Howard Rheingold: Way-new collaboration

54,057 views ใƒป 2008-02-12

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืžืชืจื’ื: Ariel Rosenfelder ืžื‘ืงืจ: Ido Dekkers
00:13
I'm here to enlist you
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ืื ื™ ื›ืืŸ ืœื’ื™ื™ืก ืืชื›ื
00:19
in helping reshape the story about how humans and other critters get things done.
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ืœืขื–ื•ืจ ื‘ืขื™ืฆื•ื‘ ืžื—ื“ืฉ ืฉืœ ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืขืœ ืื™ืš ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื ื•ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ืžื‘ืฆืขื™ื ืืช ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื”.
00:27
Here is the old story -- we've already heard a little bit about it:
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ื”ื ื” ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ื”ื™ืฉืŸ. ื›ื‘ืจ ืฉืžืขื ื• ืขืœื™ื• ืงืฆืช.
00:32
biology is war in which only the fiercest survive;
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ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื”ื™ื ืžืœื—ืžื” ื‘ื” ืจืง ื”ื—ื–ืง ืฉื•ืจื“.
00:39
businesses and nations succeed only by defeating,
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ืขืกืงื™ื ื•ืื•ืžื•ืช ืžืฆืœื™ื—ื™ื ืจืง ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ื‘ืกื”,
00:47
destroying and dominating competition;
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ื”ืฉืžื“ื”, ื•ืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ื‘ืชื—ืจื•ืช.
00:53
politics is about your side winning at all costs.
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ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืงื” ืกื•ื‘ื‘ืช ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ื ื™ืฆื—ื•ืŸ ื”ืฆื“ ืฉืœืš ื‘ื›ืœ ืžื—ื™ืจ.
01:00
But I think we can see the very beginnings of a new story beginning to emerge.
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื”ื”ื™ื•ื•ืฆืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ื—ื“ืฉ.
01:08
It's a narrative spread across a number of different disciplines,
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ื–ื”ื• ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืฉืžืชืคืจืก ืœืื•ืจื›ื ืฉืœ ืžืกืคืจ ืชื—ื•ืžื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื,
01:15
in which cooperation, collective action and complex interdependencies
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ื•ื‘ื• ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ืคืขื•ืœื”, ืขืฉื™ื™ื” ืžืฉื•ืชืคืช ื•ืชืœื•ืช ื”ื“ื“ื™ืช ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ืช
01:23
play a more important role.
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ืžื”ื•ื•ื™ื ืชืคืงื™ื“ ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ.
01:26
And the central, but not all-important, role of competition and survival of the fittest
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ื•ื”ืชืคืงื™ื“ ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ - ืืš ืœื ื”ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ - ืฉืœ ืชื—ืจื•ืช ื•ื”ื™ืฉืจื“ื•ืช ื”ื—ื–ืง,
01:35
shrinks just a little bit to make room.
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ืžืชื’ืžื“ ืžืขื˜ ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืžืงื•ื.
01:39
I started thinking about the relationship between communication, media
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ื”ืชื—ืœืชื™ ืœื”ืจื”ืจ ืขืœ ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื™ื—ืกื™ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ืชืงืฉื•ืจืช, ืžื“ื™ื”,
01:46
and collective action when I wrote "Smart Mobs,"
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ื•ืขืฉื™ื™ื” ืžืฉื•ืชืคืช ื›ืฉื›ืชื‘ืชื™ ืืช "ื—ื›ืžืช ื”ื”ืžื•ื ื™ื",
01:51
and I found that when I finished the book, I kept thinking about it.
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ื•ื ื•ื›ื—ืชื™ ืœื’ืœื•ืช ืฉื’ื ืœืื—ืจ ืฉืกื™ื™ืžืชื™ ืืช ื”ืกืคืจ, ื”ืžืฉื›ืชื™ ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ื–ื”.
01:56
In fact, if you look back, human communication media
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ืื ืžืกืชื›ืœื™ื ืœืื—ื•ืจ, ืžื“ื™ื” ืฉืœ ืชืงืฉื•ืจืช ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช,
02:02
and the ways in which we organize socially have been co-evolving for quite a long time.
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ื•ื”ื“ืจื›ื™ื ื‘ื”ืŸ ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ื” ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ืช, ื”ืชืคืชื—ื• ื”ื“ื“ื™ืช ื›ื‘ืจ ื–ืžืŸ ืจื‘.
02:09
Humans have lived for much, much longer
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ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื ื—ื™ื• ื”ืจื‘ื”, ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ
02:13
than the approximately 10,000 years of settled agricultural civilization
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ืžื‘ืขืจืš 10,000 ื”ืฉื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื” ื”ื—ืงืœืื™ืช ื”ืžืžื•ืกื“ืช.
02:20
in small family groups. Nomadic hunters bring down rabbits, gathering food.
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ื‘ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืžืฉืคื—ืชื™ื•ืช ืงื˜ื ื•ืช, ืฆื™ื™ื“ื™ื ืฆื“ื™ื ืืจื ื‘ื•ืช, ืžืœืงื˜ื™ื ืื•ื›ืœ.
02:28
The form of wealth in those days was enough food to stay alive.
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ืžื•ืฉื’ ื”ืขื•ืฉืจ ื‘ื™ืžื™ื ื”ืืœื• ื”ื™ื” ืžืกืคื™ืง ืื•ื›ืœ ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ืœื”ื™ืฉืืจ ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื.
02:33
But at some point, they banded together to hunt bigger game.
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ืืš ื‘ืฉืœื‘ ืžืกื•ื™ื™ื ื”ื ื”ืชืื’ื“ื• ื™ื—ื“ื™ื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœืฆื•ื“ ื˜ืจืฃ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ.
02:40
And we don't know exactly how they did this,
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื”ื ืขืฉื• ื–ืืช.
02:43
although they must have solved some collective action problems;
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื”ื ื‘ื˜ื•ื— ืคืชืจื• ืืช ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ื”ืขืฉื™ื™ื” ื”ืžืฉื•ืชืคืช.
02:48
it only makes sense that you can't hunt mastodons
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ื”ื”ื’ื™ื•ืŸ ืื•ืžืจ ืฉืืชื” ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืฆื•ื“ ืžืžื•ืชื•ืช
02:52
while you're fighting with the other groups.
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ื›ืฉืืชื” ื ืœื—ื ื‘ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ื”ืื—ืจื•ืช.
02:55
And again, we have no way of knowing,
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ื•ืฉื•ื‘, ืื™ืŸ ืœื ื• ืฉื•ื ื“ืจืš ืœื“ืขืช,
02:57
but it's clear that a new form of wealth must have emerged.
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ื‘ืจื•ืจ ืฉืฆื•ืจื” ื—ื“ืฉื” ืฉืœ ืขื•ืฉืจ ื‘ื˜ื— ื”ื’ื™ื—ื”.
03:02
More protein than a hunter's family could eat before it rotted.
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ื™ื•ืชืจ ื—ืœื‘ื•ืŸ ืžืžื” ืฉืžืฉืคื—ื” ืฉืœ ืฆื™ื™ื“ ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœืื›ื•ืœ ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื”ื•ื ื”ืจืงื™ื‘.
03:07
So that raised a social question
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ืื– ื–ื” ื”ืขืœื” ืฉืืœื” ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ืช
03:09
that I believe must have driven new social forms.
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ืฉืื ื™ ืžืืžื™ืŸ, ื”ื‘ื™ืื” ืœื”ื™ื•ื•ืฆืจื•ืช ืžื‘ื ื™ื ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื.
03:12
Did the people who ate that mastodon meat owe something
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ื”ืื ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉืื›ืœื• ืืช ื‘ืฉืจ ื”ืžืžื•ืชื” ื”ื™ื• ื—ื™ื™ื‘ื™ื ืžืฉื”ื•
03:17
to the hunters and their families?
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ืœืฆื™ื™ื“ื™ื ื•ืžืฉืคื—ื•ืชื™ื”ื?
03:19
And if so, how did they make arrangements?
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ื•ืื ื›ืŸ, ืื™ืš ื”ื ื”ื’ื™ืขื• ืœื”ืกื›ืžื™ื?
03:23
Again, we can't know, but we can be pretty sure that some form of
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ืฉื•ื‘, ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื“ืขืช, ืื‘ืœ ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื“ื™ ื‘ื˜ื•ื—ื™ื
03:26
symbolic communication must have been involved.
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ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืžืขื•ืจื‘ืช ืฆื•ืจื” ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžืช ืฉืœ ืชืงืฉื•ืจืช ื‘ืกืžืœื™ื.
03:31
Of course, with agriculture came the first big civilizations,
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ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ, ืขื ื”ื—ืงืœืื•ืช ื”ื’ื™ืขื” ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื™ืœื™ื–ืฆื™ื” ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื”,
03:36
the first cities built of mud and brick, the first empires.
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ื”ืขืจื™ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื•ืช ืฉื ื‘ื ื• ืžื‘ื•ืฅ ื•ืœื‘ื ื™ื, ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื•ืช ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื•ืช.
03:41
And it was the administers of these empires
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ื”ื™ื• ืืœื” ื”ืžื ื”ืœื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื•ืช ื”ืืœื•
03:45
who began hiring people to keep track of the wheat and sheep and wine that was owed
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ืฉื”ื—ืœื• ืœื”ืขืกื™ืง ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉื™ืขืงื‘ื• ืื—ืจ ื—ื•ื‘ ื”ื—ื™ื˜ื”, ื•ื”ืฆืืŸ, ื•ื”ื™ื™ืŸ
03:51
and the taxes that was owed on them
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ื•ื”ืžืกื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื• ื—ื™ื™ื‘ื™ื ืœื”ื
03:53
by making marks; marks on clay in that time.
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืกืžืœื™ื, ืกืžืœื™ื ืขืœ ื—ื™ืžืจ ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ื”ื”ื•ื.
03:57
Not too much longer after that, the alphabet was invented.
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ืœื ื”ืจื‘ื” ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ, ื”ื•ืžืฆื ื”ื›ืชื‘.
04:02
And this powerful tool was really reserved, for thousands of years,
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ื•ื”ื›ืœื™ ื”ืขื•ืฆืžืชื™ ื”ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืฉืžื•ืจ, ื‘ืžืฉืš ืืœืคื™ ืฉื ื™ื,
04:08
for the elite administrators (Laughter) who kept track of accounts for the empires.
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ืœืืœื™ื˜ืช ื”ืžื ื”ืœื™ื ืืฉืจ ืขืงื‘ื• ืื—ืจื™ ื—ืฉื‘ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื•ืช.
04:18
And then another communication technology enabled new media:
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ื•ืื–, ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ืช ืชืงืฉื•ืจืช ื ื•ืกืคืช ืื™ืคืฉืจื” ืžื“ื™ื” ื—ื“ืฉื”.
04:23
the printing press came along, and within decades,
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ื”ืขื™ืชื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืžื•ื“ืคืกืช ื”ืฆื˜ืจืคื”, ื•ื‘ืชื•ืš ื›ืžื” ืขืฉื•ืจื™ื,
04:28
millions of people became literate.
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ืžื™ืœื™ื•ื ื™ ืื ืฉื™ื ื ื”ื™ื™ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ ืงืจื•ื ื•ื›ืชื•ื‘.
04:30
And from literate populations,
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ื•ืžืชื•ืš ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ ืงืจื•ื ื•ื›ืชื•ื‘,
04:34
new forms of collective action emerged in the spheres of knowledge,
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ื ื•ืฆืจื• ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ืฉืœ ืขืฉื™ื™ื” ืžืฉื•ืชืคืช ื‘ืชื—ื•ืžื™ ื”ื™ื“ืข,
04:38
religion and politics.
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ื“ืช ื•ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืงื”.
04:42
We saw scientific revolutions, the Protestant Reformation,
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ืจืื™ื ื• ืžื”ืคื›ื•ืช ืžื“ืขื™ื•ืช, ื”ืจืคื•ืจืžืฆื™ื” ื”ืคืจื•ื˜ืกื˜ื ื˜ื™ืช,
04:47
constitutional democracies possible where they had not been possible before.
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ื›ื™ื ื•ืŸ ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื•ืช ื—ื•ืงืชื™ื•ืช ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ืฉื”ืŸ ืœื ื”ื™ื• ืืคืฉืจื™ื•ืช ืœืคื ื™ ื›ืŸ.
04:53
Not created by the printing press,
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ื–ื” ืœื ื ื•ืฆืจ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืขื™ืชื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื”,
04:55
but enabled by the collective action that emerges from literacy.
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ืืš ื”ืชืืคืฉืจ ื‘ืฉืœ ื”ืขืฉื™ื™ื” ื”ืžืฉื•ืชืคืช ืฉื ื•ืฆืจื” ืžื”ื›ืชื‘.
05:00
And again, new forms of wealth emerged.
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ื•ืฉื•ื‘, ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ืฉืœ ืขื•ืฉืจ ื”ื’ื™ื—ื•.
05:04
Now, commerce is ancient. Markets are as old as the crossroads.
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืžืกื—ืจ ื–ื” ืขืชื™ืง. ืฉื•ื•ืงื™ื ื”ื ื™ืฉื ื™ื ื›ืžื• ืฆืžืชื™ื.
05:09
But capitalism, as we know it, is only a few hundred years old,
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ืื‘ืœ ืงืคื™ื˜ืœื™ื–ื™ื, ื›ืคื™ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžื›ื™ืจื™ื ืื•ืชื•, ื”ื•ื ืจืง ื‘ืŸ ื›ืžื” ืžืื•ืช ืฉื ื™ื,
05:13
enabled by cooperative arrangements and technologies,
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ื”ืชืืคืฉืจ ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื”ืชืืจื’ื ื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉื™ืชื•ืคื™ื•ืช ื•ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช,
05:18
such as the joint-stock ownership company,
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ื›ืžื• ื‘ืขืœื•ืช ืžืฉื•ืชืคืช ืขืœ ื—ื‘ืจื” ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืื—ื–ืงืช ืžื ื™ื•ืช,
05:21
shared liability insurance, double-entry bookkeeping.
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ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื— ืงื™ื‘ื•ืฆื™, ืจื™ืฉื•ื ื›ืคื•ืœ ื‘ื”ื ื”ืœืช ื—ืฉื‘ื•ื ื•ืช.
05:26
Now of course, the enabling technologies are based on the Internet,
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ, ื”ืชื•ื›ื ื•ืช ืฉืžืืคืฉืจื•ืช ื–ืืช ืžื‘ื•ืกืกื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ืื™ื ื˜ืจื ื˜.
05:31
and in the many-to-many era, every desktop is now a printing press,
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ื•ื‘ืขื™ื“ืŸ ื”"ืจื‘ื™ื ืœืจื‘ื™ื", ื›ืœ ืฉื•ืœื—ืŸ ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ื”ื•ื ืขื™ืชื•ื ื•ืช ื›ืชื•ื‘ื”,
05:38
a broadcasting station, a community or a marketplace.
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ืชื—ื ืช ืฉื™ื“ื•ืจ, ืงื”ื™ืœื” ืื• ืฉื•ืง.
05:44
Evolution is speeding up.
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ื”ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื” ืžืื™ืฆื”.
05:47
More recently, that power is untethering and leaping off the desktops,
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ืœืื—ืจื•ื ื”, ื”ื›ื— ื”ื–ื” ืžืฉืชื—ืจืจ ืžื›ื‘ืœื™ื• ื•ืžื ืชืจ ืืœ ืžื—ื•ืฅ ืœืฉื•ืœื—ื ื•ืช ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื”.
05:53
and very, very quickly, we're going to see a significant proportion, if not the majority of
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ื•ืžืื•ื“, ืžืื•ื“ ืžื”ืจ ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื•ืžื“ื™ื ืœื—ื–ื•ืช ื‘ื ืชื— ื ื›ื‘ื“ ืžื”ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื”, ืื ืœื ืจื•ื‘ื”,
05:59
the human race, walking around holding, carrying or wearing supercomputers
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ืžื”ืœืš ื›ืฉื”ื•ื ืื•ื—ื–, ื ื•ืฉื, ืื• ืœื•ื‘ืฉ ืžื—ืฉื‘ื™-ืขืœ
06:07
linked at speeds greater
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ืžืงื•ืฉืจื™ื ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ื™ื•ืช ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ
06:10
than what we consider to be broadband today.
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ืžืžื” ืฉืื ื• ืžื—ืฉื™ื‘ื™ื ื”ื™ื•ื ื›ืคืก ืจื—ื‘.
06:14
Now, when I started looking into collective action,
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื›ืฉื”ืชื—ืœืชื™ ืœื‘ื“ื•ืง ืืช ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ืขืฉื™ื™ื” ื”ืžืฉื•ืชืคืช,
06:17
the considerable literature on it is based on what sociologists call "social dilemmas."
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ื”ืกืคืจื•ืช ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ืช ื‘ื ื•ืฉื ืžื‘ื•ืกืกืช ืขืœ ืžื” ืฉืกื•ืฆื™ืœื•ื’ื™ื ืžื›ื ื™ื "ื“ื™ืœืžื•ืช ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ืช".
06:23
And there are a couple of mythic narratives of social dilemmas.
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ื•ื™ืฉ ื›ืžื” ืžืขืฉื™ื•ืช ื™ื“ื•ืขื•ืช ืฉืœ ื“ื™ืœืžื•ืช ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื•ืช.
06:26
I'm going to talk briefly about two of them:
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ืื ื™ ื”ื•ืœืš ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ืฉื ื™ื™ื ืžื”ื:
06:29
the prisoner's dilemma and the tragedy of the commons.
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ื“ื™ืœืžืช ื”ืืกื™ืจ ื•ื”ื˜ืจื’ื“ื™ื” ืฉืœ ื ื—ืœืช ื”ื›ืœืœ.
06:32
Now, when I talked about this with Kevin Kelly,
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื›ืฉื“ื™ื‘ืจืชื™ ืขืœ ื–ื” ืขื ืงื•ื•ื™ืŸ ืงืœื™,
06:34
he assured me that everybody in this audience pretty much knows the details
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ื”ื•ื ื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื— ืœื™ ืฉื›ื•ืœื ื‘ืงื”ืœ ื”ื–ื” ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืคื—ื•ืช ืื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ืืช ื”ืคืจื˜ื™ื
06:38
of the prisoner's dilemma,
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ืฉืœ ื“ื™ืœืžืช ื”ืืกื™ืจ.
06:40
so I'm just going to go over that very, very quickly.
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ืื– ืื ื™ ืจืง ื”ื•ืœืš ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ืขืœ ื–ื” ืžืื•ื“, ืžืื•ื“ ืžื”ืจ.
06:43
If you have more questions about it, ask Kevin Kelly later. (Laughter)
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ืื ื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ืฉืืœื•ืช ื ื•ืกืคื•ืช ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื–ื”, ืฉืืœื• ืืช ืงื•ื•ื™ืŸ ืงืœื™ ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ.
06:50
The prisoner's dilemma is actually a story that's overlaid
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ื“ื™ืœืžืช ื”ืืกื™ืจ ื”ื™ื ืœืžืขืฉื” ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืฉืžืชื‘ืกืก
06:53
on a mathematical matrix that came out of the game theory
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ืขืœ ืžื˜ืจื™ืฆื” ืžืชืžื˜ื™ืช ืฉื ื’ื–ืจื” ืžืชื•ืจืช ื”ืžืฉื—ืงื™ื
06:57
in the early years of thinking about nuclear war:
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ื‘ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืžื•ืงื“ืžื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื” ืขืœ ืžืœื—ืžื” ื’ืจืขื™ื ื™ืช:
07:01
two players who couldn't trust each other.
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ืฉื ื™ ืฉื—ืงื ื™ื ืฉืœื ื”ื™ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืกืžื•ืš ื–ื” ืขืœ ื–ื”.
07:03
Let me just say that every unsecured transaction
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ืจืง ืื’ื™ื“ ื•ืื•ืžืจ ืฉื›ืœ ืขืกืงื” ืœื ื‘ื˜ื•ื—ื”
07:06
is a good example of a prisoner's dilemma.
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ื”ื™ื ื“ื•ื’ืžื ื˜ื•ื‘ื” ืœื“ื™ืœืžืช ื”ืืกื™ืจ.
07:09
Person with the goods, person with the money,
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ืื™ืฉ ืขื ื”ืกื—ื•ืจื”, ืื™ืฉ ืขื ื”ื›ืกืฃ,
07:12
because they can't trust each other, are not going to exchange.
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืื™ื ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืกืžื•ืš ื–ื” ืขืœ ื–ื”, ืœื ื™ื‘ืฆืขื• ื”ื—ืœืคื”.
07:16
Neither one wants to be the first one
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ืืฃ ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื ืœื ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ,
07:19
or they're going to get the sucker's payoff,
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ืื—ืจืช ื”ื•ื ื™ื™ื“ืคืง.
07:21
but both lose, of course, because they don't get what they want.
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ืื‘ืœ ืฉื ื™ ื”ืฆื“ื“ื™ื ืžืคืกื™ื“ื™ื, ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ, ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉื”ื ืœื ืžืฉื™ื’ื™ื ืืช ืžื” ืฉื”ื ืจื•ืฆื™ื.
07:25
If they could only agree, if they could only turn a prisoner's dilemma into
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ืื ื”ื ืจืง ื”ื™ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืกื›ื™ื, ืื ื”ื ืจืง ื”ื™ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืคื•ืš ืืช ื“ื™ืœืžืช ื”ืืกื™ืจ
07:29
a different payoff matrix called an assurance game, they could proceed.
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ืœืžื˜ืจื™ืฆืช ืชืžื•ืจื” ืื—ืจืช, ืฉื ืงืจืืช "ืฆื™ื“ ื”ืื™ื™ืœ", ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืžืฉื™ืš.
07:35
Twenty years ago, Robert Axelrod used the prisoner's dilemma
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ืœืคื ื™ 20 ืฉื ื”, ืจื•ื‘ืจื˜ ืืงืกืœืจื•ื“ ื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื“ื™ืœืžืช ื”ืืกื™ืจ
07:39
as a probe of the biological question:
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ื‘ื—ืงื™ืจื” ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืืœื” ื”ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช:
07:44
if we are here because our ancestors were such fierce competitors,
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ืื ืื ื—ื ื• ื›ืืŸ ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉืื‘ื•ืชื™ื ื• ื”ื™ื• ืžืชื—ืจื™ื ืขื–ื™ื ื›ืœ ื›ืš,
07:49
how does cooperation exist at all?
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ืื™ืš ื‘ื›ืœืœ ื™ืฉ ื“ื‘ืจ ื›ื–ื” ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ืคืขื•ืœื”?
07:51
He started a computer tournament for
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ื”ื•ื ื™ื–ื ื˜ื•ืจื ื™ืจ ืžื—ืฉื‘ื™ื
07:53
people to submit prisoner's dilemma strategies and discovered,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืฉืื ืฉื™ื ื™ืฆื™ืขื• ืืกื˜ืจื˜ื’ื™ื•ืช ืœื“ื™ืœืžืช ื”ืืกื™ืจ ื•ื’ื™ืœื”,
07:58
much to his surprise, that a very, very simple strategy won --
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ืœืžืจื‘ื” ื”ืคืชืขืชื•, ืฉืืกื˜ืจื˜ื’ื™ื” ืžืื•ื“, ืžืื•ื“ ืคืฉื•ื˜ื” ื ื™ืฆื—ื”.
08:02
it won the first tournament, and even after everyone knew it won,
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ื”ื™ื ื ื™ืฆื—ื” ื‘ื˜ื•ืจื ื™ืจ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ, ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ืื—ืจื™ ืฉื›ื•ืœื ื™ื“ืขื• ืฉื”ื™ื ื ื™ืฆื—ื”,
08:06
it won the second tournament -- that's known as tit for tat.
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ื”ื™ื ื ื™ืฆื—ื” ื‘ื˜ื•ืจื ื™ืจ ื”ืฉื ื™. ื–ื” ื™ื“ื•ืข ื‘ืชื•ืจ "ืžื™ื“ื”-ื›ื ื’ื“-ืžื™ื“ื”".
08:13
Another economic game that may not be as well known as the prisoner's dilemma
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ืžืฉื—ืง ื›ืœื›ืœื™ ื ื•ืกืฃ ืฉืื•ืœื™ ืœื ืžื•ื›ืจ ื›ืžื• ื“ื™ืœืžืช ื”ืืกื™ืจ,
08:19
is the ultimatum game,
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ื”ื•ื ืžืฉื—ืง ื”ืื•ืœื˜ื™ืžื˜ื•ื.
08:21
and it's also a very interesting probe of
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ื•ื–ื” ื’ื ื—ืงื™ืจื” ืžืื•ื“ ืžืขื ื™ื™ื ืช
08:23
our assumptions about the way people make economic transactions.
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ืฉืœ ื”ื ื—ื•ืชื™ื ื• ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ื“ืจืš ื‘ื” ืื ืฉื™ื ืžื‘ืฆืขื™ื ืขืกืงืื•ืช ื›ืœื›ืœื™ื•ืช.
08:29
Here's how the game is played: there are two players;
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ื”ืžืฉื—ืง ืžืฉื•ื—ืง ื›ืš. ื™ืฉ ืฉื ื™ ืฉื—ืงื ื™ื.
08:32
they've never played the game before,
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ื”ื ืžืขื•ืœื ืœื ืฉื™ื—ืงื• ืืช ื”ืžืฉื—ืง ืœืคื ื™ ื›ืŸ.
08:34
they will not play the game again, they don't know each other,
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ื”ื ืœื ื™ืฉื—ืงื• ืืช ื”ืžืฉื—ืง ืฉื•ื‘. ื”ื ืœื ืžื›ื™ืจื™ื ืื—ื“ ืืช ื”ืฉื ื™.
08:37
and they are, in fact, in separate rooms.
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ื•ื”ื, ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื‘ื—ื“ืจื™ื ื ืคืจื“ื™ื.
08:40
First player is offered a hundred dollars
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ืžืฆื™ืขื™ื 100 ื“ื•ืœืจื™ื ืœืฉื—ืงืŸ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ
08:42
and is asked to propose a split: 50/50, 90/10,
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ื•ืžื‘ืงืฉื™ื ืžืžื ื• ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ื—ืœื•ืงื”: 50-50, 90-10.
08:48
whatever that player wants to propose. The second player either accepts the split --
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ืžื” ืฉื”ืฉื—ืงืŸ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ืฆื™ืข. ืื• ืฉื”ืฉื—ืงืŸ ื”ืฉื ื™ ืžืงื‘ืœ ืืช ื”ื—ืœื•ืงื”,
08:55
both players are paid and the game is over --
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ืžืฉืœืžื™ื ืœืฉื ื™ ื”ืฉื—ืงื™ื ื•ื”ืžืฉื—ืง ื ื’ืžืจ.
08:58
or rejects the split -- neither player is paid and the game is over.
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ืื• ืฉื”ื•ื ื“ื•ื—ื” ืืช ื”ื—ืœื•ืงื”, ืืฃ ืื—ื“ ืœื ืžืงื‘ืœ ืืช ื”ื›ืกืฃ ื•ื”ืžืฉื—ืง ื ื’ืžืจ.
09:04
Now, the fundamental basis of neoclassical economics
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื”ื ื—ืช ื”ื™ืกื•ื“ ืฉืœ ื›ืœื›ืœื” ื ืื•-ืงืœืืกื™ืช
09:08
would tell you it's irrational to reject a dollar
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ื’ื•ืจืกืช ืฉื–ื” ืœื ื”ื’ื™ื•ื ื™ ืœื“ื—ื•ืช ื“ื•ืœืจ
09:12
because someone you don't know in another room is going to get 99.
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืฉืืชื” ืœื ืžื›ื™ืจ, ื‘ื—ื“ืจ ืื—ืจ, ื”ื•ืœืš ืœืงื‘ืœ 99.
09:17
Yet in thousands of trials with American and European and Japanese students,
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ืื•ืœื ื‘ืืœืคื™ ื ื™ืกื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืขื ืกื˜ื•ื“ื ื˜ื™ื ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ื, ืื™ืจื•ืคื™ื™ื, ื•ื™ืคื ื™ื,
09:23
a significant percentage would reject any offer that's not close to 50/50.
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ืื—ื•ื– ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ ื™ื“ื—ื” ื›ืœ ื”ืฆืขื” ืฉืื™ื ื” ืงืจื•ื‘ื” ืœ - 50-50.
09:29
And although they were screened and didn't know about the game
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ื•ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื”ื ืขื‘ืจื• ืกื™ื ื•ืŸ, ื•ืœื ื™ื“ืขื• ืขืœ ื”ืžืฉื—ืง,
09:34
and had never played the game before,
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ื•ืžืขื•ืœื ืœื ืฉื™ื—ืงื• ืืช ื”ืžืฉื—ืง ืœืคื ื™ ื›ืŸ,
09:36
proposers seemed to innately know this
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ื ืจืื” ืฉืžืฆื™ืขื™ื ื™ื“ืขื• ืืช ื–ื” ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžื•ืœื“
09:39
because the average proposal was surprisingly close to 50/50.
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉื”ื”ืฆืขื” ืฉืžืžื•ืฆืขืช ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืงืจื•ื‘ื” ืœ - 50-50 ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžืคืชื™ืข.
09:45
Now, the interesting part comes in more recently
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื”ื—ืœืง ื”ืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืžื’ื™ืข ืœืื—ืจื•ื ื”
09:47
when anthropologists began taking this game to other cultures
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ื›ืืฉืจ ืื ืชืจื•ืคื•ืœื’ื™ื™ื ื”ื—ืœื• ืœืงื—ืช ืืช ื”ืžืฉื—ืง ื”ื–ื” ืœืชืจื‘ื•ื™ื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช
09:51
and discovered, to their surprise,
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ื•ื’ื™ืœื•, ืœื”ืคืชืขืชื,
09:54
that slash-and-burn agriculturalists in the Amazon
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ืฉื—ืงืœืื™ื ื‘ืืžื–ื•ื ืก
09:58
or nomadic pastoralists in Central Asia or a dozen different cultures --
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ืื• ืจื•ืขื™ ืฆืืŸ ื ื•ื“ื“ื™ื ื‘ืžืจื›ื– ืืกื™ื”, ืื• ืชืจื™ืกืจ ืชืจื‘ื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช -
10:03
each had radically different ideas of what is fair.
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ืœื›ืœ ืื—ืช ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืงื™ืฆื•ื ื™ ืžื•ืฉื’ ืฉื•ื ื” ืœืžื” ื”ื•ื’ืŸ.
10:08
Which suggests that instead of there being an innate sense of fairness,
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ืžื” ืฉืžืœืžื“ ื›ื™ ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื”ืงื™ื•ื ืฉืœ ื—ื•ืฉ ื”ื’ื™ื ื•ืช ืžื•ืœื“,
10:14
that somehow the basis of our economic
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ืื™ื›ืฉื”ื• ื”ื‘ืกื™ืก ืฉืœ ื”ืขืกืงืื•ืช ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื•
10:17
transactions can be influenced by our social institutions,
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ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ืฉืคืข ืžื”ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื”ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื™ื ืฉืœื ื• -
10:23
whether we know that or not.
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ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื ืื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ื–ืืช ื•ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื ืœื.
10:25
The other major narrative of social dilemmas is the tragedy of the commons.
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ื”ืžืขืฉื™ื™ื” ื”ื™ื“ื•ืขื” ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื” ืฉืœ ื“ื™ืœืžื•ืช ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื•ืช ื”ื™ื "ื”ื˜ืจื’ื“ื™ื” ืฉืœ ื ื—ืœืช ื”ื›ืœืœ".
10:30
Garrett Hardin used it to talk about overpopulation in the late 1960s.
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ื’ืืจื˜ ื”ืืจื“ื™ืŸ ื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื” ื‘ื›ื“ื™ ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ืคื™ืฆื•ืฅ ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ืŸ ื‘ืฉืœื”ื™ ืฉื ื•ืช ื”ืฉื™ืฉื™ื.
10:36
He used the example of a common grazing area in which each person
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ื”ื•ื ื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื˜ืจื’ื“ื™ื” ืฉืœ ื ื—ืœืช ื”ื›ืœืœ, ืœืคื™ื” ื›ืœ ืื“ื,
10:42
by simply maximizing their own flock
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ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ื’ื“ืœื” ืžื™ืจื‘ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืขื“ืจ ืฉืœื•,
10:45
led to overgrazing and the depletion of the resource.
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ื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืœืจืขื™ื™ืช ื™ืชืจ ื•ืœื“ืœื“ื•ืœ ืฉืœ ื”ืžืฉืื‘.
10:48
He had the rather gloomy conclusion that
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ื”ื•ื ื”ืกื™ืง ืืช ื”ืžืกืงื ื” ื”ืขื’ื•ืžื” ืžืฉื”ื• ืœืคื™ื”
10:50
humans will inevitably despoil any common pool resource
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ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื ื™ืขืฉืงื• ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื‘ืœืชื™ ื ืžื ืข ื›ืœ ืžืฉืื‘ ืžืฉื•ืชืฃ
10:55
in which people cannot be restrained from using it.
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ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ื ืื™ื ื ืžื•ื’ื‘ืœื™ื ื‘ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ื•.
11:01
Now, Elinor Ostrom, a political scientist, in
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืืœื™ื ื•ืจ ืื•ืกื˜ืจื•ื, ืžื“ืขื ื™ืช ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืช,
11:04
1990 asked the interesting question that any good scientist should ask,
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ืฉืืœื” ื‘ - 1990 ืืช ื”ืฉืืœื” ื”ืžืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ืช ืฉื›ืœ ืžื“ืขืŸ ื˜ื•ื‘ ืฆืจื™ืš ืœืฉืื•ืœ,
11:09
which is: is it really true that humans will always despoil commons?
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ื•ื”ื™ื, ื”ืื ื–ื” ื‘ืืžืช ื ื›ื•ืŸ ืฉืื ืฉื™ื ืชืžื™ื“ ื™ืขืฉืงื• ืืช ื ื—ืœื•ืช ื”ื›ืœืœ?
11:14
So she went out and looked at what data she could find.
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ืื– ื”ื™ื ื™ืฆืื” ื•ื‘ื“ืงื” ื›ืœ ืžื™ื“ืข ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœืžืฆื•ื.
11:18
She looked at thousands of cases of humans sharing watersheds,
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ื”ื™ื ื‘ื“ืงื” ืืœืคื™ ืžืงืจื™ื ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉื—ื•ืœืงื™ื ืžืงื•ื•ื™ ืžื™ื,
11:22
forestry resources, fisheries, and discovered that yes, in case after case,
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ืžืฉืื‘ื™ ื™ืขืจื•ืช, ืžื“ื’ื™ื, ื•ื’ื™ืœืชื” ืฉื›ืŸ, ืžืงืจื” ืื—ืจ ืžืงืจื”,
11:29
humans destroyed the commons that they depended on.
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ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื ื—ื™ืกืœื• ืืช ื ื—ืœื•ืช ื”ื›ืœืœ ืฉื”ื ื”ื™ื• ืชืœื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ื”ืŸ.
11:33
But she also found many instances in which people escaped the prisoner's dilemma;
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื™ื ื’ื ื’ื™ืœืชื” ืžืงืจื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ื‘ื”ื ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืชื—ืžืงื• ืžื“ื™ืœืžื” ื”ืืกื™ืจ.
11:40
in fact, the tragedy of the commons is a multiplayer prisoner's dilemma.
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื”ื˜ืจื’ื“ื™ื” ืฉืœ ื ื—ืœืช ื”ื›ืœืœ ื”ื™ื ื“ื™ืœืžืช ื”ืืกื™ืจ ืจื‘ืช-ืžืฉืชืชืคื™ื.
11:46
And she said that people are only prisoners if they consider themselves to be.
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ื•ื”ื™ื ืืžืจื” ืฉืื ืฉื™ื ื”ื ืืกื™ืจื™ื ืจืง ืื ื”ื ืžื—ืฉื™ื‘ื™ื ืขืฆืžื ื›ื›ืืœื”.
11:51
They escape by creating institutions for collective action.
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ื”ื ื”ืชื—ืžืงื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ืœืขืฉื™ื™ื” ืžืฉื•ืชืคืช.
11:55
And she discovered, I think most interestingly,
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ื•ื”ื™ื ื’ื™ืœืชื”, ื•ื–ื” ืžืื•ื“ ืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื“ืขืชื™,
11:59
that among those institutions that worked,
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ืฉื‘ืงืจื‘ ื”ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื”ืืœื• ืฉืขื‘ื“ื•,
12:02
there were a number of common design
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ื”ื™ื• ืžืกืคืจ ืขืงืจื•ื ื•ืช ืžื‘ื ื™ื™ื
12:04
principles, and those principles seem to be
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ืžืฉื•ืชืคื™ื. ื•ื ืจืื” ืฉื”ืขืงืจื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืืœื” ื”ื™ื•
12:07
missing from those institutions that don't work.
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ื—ืกืจื™ื ื‘ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ืฉืœื ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื.
12:11
I'm moving very quickly over a number of
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ืื ื™ ืขื•ื‘ืจ ืžื”ืจ ืžืื•ื“ ืขืœ ืžืกืคืจ
12:13
disciplines. In biology, the notions of symbiosis,
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ืชื—ื•ืžื™ื. ื‘ื‘ื™ืœื•ื’ื™ื”, ื”ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืกื™ืžื‘ื™ื•ื–ื”,
12:16
group selection, evolutionary psychology are contested, to be sure.
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ื‘ืจื™ืจื” ืงื‘ื•ืฆืชื™ืช, ืคืกื™ื›ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช - ื•ื“ืื•ืชื ื ืžืฆืืช ื‘ืžื—ืœื•ืงืช.
12:22
But there is really no longer any major debate over the fact that
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ืื‘ืœ ืื™ืŸ ืขื•ื“ ื‘ืืžืช ื•ื™ื›ื•ื— ืจืฆื™ื ื™ ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื”
12:27
cooperative arrangements have moved from a peripheral role to a central role
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ืฉื”ืชืืจื’ื ื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉื™ืชื•ืคื™ื•ืช ื”ืชืงื“ืžื• ืžืชืคืงื™ื“ ืžืฉื ื™ ืœืชืคืงื™ื“ ืžืจื›ื–ื™
12:33
in biology, from the level of the cell to the level of the ecology.
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ื‘ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”, ืžืจืžืช ื”ืชื ืืœ ืจืžืช ื”ืืงื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”.
12:39
And again, our notions of individuals as economic beings
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ื•ืฉื•ื‘, ื”ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื• ืฉืœ ื™ื—ื™ื“ื™ื ื›ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื ื›ืœื›ืœื™ื™ื
12:44
have been overturned.
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ื”ืชื”ืคื›ื•.
12:46
Rational self-interest is not always the dominating factor.
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ืื™ื ื˜ืจืก ืื™ืฉื™ ื”ื’ื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ื•ื ืœื ืชืžื™ื“ ื”ื’ื•ืจื ื”ืฉื•ืœื˜.
12:51
In fact, people will act to punish cheaters, even at a cost to themselves.
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ืื ืฉื™ื ื™ืคืขืœื• ืœื”ืขื ื™ืฉ ื‘ื•ื’ื“ื™ื, ืืคื™ืœื• ื‘ืžื—ื™ืจ ืคื’ื™ืขื” ื‘ืขืฆืžื.
12:59
And most recently, neurophysiological measures
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ื•ืœืื—ืจื•ื ื”, ื‘ื“ื™ืงื•ืช ื ื•ื™ืจื•ืคื™ื–ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช
13:01
have shown that people who punish cheaters in economic games
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ื”ืจืื• ืฉืื ืฉื™ื ืฉืžืขื ื™ืฉื™ื ื‘ื•ื’ื“ื™ื ื‘ืžืฉื—ืงื™ื ื›ืœื›ืœื™ื™ื
13:07
show activity in the reward centers of their brain.
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ืงื™ื™ืžืช ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื‘ืžืจื›ื–ื™ ื”ืชื’ืžื•ืœ ื‘ืžื•ื—ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื.
13:11
Which led one scientist to declare that altruistic punishment
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ืžื” ืฉื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืžื“ืขืŸ ืื—ื“ ืœื”ื›ืจื™ื– ืฉื™ื™ืชื›ืŸ ื•ืขื•ื ืฉ ืืœื˜ืจื•ืื™ืกื˜ื™
13:18
may be the glue that holds societies together.
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ื”ื•ื ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉืžื—ื–ื™ืง ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ื‘ื™ื—ื“.
13:22
Now, I've been talking about how new forms of communication and new media
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื“ื™ื‘ืจืชื™ ืขืœ ืื™ืš ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ืฉืœ ืชืงืฉื•ืจืช ื•ืžื“ื™ื” ื—ื“ืฉื”
13:27
in the past have helped create new economic forms.
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ื‘ืขื‘ืจ ืขื–ืจื• ืœื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ื›ืœื›ืœื™ื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช.
13:31
Commerce is ancient. Markets are very old. Capitalism is fairly recent;
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ืžืกื—ืจ ื–ื” ืขืชื™ืง. ืฉื•ื•ืงื™ื ื”ื ื™ืฉื ื™ื ืžืื•ื“. ืงืคื™ื˜ืœื™ื–ื ืžื”ื–ืžืŸ ื”ืื—ืจื•ืŸ.
13:36
socialism emerged as a reaction to that.
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ืกื•ืฆื™ืืœื™ื–ื ื”ื’ื™ื— ื›ืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ืœื›ืš.
13:40
And yet we see very little talk about how the next form may be emerging.
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ื•ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื“ื™ื ืœืฉื™ื— ื“ืœื™ืœ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœื’ื‘ื™ ืื™ืš ืื•ืœื™ ืชื’ื™ื— ื”ืฆื•ืจื” ื”ื‘ืื”.
13:46
Jim Surowiecki briefly mentioned Yochai Benkler's paper about open source,
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ื’'ื™ื ืกื•ืจืื•ื•ื™ืงื™ ืฆื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืงืฆืจื” ืืช ื”ืžืืžืจ ืฉืœ ื™ื•ื—ืื™ ื‘ื ืงืœืจ ื‘ื ื•ืฉื ืงื•ื“ ืคืชื•ื—,
13:51
pointing to a new form of production: peer-to-peer production.
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ื›ืฉื”ื•ื ืžืฆื‘ื™ืข ืขืœ ืฆื•ืจื” ื—ื“ืฉื” ืฉืœ ืชื•ืฆืจืช: ืชื•ืฆืจืช "ืขืžื™ืช ืœืขืžื™ืช".
13:55
I simply want you to keep in mind that if in the past, new forms of cooperation
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ืื ื™ ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ืขื™ืจ ืืช ืชืฉื•ืžืช ืœื‘ื›ื ืœื›ืš ืฉืื ื‘ืขื‘ืจ, ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ืฉืœ ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ืคืขื•ืœื”
14:01
enabled by new technologies create new forms of wealth,
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ืฉื”ืชืืคืฉืจื• ื”ื•ื“ื•ืช ืœื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ื™ื•ืฆืจื•ืช ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ืฉืœ ืขื•ืฉืจ,
14:05
we may be moving into yet another economic form
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืื•ืœื™ ืžืชืงื“ืžื™ื ืื ื›ืš ืœืฆื•ืจื” ื›ืœื›ืœื™ืช ื ื•ืกืคืช
14:09
that is significantly different from previous ones.
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ืฉื”ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื” ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื ื™ื›ืจ ืžื”ืงื•ื“ืžื•ืช.
14:13
Very briefly, let's look at some businesses. IBM, as you know, HP, Sun --
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ื‘ื•ืื• ื ืกืชื›ืœ ื‘ืงืฆืจื” ืขืœ ื›ืžื” ืขืกืงื™ื. IBM, ื›ืžื• ืฉืืชื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื, SUN ,HP -
14:19
some of the most fierce competitors in the IT world are open sourcing
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ื—ืœืงื ื”ื ืžื”ืžืชื—ืจื™ื ื”ื—ื–ืงื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื”-IT - ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ืงื•ื“ ืคืชื•ื—,
14:25
their software, are providing portfolios of patents for the commons.
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ืžืกืคืงื™ื ืœื”ืžื•ื ื™ื ืชื™ืง ืขื‘ื•ื“ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืคื˜ื ื˜ื™ื ืฉืœื”ื.
14:32
Eli Lilly -- in, again, the fiercely competitive pharmaceutical world --
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Eli Lilly - ื—ืœืง, ืฉื•ื‘, ืžื”ืชื—ืจื•ืช ื”ืขื–ื” ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื”ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช -
14:37
has created a market for solutions for pharmaceutical problems.
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ื™ืฆืจื” ืฉื•ืง ืฉืœ ืคืชืจื•ื ื•ืช ืœื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ื”ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช.
14:43
Toyota, instead of treating its suppliers as a marketplace,
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ื˜ื•ื™ื•ื˜ื”, ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืœื”ืชื™ื™ื—ืก ืœืกืคืงื™ื ืฉืœื” ื›ืฉื•ืง,
14:48
treats them as a network and trains them to produce better,
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ืžืชื™ื™ื—ืกืช ืืœื™ื”ื ื›ืจืฉืช ื•ืžืืžื ืช ืื•ืชื ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ื˜ื•ื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ,
14:52
even though they are also training them to produce better for their competitors.
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ืืคื™ืœื• ืฉื”ื ืžืืžื ื™ื ืื•ืชื ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ื˜ื•ื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœืžืชื—ืจื™ื ืฉืœื”ื.
14:57
Now none of these companies are doing this out of altruism;
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืืฃ ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ื”ืืœื• ืœื ืขื•ืฉื” ื–ืืช ืžืชื•ืš ืืœื˜ืจื•ืื™ื–ื.
15:01
they're doing it because they're learning that
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ื”ืŸ ืขื•ืฉื•ืช ืืช ื–ื” ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉื”ืŸ ืžื‘ื™ื ื•ืช
15:03
a certain kind of sharing is in their self-interest.
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ืฉืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ืคืขื•ืœื” ืžืกื•ื™ื ื”ื•ื ืื™ื ื˜ืจืก ืื™ืฉื™ ืฉืœื”ืŸ.
15:09
Open source production has shown us that world-class software, like Linux and Mozilla,
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ื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ืขืœ ืคื™ ืงื•ื“ ืคืชื•ื— ื”ืจืื” ืœื ื• ืฉืชื•ื›ื ื” ื‘ืจืžื” ืขื•ืœืžื™ืช, ื›ืžื• Linux ื•- Mozilla,
15:16
can be created with neither the bureaucratic structure of the firm
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ื•ืฆืจ ื‘ืœื™ ื”ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ื‘ื™ืจื•ืงืจื˜ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื‘ืจื”,
15:22
nor the incentives of the marketplace as we've known them.
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ื•ื’ื ื‘ืœื™ ื”ืชืžืจื™ืฆื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืฉื•ืง ื›ืคื™ ืฉื”ื›ืจื ื• ืื•ืชื.
15:28
Google enriches itself by enriching thousands of bloggers through AdSense.
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Google ืžืขืฉื™ืจ ืืช ืขืฆืžื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืขืฉืจืช ืืœืคื™ ื‘ืœื•ื’ืจื™ื ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช AdSense.
15:34
Amazon has opened its Application Programming Interface
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Amazon ืคืชื— ืืช ืžืžืฉืง ืชื›ื ื•ืช ื”ื™ื™ืฉื•ืžื™ื ืฉืœื•
15:38
to 60,000 developers, countless Amazon shops.
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ืœ - 60,000 ืžืคืชื—ื™ื, ื›ืžื•ืช ืขืฆื•ืžื” ืฉืœ ื—ื ื•ื™ื•ืช Amazon.
15:43
They're enriching others, not out of altruism but as a way of enriching themselves.
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ื”ื ืžืขืฉื™ืจื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื, ืœื ืžืชื•ืš ืืœื˜ืจื•ืื™ื–ื, ืืœื ื›ื“ืจืš ืœื”ืขืฉื™ืจ ืืช ืขืฆืžื.
15:49
eBay solved the prisoner's dilemma and created a market
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Ebay ืคืชืจ ืืช ื“ื™ืœืžืช ื”ืืกื™ืจ ื•ื™ืฆืจ ืฉื•ืง -
15:54
where none would have existed by creating a feedback mechanism
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ืฉื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ืื—ืจืช ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืžืชืงื™ื™ื - ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืžื ื’ื ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืžืฉื•ื‘
15:58
that turns a prisoner's dilemma game into an assurance game.
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ืืฉืจ ื”ื•ืคืš ืืช ื“ื™ืœืžืช ื”ืืกื™ืจ ืœืฆื™ื“ ื”ืื™ื™ืœ.
16:03
Instead of, "Neither of us can trust each other, so we have to make suboptimal moves,"
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ื‘ืžืงื•ื "ืฉื ื™ื ื• ืœื ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืกืžื•ืš ืื—ื“ ืขืœ ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื›ืš ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื—ื™ื™ื‘ื™ื ืœื‘ืฆืข ืžื”ืœื›ื™ื ืœื ืื•ืคื˜ืžืœื™ื™ื",
16:08
it's, "You prove to me that you are trustworthy and I will cooperate."
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ื–ื” "ืชื•ื›ื™ื— ืœื™ ืฉืืชื” ืืžื™ืŸ, ื•ืืฉืชืฃ ืคืขื•ืœื”".
16:14
Wikipedia has used thousands of volunteers to create a free encyclopedia
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ื•ื™ืงื™ืคื“ื™ื” ื ืขื–ืจื” ื‘ืืœืคื™ ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืื ืฆื™ืงืœื•ืคื™ื“ื” ื‘ื—ื™ื ื
16:20
with a million and a half articles in 200 languages in just a couple of years.
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ืขื ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื•ื—ืฆื™ ืžืืžืจื™ื ื‘ - 200 ืฉืคื•ืช ืชื•ืš ื›ืžื” ืฉื ื™ื ื‘ืœื‘ื“.
16:27
We've seen that ThinkCycle has enabled NGOs in developing countries
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ืจืื™ื ื• ืฉ - ThinkCycle ืื™ืคืฉืจ ืœืืจื’ื•ื ื™ื ื—ื•ืฅ ืžืžืฉืœืชื™ื™ื ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืžืชืคืชื—ื•ืช
16:34
to put up problems to be solved by design students around the world,
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ืœื”ืฆื™ืฃ ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ืื•ืชืŸ ืคื•ืชืจื™ื ืกื˜ื•ื“ื ื˜ื™ื ืœืขื™ืฆื•ื‘ ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื,
16:40
including something that's being used for tsunami relief right now:
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ื›ื•ืœืœ ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉืžืฉืžืฉ ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืœื”ืงืœื” ืขืœ ื‘ืขืช ืฆื•ื ืืžื™.
16:43
it's a mechanism for rehydrating
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ื–ื” ืžื ื’ื ื•ืŸ ืœื”ืฉื‘ืช ื ื•ื–ืœื™ื
16:45
cholera victims that's so simple to use it,
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ืœืงื•ืจื‘ื ื•ืช ื—ื•ืœื™ืจืข ืฉื”ื•ื ื›ืœ ื›ืš ืงืœ ืœืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ
16:48
illiterates can be trained to use it.
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ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื›ืฉื™ืจ ืื ืืœืคื‘ืชื™ื ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื•.
16:51
BitTorrent turns every downloader into an uploader,
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BitTorrent ื”ื•ืคื›ืช ืืช ื›ืœ ืžื™ ืฉืžื•ืจื™ื“ ืžื”ืื™ื ื˜ืจื ื˜ ืœืžืขืœื” ืœืื™ื ื˜ืจื ื˜,
16:55
making the system more efficient the more it is used.
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ืขื•ืฉื” ืืช ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ืœื™ื•ืชืจ ื™ืขื™ืœื” ื›ื›ืœ ืฉืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ.
17:00
Millions of people have contributed their desktop computers
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ืžื™ืœื™ื•ื ื™ ืื ืฉื™ื ืชืจืžื• ืืช ื”ืžื—ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉืœื”ื
17:03
when they're not using them to link together through the Internet
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ื›ืฉื”ื ืœื ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ื”ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืชื—ื‘ืจ ื™ื—ื“ื™ื• ื“ืจืš ื”ืื™ื ื˜ืจื ื˜
17:08
into supercomputing collectives
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ืœื›ื“ื™ ืงื‘ื•ืฆืช ืžื—ืฉื‘ื™-ืขืœ
17:10
that help solve the protein folding problem for medical researchers --
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ืฉืžืกื™ื™ืขืช ืœืคืชื•ืจ ืืช ื‘ืขื™ื™ืช ืงื™ืคื•ืœ ื”ื—ืœื‘ื•ืŸ ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ืจืคื•ืื™ื™ื.
17:14
that's Folding@home at Stanford --
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ื–ื” Folding at Home ื‘ืกื˜ื ืคื•ืจื“.
17:17
to crack codes, to search for life in outer space.
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ืœืคืฆื— ืงื•ื“ื™ื. ืœื—ืคืฉ ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ื—ืœืœ ื”ื—ื™ืฆื•ืŸ.
17:22
I don't think we know enough yet.
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ืื ื™ ืœื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืžืกืคื™ืง ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ.
17:24
I don't think we've even begun to discover what the basic principles are,
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ืื ื™ ืœื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉืืคื™ืœื• ื”ืชื—ืœื ื• ืœื’ืœื•ืช ืžื” ื”ื ืขืงืจื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื™ืกื•ื“.
17:28
but I think we can begin to think about them.
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœื™ื”ื.
17:31
And I don't have enough time to talk about all of them,
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ื•ืื™ืŸ ืœื™ ืžืกืคื™ืง ื–ืžืŸ ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ื›ื•ืœื.
17:34
but think about self-interest.
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ืื‘ืœ ืชื—ืฉื‘ื• ืขืœ ืื™ื ื˜ืจืก ืื™ืฉื™.
17:36
This is all about self-interest that adds up to more.
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ื–ื” ื”ื›ืœ ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืื™ื ื˜ืจืก ืื™ืฉื™ ืฉืžืกืชื›ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื–ื”.
17:39
In El Salvador, both sides that withdrew from their civil war
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ื‘ืืœ ืกืœื‘ื“ื•ืจ, ืฉื ื™ ื”ืฆื“ื“ื™ื ืฉื ืกื•ื’ื• ืžืžืœื—ืžืช ื”ืื–ืจื—ื™ื ืฉืœื”ื
17:44
took moves that had been proven to mirror a prisoner's dilemma strategy.
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ื ืงื˜ื• ืฆืขื“ื™ื ืฉื”ื•ื›ื—ื• ื›ื–ื”ื™ื ืœืืกื˜ืจื˜ื’ื™ื™ื” ืฉืœ ื“ื™ืœืžืช ื”ืืกื™ืจ.
17:48
In the U.S., in the Philippines, in Kenya, around the world,
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ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช, ื‘ืคื™ืœื™ืคื™ื ื™ื, ื‘ืงื ื™ื”, ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื,
17:54
citizens have self-organized political protests and
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ืื–ืจื—ื™ื ืื™ืจื’ื ื• ืœื‘ื“ื ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ื•ืช
17:57
get out the vote campaigns using mobile devices and SMS.
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ื•ืงืžืคื™ื™ื ื™ื ืœืขื™ื“ื•ื“ ื”ืฆื‘ืขื” ืชื•ืš ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืžื›ืฉื™ืจื™ื ื ื™ื™ื“ื™ื ื•ืžืกืจื•ื ื™ื.
18:03
Is an Apollo Project of cooperation possible?
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ื”ืื ืชื›ื ื™ืช ืืคื•ืœื• ืฉืœ ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ืคืขื•ืœื” ืืคืฉืจื™ืช?
18:06
A transdisciplinary study of cooperation?
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ืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืขืœ-ืชื—ื•ืžื™ ืฉืœ ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ืคืขื•ืœื”?
18:10
I believe that the payoff would be very big.
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ืื ื™ ืžืืžื™ืŸ ืฉื”ืชืžื•ืจื” ืชื”ื™ื” ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืžืื•ื“.
18:14
I think we need to begin developing maps of this territory
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ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœืคืชื— ืžืคื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืฉื˜ื— ื”ื–ื”
18:18
so that we can talk about it across disciplines.
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ื›ืš ืฉื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ื–ื” ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืชื—ื•ืžื™ื.
18:20
And I am not saying that understanding cooperation
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ื•ืื ื™ ืœื ืื•ืžืจ ืฉื”ื‘ื ืช ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ืคืขื•ืœื”
18:24
is going to cause us to be better people --
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ื”ื•ืœื›ืช ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœื ื• ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืื ืฉื™ื ื˜ื•ื‘ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ.
18:28
and sometimes people cooperate to do bad things --
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ื•ืœืคืขืžื™ื ืื ืฉื™ื ืžืฉืชืคื™ื ืคืขื•ืœื” ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืจืขื™ื.
18:31
but I will remind you that a few hundred years ago,
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื™ ื›ืŸ ืื–ื›ื™ืจ ืœื›ื ืฉืœืคื ื™ ื›ืžื” ืžืื•ืช ืฉื ื™ื,
18:34
people saw their loved ones die from diseases they thought
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ืื ืฉื™ื ืจืื• ืืช ืื”ื•ื‘ื™ื”ื ืžืชื™ื ืžืžื—ืœื•ืช ืฉื”ื ื—ืฉื‘ื•
18:38
were caused by sin or foreigners or evil spirits.
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ืฉืงืจื• ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื—ื˜ื ืื• ื–ืจื™ื ืื• ืจื•ื—ื•ืช ืจืขื•ืช.
18:43
Descartes said we need an entire new way of thinking.
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ื“ืงืืจื˜ ืืžืจ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ื“ืจืš ื—ื“ืฉื” ืœื’ืžืจื™ ืฉืœ ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื”.
18:47
When the scientific method provided that new way of thinking
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ื›ืฉื”ืฉื™ื˜ื” ื”ืžื“ืขื™ืช ืกื™ืคืงื” ื“ืจืš ื—ื“ืฉื” ืœื’ืžืจื™ ืฉืœ ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื”
18:50
and biology showed that microorganisms caused disease,
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ื•ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื”ืจืืชื” ืฉืžื™ืงืจื•-ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื ื’ืจื ืœืžื—ืœื•ืช,
18:54
suffering was alleviated.
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ืกื‘ืœ ื”ื•ืงืœ.
18:57
What forms of suffering could be alleviated,
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ืื™ืœื• ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ืกื‘ืœ ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ืงืœื•ืช,
19:00
what forms of wealth could be created
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ืื™ืœื• ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ืขื•ืฉืจ ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ื•ืฆืจ
19:02
if we knew a little bit more about cooperation?
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ืื ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืงืฆืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขืœ ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ืคืขื•ืœื”?
19:05
I don't think that this transdisciplinary discourse
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ืื ื™ ืœื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื”ืฉื™ื— ื”ืขืœ-ืชื—ื•ืžื™ ื”ื–ื”
19:09
is automatically going to happen;
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ื™ืงืจื” ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืื•ื˜ื•ืžื˜ื™.
19:11
it's going to require effort.
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ื–ื” ื™ืฆืจื™ืš ืžืืžืฅ.
19:14
So I enlist you to help me get the cooperation project started.
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ืื– ืื ื™ ืžื’ื™ื™ืก ืืชื›ื ืœืขื–ื•ืจ ืœื™ ืœื”ืชื ื™ืข ืืช ืคืจื•ื™ื™ืงื˜ ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ื”ืคืขื•ืœื”.
19:20
Thank you.
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ืชื•ื“ื”.
19:22
(Applause)
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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