Susan Solomon: The promise of research with stem cells

95,334 views ・ 2012-09-13

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00:00
Translator: Joseph Geni Reviewer: Morton Bast
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翻译人员: Cat Qin 校对人员: xueling Sun
00:16
So, embryonic stem cells
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胚胎干细胞
00:19
are really incredible cells.
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非常神奇,
00:22
They are our body's own repair kits,
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它们像是人体自带的修理包。
00:25
and they're pluripotent, which means they can morph into
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胚胎干细胞具有多向分化的特性,也就是说,
00:28
all of the cells in our bodies.
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它们可以变成人体中的各种细胞。
00:30
Soon, we actually will be able to use stem cells
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其实我们很快就能使用干细胞
00:33
to replace cells that are damaged or diseased.
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替代坏死或发生病变的细胞,
00:36
But that's not what I want to talk to you about,
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但这不是我今天演讲的内容。
00:38
because right now there are some really
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我们正在就干细胞开展
00:41
extraordinary things that we are doing with stem cells
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非同寻常的研究工作,
00:45
that are completely changing
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其结果将彻底转变
00:47
the way we look and model disease,
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我们对于疾病的看法、建模的方式、
00:50
our ability to understand why we get sick,
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对于疾病起因的理解
00:52
and even develop drugs.
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以及我们开发药物的能力。
00:55
I truly believe that stem cell research is going to allow
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我坚信,干细胞研究能使我们的下一代
00:59
our children to look at Alzheimer's and diabetes
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应对老年痴呆症、糖尿病等重大疾病
01:03
and other major diseases the way we view polio today,
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就像我们现在应对小儿麻痹症一样,
01:08
which is as a preventable disease.
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可以找到预防之道。
01:11
So here we have this incredible field, which has
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干细胞研究这个神奇的领域
01:14
enormous hope for humanity,
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对人类而言,蕴涵着无限的希望。
01:19
but much like IVF over 35 years ago,
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但是干细胞研究正如35年前的体外授精技术,
01:22
until the birth of a healthy baby, Louise,
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在第一例试管婴儿Louise诞生之前,
01:24
this field has been under siege politically and financially.
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体外授精一直遭受政治和资金方面的压力。
01:29
Critical research is being challenged instead of supported,
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目前,干细胞方面的关键性研究缺少支持,面临挑战,
01:34
and we saw that it was really essential to have
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我们意识到必须建立私密安全的实验室
01:38
private safe haven laboratories where this work
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继续开展这项工作,
01:42
could be advanced without interference.
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使之不受干扰。
01:44
And so, in 2005,
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因此,我们在2005年
01:47
we started the New York Stem Cell Foundation Laboratory
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建立了纽约干细胞基金会实验室,
01:50
so that we would have a small organization that could
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使得我们可以有一个小小的组织
01:53
do this work and support it.
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进行相关研究,对其提供支持。
01:57
What we saw very quickly is the world of both medical
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我们很快意识到,医学研究
02:00
research, but also developing drugs and treatments,
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以及药物和疗法的开发,
02:03
is dominated by, as you would expect, large organizations,
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正如你所想,都是被大机构主导的。
02:07
but in a new field, sometimes large organizations
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但是大机构在涉足新领域时,
02:10
really have trouble getting out of their own way,
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有时很难跳出其固有模式,
02:12
and sometimes they can't ask the right questions,
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因而看不清事情的重点。
02:15
and there is an enormous gap that's just gotten larger
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与此同时,学术研究与
02:18
between academic research on the one hand
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制药公司和生物技术之间的鸿沟
02:21
and pharmaceutical companies and biotechs
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却仍在扩大。
02:24
that are responsible for delivering all of our drugs
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但是,要想将所有药物以及很多疗法付诸应用,
02:27
and many of our treatments, and so we knew that
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恰恰要靠制药公司和生物科技,因此我们意识到,
02:30
to really accelerate cures and therapies, we were going
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要想加快疾病的治愈和治疗,
02:34
to have to address this with two things:
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我们必须解决两个问题:
02:36
new technologies and also a new research model.
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新技术和新的研究模式。
02:40
Because if you don't close that gap, you really are
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因为如果不填补这一鸿沟,
02:43
exactly where we are today.
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我们永远都会原地踏步。
02:45
And that's what I want to focus on.
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这是我今天要讲的内容。
02:47
We've spent the last couple of years pondering this,
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几年来,我们一直都在思考这一问题,
02:50
making a list of the different things that we had to do,
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并且列出了一个任务清单,
02:53
and so we developed a new technology,
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还发展了一项新技术,
02:55
It's software and hardware,
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这是一种软硬件,
02:56
that actually can generate thousands and thousands of
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能够生成数以百万计的干细胞系,
03:00
genetically diverse stem cell lines to create
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涵盖全球各种基因阵列,
03:03
a global array, essentially avatars of ourselves.
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这其实就是创造了我们自身的阿凡达,也就是化身。
03:07
And we did this because we think that it's actually going
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我们开发这一技术的原因在于,
03:10
to allow us to realize the potential, the promise,
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我们认为这能发挥人类基金组测序成果的潜能,
03:14
of all of the sequencing of the human genome,
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使其蕴涵的希望转变为现实,
03:17
but it's going to allow us, in doing that,
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而且通过这一过程,我们可以在试验皿中
03:19
to actually do clinical trials in a dish with human cells,
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对人体细胞而不是动物细胞进行临床试验,
03:24
not animal cells, to generate drugs and treatments
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从而使我们开发的药物和疗法
03:29
that are much more effective, much safer,
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效果更好、安全性更高、
03:32
much faster, and at a much lower cost.
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见效更快、成本更低。
03:35
So let me put that in perspective for you
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我想给大家介绍一下相关的背景,
03:37
and give you some context.
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帮助大家了解来龙去脉。
03:39
This is an extremely new field.
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这是一个非常前沿的领域。
03:44
In 1998, human embryonic stem cells
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1998年,人类首次发现胚胎干细胞。
03:46
were first identified, and just nine years later,
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仅仅9年之后,
03:50
a group of scientists in Japan were able to take skin cells
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日本的一个研究小组就成功地采集皮肤细胞,
03:54
and reprogram them with very powerful viruses
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植入强力病毒,对其进行基因重组,
03:58
to create a kind of pluripotent stem cell
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将其转变成一种多能干细胞,
04:02
called an induced pluripotent stem cell,
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这种干细胞被称为诱导性多能干细胞,
04:04
or what we refer to as an IPS cell.
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也就是俗称的IPS干细胞。
04:07
This was really an extraordinary advance, because
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这项进展极为重要,
04:10
although these cells are not human embryonic stem cells,
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因为这种干细胞虽然达不到
04:13
which still remain the gold standard,
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人类胚胎干细胞的“金本位”标准,
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they are terrific to use for modeling disease
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但是对疾病建模有极大帮助,
04:18
and potentially for drug discovery.
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对药物发现可能也会有很大意义。
04:21
So a few months later, in 2008, one of our scientists
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于是,几个月之后,在2008年,
04:24
built on that research. He took skin biopsies,
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我们的一位科学家在此基础上,
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this time from people who had a disease,
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采集了渐冻人症,也就是英国所说的
04:29
ALS, or as you call it in the U.K., motor neuron disease.
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运动神经元疾病患者的皮肤活组织,
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He turned them into the IPS cells
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将其变成了IPS干细胞,
04:33
that I've just told you about, and then he turned those
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也就是我刚才说过的那种干细胞,
04:36
IPS cells into the motor neurons that actually
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随后,他将这些IPS干细胞变成了运动神经元,
04:39
were dying in the disease.
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也就是在渐冻人症中逐渐死亡的细胞。
04:40
So basically what he did was to take a healthy cell
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因此简单说来,他取了一个健康细胞,
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and turn it into a sick cell,
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将其变成一个病变细胞,
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and he recapitulated the disease over and over again
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并且在培养皿中反复再现这一病变过程。
04:49
in the dish, and this was extraordinary,
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这非常了不起,
04:52
because it was the first time that we had a model
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因为这是我们第一次使用活人细胞
04:54
of a disease from a living patient in living human cells.
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对疾病进行建模。
04:58
And as he watched the disease unfold, he was able
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而且,这位科学家在观察病变过程时发现,
05:02
to discover that actually the motor neurons were dying
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在这种疾病中,运动神经元的死亡过程
05:05
in the disease in a different way than the field
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与此前学术界推想的情况并不相同。
05:07
had previously thought. There was another kind of cell
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其实是有另一种细胞
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that actually was sending out a toxin
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释放出一种毒素,
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and contributing to the death of these motor neurons,
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促使运动神经元死亡。
05:14
and you simply couldn't see it
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之前无法发现这一点,
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until you had the human model.
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是因为还没有使用人体细胞建模。
05:17
So you could really say that
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所以真的可以说,
05:20
researchers trying to understand the cause of disease
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研究人员试图理解疾病起因、
05:24
without being able to have human stem cell models
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却没有人类干细胞模型,
05:28
were much like investigators trying to figure out
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就像是调查人员试图查明
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what had gone terribly wrong in a plane crash
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坠机事故原因、
05:34
without having a black box, or a flight recorder.
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却找不到黑匣子或飞行记录仪,
05:38
They could hypothesize about what had gone wrong,
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他们可以就事故原因提出假设,
05:40
but they really had no way of knowing what led
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但真的没有办法断定
05:43
to the terrible events.
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惨剧究竟是怎么发生的。
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And stem cells really have given us the black box
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而干细胞就像是一个研究疾病的黑匣子,
05:50
for diseases, and it's an unprecedented window.
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它也创造了空前的机遇。
05:54
It really is extraordinary, because you can recapitulate
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干细胞真的意义非凡,
05:57
many, many diseases in a dish, you can see
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因为我们可以在培养皿中再现多种疾病,
06:00
what begins to go wrong in the cellular conversation
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可以看到细胞互相接触时出现问题的过程,
06:04
well before you would ever see
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其时点可以远远早于
06:06
symptoms appear in a patient.
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患者出现症状。
06:09
And this opens up the ability,
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这也赋予了我们一种能力,
06:11
which hopefully will become something that
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一种有望在近期内
06:14
is routine in the near term,
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发展成为常规操作的能力,
06:17
of using human cells to test for drugs.
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那就是在药物测试中使用人体细胞。
06:21
Right now, the way we test for drugs is pretty problematic.
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现在的药物测试法相当麻烦,
06:26
To bring a successful drug to market, it takes, on average,
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要想将一种成功开发的药物推向市场,
06:30
13 years — that's one drug —
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平均需要13年,这还仅仅是一种药物,
06:32
with a sunk cost of 4 billion dollars,
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此外还会产生40亿美元的沉没成本。
06:35
and only one percent of the drugs that start down that road
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而且计划通过这一流程投放市场的药物中,
06:40
are actually going to get there.
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只有百分之一能够完成这一目标。
06:42
You can't imagine other businesses
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你很难想像还有哪个行业,
06:44
that you would think of going into
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是你愿意涉足的,
06:46
that have these kind of numbers.
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却有这么高的失败率。
06:48
It's a terrible business model.
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这种商业模式非常糟糕,
06:49
But it is really a worse social model because of
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但它作为一个社会模式的危害可能更大,
06:53
what's involved and the cost to all of us.
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因为它牵涉面广,给所有各方都带来很大成本。
06:57
So the way we develop drugs now
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因为,我们现在开发药物时,
07:01
is by testing promising compounds on --
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测试有望成功的合成物时是使用⋯⋯
07:04
We didn't have disease modeling with human cells,
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我们以前没有使用人体细胞建模,
07:06
so we'd been testing them on cells of mice
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因此我们一直使用老鼠细胞进行测试,
07:09
or other creatures or cells that we engineer,
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或者使用其它生物细胞,或者是我们改造的细胞。
07:13
but they don't have the characteristics of the diseases
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但是我们想要治愈的疾病
07:16
that we're actually trying to cure.
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在这些细胞上未必会显现出来。
07:18
You know, we're not mice, and you can't go into
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大家知道,我们不是老鼠,
07:21
a living person with an illness
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但也不能随便找一位活着的患者,
07:24
and just pull out a few brain cells or cardiac cells
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简简单单地取出几个脑细胞或心脏细胞,
07:27
and then start fooling around in a lab to test
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然后就到实验室里胡来,
07:29
for, you know, a promising drug.
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测试一种有望成功的药物。
07:32
But what you can do with human stem cells, now,
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但是现在有了人类干细胞,
07:36
is actually create avatars, and you can create the cells,
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我们就可以为患者创造阿凡达,创造细胞,
07:40
whether it's the live motor neurons
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不管是活态的运动神经元细胞,
07:42
or the beating cardiac cells or liver cells
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是跳动着的心脏细胞,还是肝细胞,
07:45
or other kinds of cells, and you can test for drugs,
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或者其他类型的细胞,
07:49
promising compounds, on the actual cells
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都可以造来测试药物或有希望的复合物,
07:53
that you're trying to affect, and this is now,
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测试的对象就是你想要改变的细胞,
07:56
and it's absolutely extraordinary,
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这一点现在就可以做到,绝对意义非凡。
07:59
and you're going to know at the beginning,
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而且你从一开始,
08:02
the very early stages of doing your assay development
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从检测的非常早期的阶段就能知道结果,
08:06
and your testing, you're not going to have to wait 13 years
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不会出现等了13年,
08:09
until you've brought a drug to market, only to find out
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终于将一种药物推向市场,结果却发现
08:13
that actually it doesn't work, or even worse, harms people.
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这种药物根本没用,甚至对人体有害的情况。
08:18
But it isn't really enough just to look at
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但是仅仅观察
08:22
the cells from a few people or a small group of people,
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几个人或者一小组人的细胞还不够,
08:26
because we have to step back.
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因为我们需要退后一步,
08:27
We've got to look at the big picture.
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综合考虑。
08:29
Look around this room. We are all different,
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环顾四周,大家就会发现,我们各不相同,
08:32
and a disease that I might have,
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我可能患上的疾病,
08:35
if I had Alzheimer's disease or Parkinson's disease,
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例如老年痴呆症或者帕金森氏症,
08:38
it probably would affect me differently than if
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对我的影响很可能不同于同一疾病
08:42
one of you had that disease,
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对你的影响。
08:43
and if we both had Parkinson's disease,
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况且,如果我们都患上了帕金森氏症,
08:48
and we took the same medication,
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使用同样的药物,
08:50
but we had different genetic makeup,
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但由于我们的基因构成不同,
08:53
we probably would have a different result,
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我们的治疗结果很可能也不相同。
08:55
and it could well be that a drug that worked wonderfully
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很有可能一种对我非常见效的药物
08:59
for me was actually ineffective for you,
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对你却毫无效果,反过来,
09:02
and similarly, it could be that a drug that is harmful for you
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也有可能一种对你有害的药物对我却很安全。
09:07
is safe for me, and, you know, this seems totally obvious,
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这一点似乎显而易见,
09:11
but unfortunately it is not the way
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但很遗憾,这却不是
09:14
that the pharmaceutical industry has been developing drugs
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制药行业一贯用以开发药物的指导思想。
09:17
because, until now, it hasn't had the tools.
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因为直到现在,相关的工具才到位。
09:21
And so we need to move away
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因此,我们需要跳出
09:24
from this one-size-fits-all model.
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这种一刀切的思维模式,
09:27
The way we've been developing drugs is essentially
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我们一直以来开发药物的方法
09:30
like going into a shoe store,
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就像是走进一家鞋店时,
09:31
no one asks you what size you are, or
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没有人问我们穿多大号,
09:33
if you're going dancing or hiking.
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买鞋是为了跳舞还是爬山,
09:36
They just say, "Well, you have feet, here are your shoes."
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只知道说:“哦,你们有脚啊,那给你们鞋。”
09:38
It doesn't work with shoes, and our bodies are
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这样买鞋是行不通的,而我们的身体
09:42
many times more complicated than just our feet.
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又比我们的脚要复杂很多倍。
09:45
So we really have to change this.
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所以我们必须改变这一做法。
09:48
There was a very sad example of this in the last decade.
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在这方面,本世纪初有一个非常悲伤的事例。
09:53
There's a wonderful drug, and a class of drugs actually,
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当时有一种效果很好的药物,其实是有一类药物,
09:56
but the particular drug was Vioxx, and
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但其中我要讲的是Vioxx,
09:59
for people who were suffering from severe arthritis pain,
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对那些因为关节炎而遭受剧烈疼痛的患者来说,
10:03
the drug was an absolute lifesaver,
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这种药物绝对是根救命稻草,
10:06
but unfortunately, for another subset of those people,
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但很不幸的是,对于另外一个亚型的患者,
10:11
they suffered pretty severe heart side effects,
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这种药物却会引起心脏方面的严重副作用,
10:16
and for a subset of those people, the side effects were
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有些患者的副作用非常严重,
10:19
so severe, the cardiac side effects, that they were fatal.
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并最终死于这种副作用。
10:23
But imagine a different scenario,
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但是我们来设想一下另一种情形,
10:27
where we could have had an array, a genetically diverse array,
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如果我们之前能有心脏细胞的各种基因阵列,
10:31
of cardiac cells, and we could have actually tested
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并且已经实际测试过这种药物,
10:35
that drug, Vioxx, in petri dishes, and figured out,
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在培养皿中实际测试过Vioxx,
10:40
well, okay, people with this genetic type are going to have
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知道某一种遗传类型的人会出现
10:44
cardiac side effects, people with these genetic subgroups
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心脏方面的副作用,而另一些遗传亚型
10:49
or genetic shoes sizes, about 25,000 of them,
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或遗传“鞋号“的人——大约有2万5千个,
10:54
are not going to have any problems.
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不会出现任何问题。
10:56
The people for whom it was a lifesaver
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这样的话,那些将Vioxx视为救命稻草的患者
10:59
could have still taken their medicine.
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本可以继续使用,
11:01
The people for whom it was a disaster, or fatal,
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而那些会因Vioxx发生事故甚至丧命的患者,
11:05
would never have been given it, and
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永远也不会拿到Vioxx的药方。
11:07
you can imagine a very different outcome for the company,
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不难想像,制药公司本来也可以有很不一样的结局,
11:10
who had to withdraw the drug.
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不需要将Vioxx撤出市场。
11:13
So that is terrific,
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由此可见,干细胞技术真的意义非凡,
11:15
and we thought, all right,
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我们觉得,好吧,
11:17
as we're trying to solve this problem,
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我们要想解决这个问题,
11:20
clearly we have to think about genetics,
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显然需要考虑遗传学的问题,
11:22
we have to think about human testing,
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需要考虑人体细胞测试。
11:25
but there's a fundamental problem,
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但是,有一个基本问题,
11:27
because right now, stem cell lines,
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因为现在干细胞系
11:29
as extraordinary as they are,
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尽管非同寻常,
11:31
and lines are just groups of cells,
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究其实质仍然只是成组的细胞,
11:33
they are made by hand, one at a time,
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是靠手工逐个完成的,
11:37
and it takes a couple of months.
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每个干细胞系都会耗时好几个月,
11:39
This is not scalable, and also when you do things by hand,
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无法批量操作,而且由于是靠手工完成,
11:44
even in the best laboratories,
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即使是在最好的实验室,
11:45
you have variations in techniques,
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操作技术也不可能完全稳定。
11:48
and you need to know, if you're making a drug,
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此外,从事制药工作的人必须知道,
11:52
that the Aspirin you're going to take out of the bottle
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预备周一从瓶子中取出来的阿司匹林
11:53
on Monday is the same as the Aspirin
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和预备周三取出来的阿司匹林,
11:56
that's going to come out of the bottle on Wednesday.
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必须是一样的。
11:58
So we looked at this, and we thought, okay,
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我们明白这一点,我们想,好吧,
12:02
artisanal is wonderful in, you know, your clothing
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手工制作有时候是件好事,
12:05
and your bread and crafts, but
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例如在制作服装、面包和工艺品的时候,
12:08
artisanal really isn't going to work in stem cells,
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但对于干细胞来说,手工制作实在不适合,
12:11
so we have to deal with this.
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我们必须解决这一问题。
12:13
But even with that, there still was another big hurdle,
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但即便如此,还有一个很大的障碍,
12:17
and that actually brings us back to
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这就还得说回到
12:21
the mapping of the human genome, because
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人类基因组测序这一话题,
12:23
we're all different.
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因为我们各不相同,
12:26
We know from the sequencing of the human genome
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而人类基因组测序工作
12:29
that it's shown us all of the A's, C's, G's and T's
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已经揭示出构成人类基因代码的
12:31
that make up our genetic code,
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A、C、G、T全部四种碱基序列。
12:34
but that code, by itself, our DNA,
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但是这种代码本身,也就是我们的DNA,
12:38
is like looking at the ones and zeroes of the computer code
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就像计算机代码中的1和0 一样,
12:43
without having a computer that can read it.
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必须使用电脑加以识别,
12:45
It's like having an app without having a smartphone.
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否则就像下载了app应用程序,却还没有智能手机,
12:49
We needed to have a way of bringing the biology
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我们必须想办法运用生物知识,
12:53
to that incredible data,
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解读这种神奇的数据,
12:55
and the way to do that was to find
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而其方法就是
12:58
a stand-in, a biological stand-in,
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找一个替身,一个生物替身,
13:01
that could contain all of the genetic information,
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替身必须包含所有遗传信息,
13:05
but have it be arrayed in such a way
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但它的基因序列必须排列得
13:07
as it could be read together
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能够整体解读,
13:10
and actually create this incredible avatar.
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这样就建立了一个神奇的阿凡达。
13:13
We need to have stem cells from all the genetic sub-types
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我们需要收集所有遗传亚型的干细胞,
13:17
that represent who we are.
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代表我们特性的干细胞。
13:20
So this is what we've built.
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这就是我们迄今的工作成果,
13:23
It's an automated robotic technology.
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这是一项自动的技术,
13:26
It has the capacity to produce thousands and thousands
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能够生成数以百万计的干细胞系。
13:29
of stem cell lines. It's genetically arrayed.
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按基因阵列排列,
13:33
It has massively parallel processing capability,
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具备强大的平行处理能力。
13:37
and it's going to change the way drugs are discovered,
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我们希望这将改变我们发现药物的方式,
13:40
we hope, and I think eventually what's going to happen
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而且我认为其最终结果是
13:44
is that we're going to want to re-screen drugs,
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我们会希望对药物进行再次筛选,
13:46
on arrays like this, that already exist,
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按照已有的这种基因阵列筛选
13:48
all of the drugs that currently exist,
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目前已有的全部药物。
13:50
and in the future, you're going to be taking drugs
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将来,人们服用的药物
13:53
and treatments that have been tested for side effects
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和接受的治疗都将是经过副作用测试的,
13:56
on all of the relevant cells,
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测试将涵盖所有相关细胞,
13:58
on brain cells and heart cells and liver cells.
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包括脑细胞、心脏细胞和干细胞。
14:02
It really has brought us to the threshold
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干细胞技术真的已经使我们
14:05
of personalized medicine.
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离药物个性化技术近在咫尺。
14:07
It's here now, and in our family,
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这种技术已经进入了我们的生活。
14:11
my son has type 1 diabetes,
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我的儿子患有I型糖尿病,
14:14
which is still an incurable disease,
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这仍然是一种绝症。
14:17
and I lost my parents to heart disease and cancer,
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我的父母死于心脏病与癌症,
14:21
but I think that my story probably sounds familiar to you,
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可是我想,你们可能会觉得我的遭遇听起来有些耳熟,
14:24
because probably a version of it is your story.
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因为你可能也有过类似的经历。
14:28
At some point in our lives, all of us,
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在我们生命的某些时刻,我们所有人,
14:32
or people we care about, become patients,
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或者我们所关心的人,都会患上疾病,
14:35
and that's why I think that stem cell research
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正是因为如此,我认为,干细胞研究
14:38
is incredibly important for all of us.
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对我们所有人来说都极其重要。
14:41
Thank you. (Applause)
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谢谢。(掌声)
14:45
(Applause)
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(掌声)
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