–ืง:
14:18
enough temperature rise to see a lot of that ice on Mars --
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ืขืœื™ื™ื” ืžืกืคืงืช ื‘ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื” ืฉืชื’ืจื•ื ืœื›ืžื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืฉืœ ืงืจื— --
14:22
especially the ice in the ground -- melt.
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ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ืงืจื— ืขืœ ืื“ืžืช ืžืื“ื™ื -- ืœื”ื™ื ืžืก.
14:26
Then we get some real magic.
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ื•ืื– ืžืชืงื‘ืœ ื”ืงืกื ื”ืืžื™ืชื™.
14:28
As the atmosphere gets thicker, everything gets better.
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ื›ืฉื”ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื” ืžืชืขื‘ื”, ื”ื›ืœ ื ื”ื™ื” ื˜ื•ื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ.
14:31
We get more protection from radiation,
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ืžืชืงื‘ืœืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ื”ื’ื ื” ืžืงืจื™ื ื”,
14:33
more atmosphere makes us warmer, makes the planet warmer,
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ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื” ืขื‘ื” ืขื•ื–ืจืช ืœื—ืžื ืื•ืชื ื•, ืœื—ืžื ืืช ื”ืคืœื ื˜ื”,
14:36
so we get running water
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ื›ืš ืฉืชืชืืคืฉืจ ื–ืจื™ืžืช ืžื™ื,
14:38
and that makes crops possible.
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ื•ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœื™ ื—ืงืœืื•ืช.
14:40
Then more water vapor goes into the air, forming yet another potent greenhouse gas.
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ื•ืื– ื™ื•ืชืจ ืื“ื™ ืžื™ื ื™ืคืœื˜ื• ืœืื•ื™ืจ, ื•ื™ืฆืจื• ืขื•ื“ ื’ื– ื—ืžืžื” ืขื•ืฆืžืชื™.
14:45
It will rain and it will snow on Mars.
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ื’ืฉื ื•ืฉืœื’ ื™ืจื“ื• ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื.
14:50
And a thicker atmosphere will create enough pressure
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ื•ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื” ืขื‘ื” ื’ื ืชื™ืฆื•ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœื—ืฅ
14:53
so that we can throw away those space suits.
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ื•ื›ืš ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืคืชืจ ืžื—ืœื™ืคื•ืช ื”ื—ืœืœ ื”ืืœื”.
14:56
We only need about five pounds of pressure to survive.
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ื›ืœ ืฉื“ืจื•ืฉ ืœื ื• ื–ื” 2.5 ืงืดื’ ืฉืœ ืœื—ืฅ ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคืจื™ ื‘ื›ื“ื™ ืœืฉืจื•ื“.
14:59
Eventually, Mars will be made to feel a lot like British Columbia.
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ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื ื™ืจื’ื™ืฉื• ื“ื•ืžื™ื ืœืืœื• ืฉื‘ื“ืจื•ื ืžืขืจื‘ ืงื ื“ื”.
15:06
We'll still be left with the complicated problem
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ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืชื™ื•ื•ืชืจ ืœื ื• ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ืžืกื•ื‘ื›ืช
15:08
of making the atmosphere breathable,
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ืฉืœ ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ื ืฉื™ืžื” ื‘ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื” ืฉืœ ืžืื“ื™ื,
15:10
and frankly that could take 1,000 years to accomplish.
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ื•ื”ืืžืช ืฉื”ืฉื’ืช ืžื˜ืจื” ื–ื• ืขืœื•ืœื” ืœืงื—ืช 1000 ืฉื ื™ื.
15:13
But humans are amazingly smart and incredibly adaptable.
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ื ื™ ื”ืื“ื ื”ื ืžืื•ื“ ื—ื›ืžื™ื ื•ืžืกืชื’ืœื™ื ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช.
15:17
There is no telling what our future technology will be able to accomplish
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ืื™ ืืคืฉืจ ืœื—ื–ื•ืช ืžื” ื”ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ืฉื ืคืชื— ืชื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืฉื™ื’ ื‘ืขืชื™ื“
15:22
and no telling what we can do with our own bodies.
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ื•ืœื ื‘ืจื•ืจ ืžื” ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื‘ืฆืข ืขื ื’ื•ืคื ื•.
15:25
In biology right now,
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ื‘ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื›ื™ื•ื,
15:28
we are on the very verge of being able to control our own genetics,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื›ื‘ืจ ื›ืžืขื˜ ืžืกื•ื’ืœื™ื ืœืฉืœื•ื˜ ื‘ื’ื ื˜ื™ืงื” ืฉืœื ื• --
15:33
what the genes in our own bodies are doing,
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ืžื” ื”ื’ื ื™ื ื‘ื’ื•ืคื ื• ืขื•ืฉื™ื.
15:36
and certainly,
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ื•ืœื‘ื˜ื—,
15:38
eventually, our own evolution.
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ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ, ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืฉืœื•ื˜ ื‘ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื” ืฉืœื ื•.
15:40
We could end up with a species of human being on Earth
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ื™ืชื›ืŸ ื•ื™ื”ื™ื” ืžื™ืŸ ืฉืœ ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ
15:44
that is slightly different from the species of human beings on Mars.
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ื”ืฉื•ื ื” ื‘ืžืงืฆืช ืžื–ื” ืฉืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื.
15:50
But what would you do there? How would you live?
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ืื‘ืœ ืžื” ืชืขืฉื• ืฉื? ื›ื™ืฆื“ ืชื—ื™ื•?
15:52
It's going to be the same as it is on Earth.
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ื–ื” ื™ื”ื™ื” ื“ื•ืžื” ืœื—ื™ื™ื ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
15:55
Somebody's going to start a restaurant,
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ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ื™ืคืชื— ืžืกืขื“ื”,
15:57
somebody's going to build an iron foundry.
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ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ื™ื‘ื ื” ืžืคืขืœ ืœืžืชื›ื•ืช.
16:00
Someone will make documentary movies of Mars
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ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ื™ืขืฉื” ืกืจื˜ื™ื ื“ื•ืงื•ืžื ื˜ืจื™ื ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื
16:03
and sell them on Earth.
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ื•ื™ืžื›ื•ืจ ืื•ืชื ืœืœืงื•ื—ื•ืช ืžื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
16:06
Some idiot will start a reality TV show.
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ืื™ื–ื” ืื™ื“ื™ื•ื˜ ื™ืชื—ื™ืœ ืกื“ืจืช ืจื™ืืœื™ื˜ื™ ื˜ืœื•ื™ื–ื™ื•ื ื™ืช
16:09
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
16:11
There will be software companies,
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ื™ื”ื™ื• ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ืœืชื•ื›ื ื”,
16:13
there will be hotels, there will be bars.
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ื™ื”ื™ื• ืžืœื•ื ื•ืช, ื‘ืจื™ื,
16:17
This much is certain:
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ืžื” ืฉื‘ื˜ื•ื— ื”ื•ื:
16:19
it will be the most disruptive event in our lifetimes,
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ื–ื” ื™ื”ื™ื” ื”ืื™ืจื•ืข ื”ื›ื™ ืงื™ืฆื•ื ื™ ื‘ืชืงื•ืคืช ื—ื™ื™ื ื•,
16:23
and I think it will be the most inspiring.
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ื•ืœืขื ื™ื•ืช ื“ืขืชื™, ื’ื ื”ื›ื™ ืžืขื•ืจืจ ื”ืฉืจืื”.
16:26
Ask any 10-year-old girl if she wants to go to Mars.
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ืฉืืœื• ื›ืœ ื™ืœื“ื” ื‘ืช 10 ืื ื”ื™ื ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื ืกื•ืข ืœืžืื“ื™ื.
16:30
Children who are now in elementary school are going to choose to live there.
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ื™ืœื“ื™ื ืฉื›ืขืช ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ืกืคืจ ื™ืกื•ื“ื™ ืขืชื™ื“ื™ื ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ืœื’ื•ืจ ืฉื.
16:36
Remember when we landed humans on the Moon?
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ื–ื•ื›ืจื™ื ืฉื”ื ื—ืชื ื• ืื“ื ืขืœ ื”ื™ืจื—?
16:39
When that happened, people looked at each other and said,
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ื›ืฉื–ื” ืงืจื” ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ื‘ื™ื˜ื• ื”ืื—ื“ ื‘ืฉื ื™ ื•ืืžืจื•:
16:42
"If we can do this, we can do anything."
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ืดืื ืื ื• ืžืกื•ื’ืœื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืืช ื–ื”, ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืกื•ื’ืœื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื›ืœ ื“ื‘ืจืด.
16:45
What are they going to think when we actually form a colony on Mars?
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ืžื” ืื•ืชื ืื ืฉื™ื ื™ื—ืฉื‘ื• ืื ื ืงื™ื ืžื•ืฉื‘ื” ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื?
16:50
Most importantly,
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ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืžื–ื”,
16:52
it will make us a spacefaring species.
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ื–ื” ื™ื”ืคื•ืš ืื•ืชื ื• ืœื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื ื”ื ื•ื“ื“ื™ื ื‘ื—ืœืœ.
16:55
And that means humans will survive no matter what happens on Earth.
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ื•ื–ื” ืื•ืžืจ ืฉื”ืื ื•ืฉื•ืช ืชืฉืจื•ื“ ืœืœื ืงืฉืจ ืœื’ื•ืจืœื• ืฉืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
17:01
We will never be the last of our kind.
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ืœืขื•ืœื ืœื ื ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื ื™ ื”ืื ื•ืฉ ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื™ื.
17:04
Thank you.
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ืชื•ื“ื” ืจื‘ื”.
17:05
(Applause)
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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